Norfazlina Baharuddin

Asasi UiTM

Objectives
By the end of this chapter student should be able to:
1. Describe the function of the circulatory system
2. State and describe the composition and function of
the blood
3. Differentiate between organisms without any
circulatory system, organism with open and closed
circulatory system
4. Differentiate between single and double circulation
5. Explain the structure of the heart, arteries and veins.
6. Explain the physiology of the heart and blood
circulation
7. Describe the lymphatic system

Introduction
Circulatory system/ Cardiovascular system
Greek:
*Kardia means heart
*vas means vessel.
It consists of heart, blood, and blood vessels.

There are two different types of the circulatory system:

open circulatory system and closed circulatory system.
Most of vertebrates have a closed circulatory system,
whereas most invertebrate have an open circulatory
system.

Circulatory system function

The vertebrate
circulatory system
performs several
function:
1.Transport nutrient
from the digestive
system and from
storage depots to
each cell

Circulatory system function

2.Transport oxygen and CO2
3. Transport metabolic waste from each cell to
organs that excrete them
4. Transport hormones from endocrine glands to
target tissues.

Circulatory system function

5. Helps maintain fluid balance (homeostasis)
6. Defends the body against invading organism

7.It helps maintain body temperature by

transporting heat (particularly important for
endothermic animals birds,mammals
8. Helps stabilize the pH

Blood composition and function

The circulatory system
of human contains 4-6
liters of blood.
Blood consists of cells
(45%) suspended in
plasma (55%) where
both can be separated
by spinning a blood
sample in a centrifuge.

Salts

Plasma
(55%)

Water
(90%)

Plasma
Protein

Nutrients
Substances
(10%)

Waste
product

Respiratory
gases
Hormone

Blood composition and function

Inorganic salts (electrolytes)
Function:
i. Maintaining the osmotic balance between the
blood and the interstitial fluid
ii. Keeping the pH of the blood at 7.4 (pH buffer)
iii. Regulate the permeability of cell membranes

Blood composition and function

Plasma protein function:
Albumin : Help maintain osmotic balance and pH

Fibrinogen : Blood clotting

Immunoglobulin : Body defense

Blood

Red blood cell

Erythrocytes

Basophil

Neutrophil

White blood cell

Leukocytes

Monocytes

Eosinophil

Platelet

Lymphocytes

Blood composition and function

Red Blood Cell
RBC lack nuclei and
mitochondria

Are biconcave disks

shaped, thinner in the
center than on the sides.
(provides for more surface area for gas
exchange).

Formed in the bone marrow

Blood composition and function

RBC circulated in the blood for three to four
months before they get worn-out
Worn-out RBC are broken down at the liver
where enzymes digest the amino acids to make
other proteins

Iron is returned to the bone marrow to make

more RBC

Blood composition and function

White blood cell (WBC)/Leukocytes-body defense
Most spend their time in the interstitial fluid
fighting against infection. They are synthesize in
the bone marrow.

Blood composition and function

i. Basophils

Helps fight infection by releasing the chemical

histamine.
Histamine dilates blood vessels and allow other
white blood cells to move out of the capillaries to
the tissues

Blood composition and function

ii. Neutrophils and
Monocyte - are
phagocytes
Fight bacteria, foreign
proteins that enter body
through wound and help
the tissue heal by
removing cellular debris
(dead cells)

Neutrophils

Monocyte

Blood composition and function

iii. Eosinophil - is a phagocyte that fights by
parasitic protozoans and worms. They also
reduce allergy attacks

Blood composition and function

iv. Lymphocyte - key
cell in immunity which
defends the body by
producing antibodies
which are proteins that
react against foreign
substances. Other
lymphocytes fight
viruses and cancer
cells.

Blood composition and function

Platelets
Help in blood clotting together with the
plasma protein fibrinogen.

Blood composition and function

Blood clotting (3 phases):
Constriction of blood
vessels at site which
slows blood loss.
Platelets becomes sticky
and formed a plug to
seal the site temporarily

Fibrin clot trap blood

cells

Blood composition and function

Clotting factors
(platelets and damaged
cells) activates the
prothrombin protein to
convert it into the
thrombin protein.
Thrombin then
converts fibrinogen into
a threadlike protein
called fibrin

Circulatory System
Some invertebrates have no circulatory system,
some have an open circulatory system and
some have a closed circulatory system.
Many small and aquatic invertebrates have no
circulatory system
These are for cases of animals whose body cells
are not arranged in numerous layers.
To them, a gastrovascular cavity provides
adequate internal transportation.

Circulatory system
In cnidarians, their
gastrovascular cavity
serves as the circulatory
system as well as a
digestive organ.
The animals tentacles
capture prey and deliver
it through the mouth and
into the cavity, where
digestion occurs.

Circulatory system
The digested nutrients will diffuse across the cell
lining to the cells at the outer layer.
As they stretches and contracts, movements in
the body will stir up the contents of the
gastrovascular cavity and help distribute
nutrients.
Therefore, circulation is aided by contractions of
muscles of the body wall.

Circulatory system
For flatworms e.g. the planaria, circulation is not
necessary because their flattened body permits
effective gas exchange via diffusion.
Their branched intestine also brings nutrients
close to all cells.

Circulatory system
For pseudocoelomate (false cavity)
Animals such as nematodes, fluid in the body cavity helps
circulate materials.
Contain complete digestive tract with mouth and anus (the
tube-within-a-tube plan), no blood vascular system or
specialized respiratory organs

 Coelomates (also known as eucoelomates "true

coelom") have a fluid filled body cavity called a coelom
with a complete lining called peritoneum derived from
mesoderm.
Pseudocoelomate animals have a pseudocoel
(literally false cavity), which is a fully functional body
cavity. Tissue derived from mesoderm only partly lines
the fluid filled body cavity of these animals

Circulatory system
Many invertebrates have an open circulatory system
such as arthropods and mollusks.

An open circulatory system is a system in which the

heart pumps blood into vessels that have open
ends.
Instead of capillaries, blood vessels join directly with
open sinuses (body cavity), where it actually baths the
internal organs.

In the system, blood and interstitial fluid are not

distinguishable, which is known as hemolymph.

Circulatory system

Circulatory system
In mollusk, the heart has three chambers (2 atria, 1
ventricle).

The two atria receive hemolymph from the gills. The

single ventricle pumps oxygen-rich hemolymph into blood
vessels that conduct it into the large sinuses (spaces) in
the hemocoel.
After bathing the body cells, the hemolymph passes into
vessels that leads back to the gills where oxygen will be
reloaded.
* mollusk=Invertebrate having a soft unsegmented body usually
enclosed in a shell

A hemocoel is a series of spaces

between the organs of organisms with
open circulatory systems, like most
arthropods and molluscs. A combination of
blood, lymph, and interstitial fluid called
hemolymph circulates through the
hemocoel.

Circulatory system
Some arthropods have a pigment called hemocyanin
that turns blue when oxygenated.
Arthropods (insects) have a tubular heart.
In grasshoppers for instance, pumping of the tubular
heart drives the hemolymph to move and brings the
nutrients directly into the body cells.
When the heart relaxes the hemolymph will go through
tiny openings (ostia) to the heart. The ostia have valves
to prevent backflow.
The rate of hemolymph circulation increase during
movement of insects to provide more nutrients for cell
fuel.

Circulatory system
Some invertebrates and vertebrates have a closed
circulatory system. In this system, the blood is
confined to the vessels, which keep it distinct from the
interstitial fluid.

Earthworm, an invertebrate has a closed circulatory

system. Two main blood vessels extend throughout the
body. They are the dorsal and ventral blood vessels.

Circulatory system
In the anterior part of the
worm, five pairs of
contractile blood vessels,
which sometimes referred
as hearts connect dorsal
and ventral heart vessels.
Contraction of these
vessels, as well as the
contraction of muscles of
the body wall helps
circulate the blood.

Vertebrate circulation system

Generally, vertebrates heart have one or two atria (the
chamber that receives blood returning to the heart) and
one or two ventricles (the chamber that pump blood out
of the heart)
Animals with higher metabolic rates have more complex
circulation system
The vertebrate cardiovascular system became modified
in the course of evolution, as the site of gas exchange
shifted from gills to lungs.

Vertebrate circulation system -fish

In fishes blood flows in a single circuit only.
The fish heart contains one atrium and one ventricle.
Each chamber has an additional structure in a form of
chambers:
sinus venosus with the atrium - are collection chambers
ventricle and conus arteriosus - are pumping chambers.

Vertebrate circulation system-fish

The sinus venosus is
the first chamber to
contract, followed by the
atrium, ventricle, and
conus arteriosus.
This series of
contraction pumps blood
into a single circuit of
blood vessels.

Vertebrate circulation system-fish

Blood is oxygenated as it passes through capillaries of
the gills.
In gills, fresh oxygen will diffuse in through the
countercurrent exchange system. As blood circulates
through the gills, pressure is low, so blood passes slowly
to other organs.
Fish swimming movements facilitate the circulation.
The oxygenated blood that has passed the capillary
beds of organs returned to the atrium of the twochambered heart of fishes

Vertebrate circulation system-fish

The obvious limitation is that as blood passed through
the capillaries in the gills; the blood loses much pressure
developed by the contraction of the heart, making the
circulation from the gills to the rest of the body quite
sluggish.
This feature limits the rate of oxygen delivery to the rest
of the body.
This one-way circuit which only pumps deoxygenated
blood is adequate for fishes, but will not be enough for
the more active life styles of vertebrates.

Vertebrate circulation system-Amphibian

As evolution occurs on the land vertebrates, their heart
became partitioned into partly right and left halves.
But although it is partially partitioned, it is enough to
direct blood flow through two partially separated circuits.
This causes the amphibian to possess double
circulation system.
In this double circulation system, the ventricles pumped
blood into a forked artery that leads to pulmocutaneous
and systemic circulation. In this way, oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood is kept separate

Vertebrate circulation system- Amphibian

The frog has two atria and one ventricle.
The right atrium receives deoxygenated
blood from the systemic circulation and
the left atrium receives oxygenated
blood from the lungs.
Oxygenated blood is received by the
left atrium and then enters into the frog's
single ventricle
Because they only have a single
ventricle, both atria pump into a single
ventricle.
However, deoxygenated blood is pumped
out of the heart before oxygenated blood
is pumped in.

Vertebrate circulation system- Amphibian

Much of the deoxygenated blood is directed into the
pulmonary circulation that delivers it to the lungs and
skin where it is recharged with oxygen.
The systematic circulation delivers oxygenated blood
into arteries that conduct to various tissues of the body.
One advantage for amphibian is that inside water they
can obtain additional oxygen through diffusion at their
skin.

Vertebrate circulation system-Reptiles

In reptiles like crocodiles, the walls between the
ventricles are separated by a septum that partially
subdivides the ventricle.
Lizards have a muscular septum which partially divides
the ventricle.
This prevents mixing of the two bloods.

Vertebrate circulation system- Reptiles

The left half of the ventricle
pumps oxygenated blood
(received from the left atrium)
to the body.

The right half pumps

deoxygenated blood (received
from the right atrium) to the
lungs.

Vertebrate circulation systemmammals and birds

In all mammals and
birds, the septum is
complete.

Complete separation
requires blood to pass
into the heart twice each
time it tours the body.

Variation of Circulatory system

Heart structure
Human heart is not much
bigger than a fist and weighs
less than a pound, yet it is a
remarkable organ that is well
adapted for pumping blood.

It is located in the chest

cavity directly under the
breastbone.

Heart structure
The heart is enclosed by a double sac of
serous membrane called the pericardium
A slippery lubricating fluid (serous fluid) is
produced by the serous pericardial membranes.
This fluid eliminates friction that happens during
the beating of the heart

Heart structure
This fibrous layer helps protect the heart and
anchors it to the surrounding structures, such as
the diaphragm and the sternum.

Heart structure
The heart walls are composed of three layers the outer
epicardium, the myocardium and the inner most
endocardium

Heart structure
Each half of the heart
has two chambers; an
atrium and a ventricle
The left and the right
side of the heart are
divided by a septum.
Between each atrium
and a ventricle is an AV
(atrioventricular)
valve.

Heart structure
On the right side, it is
usually referred as
tricuspid valve
wherelse on the left side
is usually referred as the
bicuspid valve (mitral
valve).
Between each ventricle
and the artery is a
semilunar valve.

Heart structure
The valves function is to regulate the direction of blood
flow.
They did this by automatically closing after a blood flow
and preventing the blood from flowing backward

Heart structure
The atrium is thin-walled
because its function is only to
collect blood returning to the
heart and pump it in a short
distance to the ventricles
The ventricles are thick walled
because it needs to pump
blood to all of the bodys
organs.

Heart circulation- pulmonary system

The pulmonary circuit
- connects the hearts
and the lungs only.

Heart circulation- pulmonary system

The right atrium will receive
deoxygenated blood from
inferior vena cava, which
carries blood from lower
parts of the body, and
superior vena cava, which
carries blood from the upper
parts of the body.
From the right atrium, blood
is pumped to the right
ventricle, which exits out
from the heart through two
pulmonary arteries, one
going to each lung.

Heart circulation
At the lungs, CO2 will diffuse to the alveolus to
be exhaled out of the body.
Oxygen will be loaded to the blood and be
carried into the heart by the pulmonary veins.

Heart circulation
This circuit leads from
the hearts right half to
the capillary beds in
both lungs and then
to the hearts left half.
Therefore, this cycle is
only a short loop one.

Heart circulation-Systemic system

The systemic circuit
is a longer loop that
starts at the hearts left
half and ends at the
hearts right half.
Oxygenated blood is
pumped in from the
pulmonary veins into
the left atrium and the

left ventricle.

Heart circulation-systemic system

Blood is then pumped
by the left ventricle into
the aorta, the largest
artery. Arteries that
branch off from the
aorta conduct blood to
all regions of the body.

Heart circulation-systemic system

Oxygenated blood will flow
through the arterioles and
capillary beds in all
regions.
Oxygen will diffuse
out of the blood and
carbon dioxide wastes diffuse
into the blood, and later
carried in the veins to
the hearts left half to enter
the pulmonary circuit.

Cardiac cycle
In a healthy heart, the atria contract simultaneously.
After the contraction, the atrium relaxes and the
ventricles start to contract.
Systole and diastole means heart contraction and
heart relaxation respectively.
The term cardiac cycle refers to the events of one
complete heartbeat, during which both atria and
ventricles contract and relax.
Since the heart beat at approximately 75 times per
minute, the length of the cardiac cycle is normally
0.8 second.

Cardiac cycle
i. Atrial and ventricular diastole - At this point, the
pressure of the heart is low and blood is flowing
passively into the atria and ventricles. The AV valves
are open and semilunar valves closed.
ii. Atrial systole, ventricular diastole - The atria starts to
contract and forced the remaining blood to the
ventricles. When the ventricular pressure is higher
than arteries, blood rushes out of ventricles
iii. Ventricular systole, atrial diastole- Blood is pushed
out of the system. The ventricles are completely
closed chambers

Cardiac cycle
When using a stethoscope, you can hear two distinct
sounds during cardiac cycle.
The first lup sound is caused by the closing of the
artrioventriculur valves.
The second heart sound, dup sound occurs when the
semilunar valves are closed.

Cardiac output (CO)

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out by
each ventricle in one minute.
It is the product of the heart rate (HR) and the stroke
volume (SV)
Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out by
each ventricle with each heartbeat.
If we use the normal resting heart rate (75beats/min)
and stroke volume (70 ml/beat) the average cardiac
output is about 5 liter/min.

Cardiac output

i) Regulation of stroke volume

Depends on venous return that effects the stretching of
the cardiac muscle cells.
Venous return is the amount of blood entering the
heart.
Anything that increases the volume or speed of venous
return increases stroke volume and force of contraction.
Exercise speeds venous return caused by the enhanced
squeezing action of active skeletal muscle.
Low venous return might result from severe blood loss.

Cardiac output
ii) Regulation of heart rate
Electrical pulses in the heart are controlled by special
groups of cells called nodes.
During times of physical and emotional stress, the
nerves of the sympathetic division stimulate SA
(sinoatrial) and AV (atrioventricular) nodes to increase
the heart beat.
The SA (sinoatrial) node generates an electrical signal
that causes the upper heart chambers (atria) to contract;
the signal then passes through the AV (atrioventricular)
node to the lower heart chambers (ventricles), causing
them to contract, or pump.

Cardiac output
Parasympathetic nerves slow and steady the heart
rate.
Various hormones and ions can also have a
dramatic effect on the heart activity
Epinephrine and thyroxine increases heart rate
whereas reduced number of ions such as sodium
and potassium decrease the heart rate.
A number of other physical factors such as age,
gender, exercise and body temperature also
affects the heart rate.

Cardiac output
Cardiac muscle need not to be stimulated by nerve
impulses before their contraction, they can contract
spontaneously and independently.

Conduction system of the heart

Two types of controlling systems act to regulate heart
activity.
i. The autonomic nervous system The nerves from
this system act to slow down or accelerate the heart rate
depending on which division is activated.
ii. Nodal system (Intrinsic conduction system) A
specialized tissue that functions as if it is a combination
of muscle and nervous tissue.

Conduction system of the heart

This conduction system
depends on the action made
by the SA (sinoatrial node)
and AV node
(atrioventricular node)
The SA node is located on
the right atrium. The SA
node is often called the
pacemaker because it starts
each heartbeat.

Conduction system the heart

From the SA node, the impulse
spreads through the atria
causing it to contract.
And later spread to the AV
node.
The AV node is located at the
junction of the atria and
ventricles. This branches to the
bundle of His, left and right
bundle branches and Purkinje
fibers which spread within the
muscles of the ventricle walls.

Conduction system of the heart

At the AV node, the impulse is
delayed briefly to give the atria
time to finish contracting. The
impulse then passes to the
bundle of His, the bundle
branches and Purkinje fibers
causing the ventricles to
contract.
This contraction ejects blood
superiorly into the large arteries
of the heart.

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

An electrocardiogram is a recording of the electrical

changes that occur in myocardium (the middle
muscular layer of the heart wall) during a cardiac cycle.

Body fluids contain ions that conduct electrical currents,

and therefore the electrical changes in myocardium can
be detected at the skins surface.

When an electrocardiogram is being taken, electrodes

placed on the skin are connected by wires to an
instrument that detects the myocardium electrical
changes.

Electrocardiogram (ECG)
When the SA node triggers an impulse, the atrial fibers
produce an electrical change that is called the P wave.
The P wave indicates the atria are about to contract.
After that the QRS complex signals that ventricles are
about to contract.
The electrical changes that occur as the ventricular
muscle fibers recover produce the T wave.

Blood Vessel

Blood vessels
The vertebrate circulatory system includes three main
types of blood vessels, which are arteries, capillaries
and veins.

An artery carries blood away from the heart chamber

toward other tissues.
When an artery enters an organ, it divides into many
smaller branches called arterioles.
The arterioles deliver blood into the microscopic
capillaries.

Blood vessels
Materials are only
exchanged between the
blood and the interstitial
fluid bathing the cells
through the capillary
walls, which are only
one cell thick, which is
the endothelium.

Blood vessel
From the capillaries at capillary beds, the
deoxygenated blood flow will combine
through venules and back to veins.
The thick walls of arteries and vein prevent
gases and nutrients from passing through.

Blood vessels
Histologically, blood vessels
consist of concentric
layers or "tunics"
i. The tunica intima is the
inner lining, consisting of
endothelium and a
relatively thin layer of
supporting connective tissue.
- It provides a smooth
surface that minimizes
resistance to the flow of blood.

Blood vessels
ii. The tunica media
is the middle
muscular and/or
elastic layer,
containing smooth
muscle and elastic
tissue in varying
proportions.

Blood vessels
iii. The tunica adventitia
is the outer, fibrous
connective tissue
layer.
- This elastic fibers
allow the blood vessel
to stretch and recoil

Blood vessels
Nervous tissue is
generally inconspicuous
in blood vessels but
serves to regulate
smooth muscle function
and to mediate pain
sensation
The smooth muscle
allows arteries and
some veins to regulate
blood flow by constricting.

Blood vessels
Capillaries lack two
outer layers present in
veins and arteries.
This allows exchange of
blood between the
blood and interstitial
fluid

Blood vessels
Arteries have thicker middle and outer vessel
layer as compared to veins to withstand high pressure
and velocity of blood pressure from the heart.
The veins do not have to deal with high pressure and
velocity because blood that flows through them are
returning from the long journey to the heart.
They have valves to prevent backflow of blood returning
to the heart in low pressure

Physiology of circulation - Blood flow

velocity
The velocity of blood in the blood vessel follows the law
of continuity, which describes the blood flow through a
pipe.
A fluid flows through narrower segments faster than
through wider segments
However, total cross sectional area of the blood
capillaries slows down the flow of blood in vast numbers
of blood capillaries.
The slow progress of blood flow arterioles capilaries
venules is important as it allows the exchange of
substances between blood and interstitial fluid.

Physiology of circulation Arterial

pulse
A good indication of a persons circulatory
system can be obtained by taking arterial pulse
and blood pressure measurement
Arterial pulse
The surge of blood entering the arteries that
caused the walls to stretch and recoil can be felt
as a pulse in any artery that runs close to the
bodys surface.

Physiology of
circulation - Pulse
We can feel the pulse by placing
several fingers on the radial
artery which lies near the outer
border of the palm side of a
wrist.
A carotid artery is another
alternative for feeling the pulse.
It is located on the either side of
the trachea of the neck.
The pulse rate indicates the rate
of the heart beat because the
arterial walls pulse whenever the
left ventricle contracts.

Physiology of circulation Blood

pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure of blood against the
wall of a blood vessel.
A sphygmomanometer can be used to measure
blood pressure, usually in the brachial artery of the
arm.

Physiology of circulation
The blood pressure cuff is wrapped around the elbow
and inflated until the cuff pressure exceeded the systolic
blood pressure.
At this point, blood flow in the arm is stopped and a
brachial pulse cannot be heard.
The pressure in the cuff is gradually reduced.
The systolic pressure is recorded as the first tapping
sound is heard.
As the pressure is reduced further, the sounds become
louder and later disappeared when the artery is no
longer constricted and blood flows freely. The diastolic
pressure is recorded as the sound disappears.

Blood pressure
When the ventricles contract, they force blood
into large, thick walled elastic arteries that
expand as the blood is pushed into them.
Continual blood flow depends on the
stretchiness of the arteries.
Because the heart continuously contracts and
relaxes, the off-and-on flow of blood into the
arteries causes the heart pressure to rise and
fall during each beat.

Blood pressure
Thus, two arterial blood pressure measurements
are made, systolic (the pressure in the arteries at
the peak of ventricular contraction) and diastolic
pressure (the pressure in the arteries when the
ventricles are relaxing).
Blood pressures are reported in millimeters of
mercury (mmHg) with the systolic pressure written
first. For example 120/80.
The high pressure forces the blood to continually
move into the arterioles, capillaries, venules and
veins.

Blood pressure
In the venules and veins, blood pressure is very
minimal. Therefore, instead of blood pressure,
venous return depends on:
i. Skeletal muscle contraction
ii. The presence of valves in the veins
iii. Respiratory movements

Blood velocity increases in the venous vessels

due to reduction in cross sectional area as small
venules join to form veins.

Blood pressure
When the skeletal muscles contract, they
compress the weak walls of veins. This causes
the blood to move past the next valve.
Once past the valves, blood cannot flow
backwards.
During inhalation, the thoracic pressure falls and
abdominal pressure rises as the chest expands.
This respiratory movement also allows blood in
veins to return back to the heart.

Blood pressure

Fluid movements in capillary beds

The fluid movements across a capillary wall result
from the two opposing forces blood pressure
and osmotic pressure.
At the arteriole end, blood pressure exceeds
osmotic pressure, therefore ultrafiltration happens
causing fluid to flow out of the capillaries, bringing
together nutrients and gases

Fluid movements in capillary beds

Lymphatic system
Water and solutes undergo ultrafiltration process
caused by the pressure of the blood at the
capillary beds to form interstitial fluids.
The interstitial fluid will be returned to the blood
by way of an open circulatory system called the
lymphatic system.
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic
capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and
lymphatic organs.

Lymphatic system

Lymphatic system
Excess fluid that is that is drained into blind-ended lymph
capillaries is called the lymph.
The lymph starts at the capillary beds, where they enter
the lymph capillaries and later merges with the lymph
vessels/lymph veins that are equipped with valves to
prevent backflow of fluid toward the capillaries

Lymphatic system
At strategic locations, lymph veins enter lymph
nodes, which are small, organized mass of lymph
tissue. Lymph nodes have two functions;

i. they filter the lymph as it slowly passes through

ii. they are battlegrounds where lymphocytes
and foreign agents are destroyed during an
infection.

Lymphatic system

Lymphatic system
Lymph nodes are most
numerous in the neck
region, under the arms,
in the groin region, in the
chest and abdomen.
In cases of infection,
lymph nodes enlarge
and may be felt as hard
little knots below the skin.

Lymphatic system
Lymph veins that leave the lymph nodes conduct lymph
towards the shoulder region.
The lymphatic veins flow into one of two lymph ducts.
The right lymph duct drains from the right arm, shoulder
area, and the right side of the head and neck.
The left lymph duct, or thoracic duct, drains from the
legs, gastrointestinal tract and other abdominal organs,
thoracic organs, and the left side of the head and neck
and left arm and shoulder.
These ducts then drain into the subclavian veins on each
side.

Lymphatic system

Lymphatic system
Consists of three important
organs
tonsils, spleen and thymus
i) Tonsils are masses of lymph
tissue under the lining of the
oral cavity and throat. Tonsils
help protect the respiratory
system from infection by
destroying bacteria and other
foreign agents that enter the
body through the mouth and
the nose.

Lymphatic system
ii. The thymus is where
immature lymphocytes
differentiate into
Tlymphocytes.
iii. The spleen filters the blood
and reacts immunologically to
bloodbone antigens. The
spleen functions in both
immune and hematopoietic
systems.

Mechanism of lymph flow

The lymphatic system preserves fluid balance
by collecting about 10% of the interstitial fluid and
the protein that accumulates in the fluid. The
lymph capillaries have no obvious entrance, water
and solutes moves into clefts between cells

Mechanism of lymph flow

Lymph capillaries merge into lymph vessels that have
a larger diameter. Lymph vessel contain smooth
muscle in their wall.
Therefore, mechanism of backflow depends on:
i. Pressure gradient (hydrostatic pressure)
ii. Muscular and respiratory pumps push lymph
forward. Just like veins, besides having valves,
lymphatic vessels depend mainly on the movement of
skeletal muscles to squeeze the fluid along.

Mechanism of lymph flow

Lymphatic system-function
Have three obvious functions
i. Drainage
Collect water and that has leaked out of the blood in
capillary beds due to fluid pressure and returned it to the
bloodstream
ii. Disposal
Foreign cells and materials /cellular debris are brought to
the lymph nodes for disposal
iii. Delivery
Picked up fats that had been absorbed in the small
intestine and delivers it into the bloodstream.