Knowledge Bases for the Interpretation of the Frequency Response Analysis of

Power Transformers
Juan L. Velsqueza Miguel A. Sanz-Bobib Miguel Gutierrezc Alexander Kraetgea
a
OMICRON Electronics GmbH, Oberes Ried 1 , A-6833 Klaus, Austria
b
Universidad Pontificia Comillas, Instituto de Investigacin Tecnolgica, IIT, Santa Cruz de
Marcenado 26, 28015 Madrid, Spain
c
OMICRON Electronics Corp., 12 Greenway Plaza, Suite 1510, Houston Texas
juan.velasquez@omicron.at, Miguel.gutierrez@omicronusa.com
Abstract
The FRA method provides comprehensive and unique
information about the mechanical and electrical
integrity of the active part of transformers. For taking
advantage of the potential of this method, certain
knowledge bases are necessary in order to assist the
automatic process of diagnosis. In this work such bases
are presented from the point of view of the
understanding of the waveform of the plots and from the
standpoint of assessment of the results. Moreover, an
attempt for the characterization of different failure
modes by using transformer-specific sub-bands is also
provided as well as an overview to the effects of the
factors affecting the repeatability of FRA results. At the
end the formulation of algorithms for automatic
detection of abnormalities and its relationship to the
development of an expert system is presented.

expression (1). This means that the H(f) is only

dependant on the measurement resistance of the FRA
instrument (Rm) and on the impedance of the transformer
(Ztra).
The most common way of representing the results is as
bode diagrams as shown in Fig. 2. In the majority of the
cases only the plot of the magnitude is used for
interpretation purposes. Nevertheless, the plot of the
phase also provides valuable information. The magnitude
and the phase are computed according to the equations
(2) and (3).

CMC

RMC

RLC Network

1. Introduction to the FRA method

The Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) has been
proven to be a powerful tool for the detection and
diagnosis of the active part of power transformers [1]. In
contrast to traditional diagnostic methods, the FRA
method is able to detect geometrical deformations in the
windings before the occurrence of a major or
catastrophic failure.

U2

Rm=50

Figure 1. Measurement setup

1.000e+002

Magnitude (dB)

As illustrated in Fig.1, the SFRA consists in applying a

frequency variable low-level sinusoidal signal "U" at one
end of a winding and from this point a reference signal
"U1"is measured. Simultaneously the output or response
signal at the other end of the winding "U2" is measured.
Subsequently, the transfer function H(f) is computed. It
can be easily demonstrated that H(f) corresponds to the

Rref=50

U1
U

1.000e+003

1.000e+004

1.000e+005

f/Hz

-20
-30

H( f ) =

-40
-50
-60

U2( f )
Rm
(1)
=
U1 ( f ) Rm + Z tra

-70
-80
-90

k = 20 log10 (U 2 / U1 ) (2)

-100

dB

Phase ()

When talking about FRA it is important to distinguish

between Impulse Frequency Response Analysis (IFRA)
and Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA). This
work focuses the attention on the SFRA method.

50

150
100

= tan

1.000e+002

1.000e+003

1.000e+004

1.000e+005

H0 H1

H0 H2

( U 2 / U 1 ) (3)

f/Hz

H0 H3

Figure 2. Graphical representation of FRA results

2. Bases to the interpretation

In this section the term "interpretation" is analyzed from
two points of view: from the point of view of the
understanding of the waveform of the plots and from the
point of view of the assessment of the results.

Amplitude [dB]

2.1. Understanding of the plots

-50
L=200 mH
L=2 mH
L=20 H

-100

-150

Taking into account that a power transformer from the

electrical standpoint, is a complex network of
resistances, inductances and capacitances, the frequency
response of these elements are the foundations for the
understanding of the transformer response. The response
of a resistance is a straight line with a constant
attenuation along the frequency range. The response of
inductances and capacitances is governed by the
equations (4) and (5) respectively.

10

10
Frequency (Hz)

(a)

10

Amplitude [dB]

0
-50
-100
C=1uF
C=20nF
C=1pF

-150
-200

10

(b)

10
Frequency (Hz)

10

5
0
Amplitude [dB]

X L = L = 2fL (4)
1
1
XC =
=
(5)
C 2C

-5
-10

C=1nF
C=10nF
C=50nF

-15
-20
-25
-30

10

If

If now the physical components of the active part of a

transformer are associated to RLC elements, an
equivalent circuit as the one shown in Fig. 4 can be used
for a qualitative explanation of the frequency response of
a real transformer.

10

-20

as the frequency increases, H(f) decreases. This explains

the typical increase in the attenuation of an inductance as
illustrated in Fig. 3(a). In contrast, if Z tra = X C in (1), as

Other aspect of major importance for the interpretation is

the concept of resonance. In an RLC network the
resonances are series or parallel resonances. Series
resonances are related to a maximal transfer of energy
between two systems, that is, to the minimal impedance
at a determined frequency. While a parallel resonance is
related to minimal transfer of energy between two
systems (maximal impedance). In the plot of the
amplitude, minimal impedances are seen as minimal
attenuations while maximal impedances as minimal
attenuations according to (1). In Fig. 3(c) and 3(d) the
responses of RLC networks connected in parallel and in
series are shown. The simulations were done using an
inductance of 50 mH. In conclusion, the maximal peaks
in the frequency response are created by series RLC
networks and the minimal peaks by parallel RLC
networks. However, it is worth to mention that in the
frequency response not all the maximal and minimal
peaks are resonances. The best way of recognizing
resonances is by taking a look at the plot of the phase.
When a resonance is present, the phase should be zero,
what means that the response is 100% resistive.

10

Frequency (Hz)

(c)

Z tra = X L in equation (1), it can be said that as long

long as the frequency increases, the attenuation decreases

as depicted in Fig. 3(b).

Amplitude [dB]

-40
-60
-80

C=1nF
C=10nF
C=50nF

-100
-120
-140

10

10
Frequency (Hz)

10

(d)
Figure 3. Series and parallel resonances of RLC
networks

Cs1

Cs2
C12

LV Winding

R1

L2

L1

R2

Lm

HV Winding
L1, R1

Cg1

Rn

Cg2

L2, R2
Cg1

Cs1

Cs2

Cg2
CHL

R1: resistance of the HV winding

L1: leakage inductance of the HV winding
R2: resistance of the LV winding
L2: leakage inductance of the LV winding
Cs1: series capacitance of the HV windings
Cs2: series capacitance of the LV windings
Cg1: parallel capacitance of the HV windings with
respect to ground
Cg2: parallel capacitance of the LV windings with
respect to core
C12: capacitance between HV and LV windings

Figure 4. Physical components of the transformer

as RLC network
The FRA response of a transformer can hardly be
generalized since the response highly depends on the
design of the windings, their connections (Y or D), etc.
In this work only the FRA response of power
transformers with windings connected in YN is
described. In general, the response of YN connected
windings can be classified in two groups: response of HV
windings and response of MV or LV windings. For the
HV windings normally inter-shielded or inter-leaved
windings are used in order to get a high series

capacitance (Cs). This is done for allowing a uniform

distribution of the voltage along the windings. For many
transformers, the pattern of the FRA plots can be divided
in sub-bands where there are specific dominant elements
of a transformer as indicated in Table 1. For accounting
on the differences among transformers, an automatic
identification of these sub-bands is highly recommended
as it will be presented in section 3, these bands provide
the bases for the detection of failure modes from the
FRA plots.
The band B1 occurs normally between 20 Hz and 200 Hz
and here mainly it is present the inductive behavior of the
magnetizing inductance. In the band B2, between 200 Hz
and approximately 3 kHz the parallel capacitance Cg
highly influence the response. Between 3 kHz and 200
kHz the band B3 is defined for characterizing the
interaction between windings. This band is sensitive to
bulk winding deformations. The band B4, between 200
kHz and 1 MHz exhibits an accentuated capacitive
response caused by the series resonance Cs. This band is
sensitive to localized deformations in the windings.
Finally, the band B5 between 1 MHz and 2 MHz exhibits
an inductive behavior that is highly influenced by the
inductance of the internal leads of the transformer and by
the measurement setup.

where only the Cs domains the response as in the case of

HV windings. The strong interaction between the
inductances and capacitances gives place to multiple
peaks at high frequencies.
For LV windings normally helical windings are used.
Similar to disk windings, these windings also have a
small Cs and a strong interaction with Cg. Cs and the
inductances occur as in disk windings as illustrated in
Fig. 7.
1 . 00 0e +0 02

1. 0 00 e+00 3

1. 0 00 e+00 4

1. 0 00 e+00 5

f/Hz

-2 0

-3 0

-4 0

-5 0

-6 0

dB
x 0 01

x0 x2

x0 x3

Figure 6. Typical FRA response of 110 kV

windings
1.000e+002

1.000e+003

1.000e+004

1.000e+005

f/Hz

-10

E
1. 000e+003

1.000e+004

1.000e+005

-20

Magnetizing
inductance (Lm)

-30

-40

-50

-60

-20

f/Hz

F
Measurement
setup and leads

1. 000e+002
-10

-15

Series capacitace
(Cs)

-70

Parallel capacitance
(Cg)

dB

Iteraction between
windings

Figure 5. Relationship between the FRA plot of a

220 kV winding and the physical components of one
transformer
Table 1. Typical sub-bands in the FRA plots
Band

From

B1
B2
B3
B4
B5

A
B
C
D
E

Til
l
B
C
D
E
F

Dominant elements
Lm
Lm and Cg
L1, Cg, and mutual couplings
Cs
Internal leads

For the MV windings a high Cs is not a requirement and

that's why other kinds of winding design are used such as
continuous disk windings. In Fig. 6 a typical response of
MV windings is shown. For MV windings is much more
difficult to identify the sub-bands where the elements of
the transformer domain. Because for these windings Cg
is comparable to Cs, there is a big interaction among the
capacitances and it is not possible to get a sub-bands

-25

-30

-35

-40

dB
x0 x1

x0 x2

x0 x3

Figure 7. Typical FRA response of 12.47 kV

windings

2.2. Assessment of results

FRA is a comparative measurement method. This means
that results of an actual test are compared to a reference
or baseline. Three methods are commonly used to assess
the measured traces:
1. Time-based (current FRA results will be compared
to previous results of the same unit)
2. Construction-based (FRA of one transformer will
be compared to another of the same design)
3. Phase comparison (FRA results of one phase will
be compared to the results of the other phases of the
same transformer)
The preferred method is the time-based comparison.
Unfortunately the so called fingerprint is in the majority
of the cases not available. Nevertheless, by a simple
comparison of the FRA plots of the phases or by type-

based comparison, a successful assessment of the results

can be achieved.
Even if a fingerprint of the transformer is available, the
experience has demonstrated that the comparison has to
be carried out carefully because in some cases the
deviations observed are not related to deformations, but
to measurements under different conditions or due to
measurement mistakes. For overcoming theses
misleading factors, the comprehensive time-based
comparison concept is proposed in this work. The flow
diagram of this concept is shown in Fig. 8. The method
is based on the comparison between the FRA plot of each
phase of the actual test (Test 2) and its fingerprint (Test
1). Then an analysis of deviations is performed by means
of the algorithms of automatic detection described in
section 5. The key point is to determine if the same kind
of deviation is detected or not in the three phases. If the
same deviation takes place in the three phases and in the
same frequency range, there are very likely no
deformations in the transformer, but different conditions
in the transformer or just a measurement mistake in one
of the tests. In order to find out weather the deviations
are or not related to deformations, a comprehensive
phase-based comparison of the regions of deviations is
here proposed. As can be noted in Fig. 9, the
comprehensive phase-based comparison is based on the
comparison of the phases of both Test 1 and Test 2 and
an analysis of deviations observed.
Test 1
Trace Phase A1

A1 vs.A2

B1 vs.B2

Trace Phase A2

C1 vs.C2

Trace Phase B1

Trace Phase B2

Trace Phase C1

Deviations
Phase
comparison for
further
investigation is
required

Trace Phase C2

Analysis of Deviations by
means of Algorithms of
automatic detection

Similar threephase
deviations

Active's part integrity

is suspected

No deviations

Single-phase
or Bi-phase
deviations

Connection lead's
integrity is suspected
Deformation in connection's
leads is suspected

Expert System

Clamping structure's
integrity is suspected

Core integrity is
suspected

Winding's integrity is
suspected

Core deformation
is suspected

Deformation in windings
is suspected

Deformation in the clamping

structure is suspected

Figure 8. Comprehensive time-based comparison

Test 3

Test 1

Test 2

Trace Phase A1

Trace Phase A3

Trace Phase B1

Trace Phase B3

Trace Phase B2

Trace Phase C1

Trace Phase C3

Trace Phase C2

Construction-based
comparison

Phase-based
comparison
A1 vs B1

B1 vs C1

C1 vs A1

B1 vs B3

Trace Phase A2

Construction-based
comparison
A2 vs A3

C1 vs C3

Analysis of
Deviations by means
of Algorithms of
automatic detection
No deviations

A1 vs A3

B2 vs B3

Expert System

Analysis of
Deviations by means
of Algorithms of
automatic detection
Deviations

Tests under different

conditions

Measurement
mistakes

B3 vs C3

C3 vs A3

C2 vs C3

Deviations

Active's part integrity

is suspected

Phase-based
comparison
A3 vs B3

In these cases, the easiest way for determining the

presence of tests under different measurement conditions,
measurement mistakes or simultaneous three-phase
deformations, is by means of a construction based
comparison with a twin o sister transformer (represented
in Fig. 9 as Test 3). As result it can be distinguished
between deformations and tests under different
conditions or measurement mistakes.
Otherwise, if there are not deviations found in the phase
comparison of the Test 1/Test 2 , but in the phase
comparison of the Test 2/Test 1 deviations are found, the
likelihood of deformations in the Test 2/Test 1 is high
and further investigations are necessary. The
construction based comparison is also a powerful tool in
these cases.

3. Detection of failure modes with FRA plots

The failure modes that can be detected in the active part
of transformers using the FRA methods are multiple.
Depending on the nature of the deformation (electrical or
mechanical) its effects on the FRA plot can be assigned
to specific sub-bands.

Test 2

Time-based Comparison

deviations , there are two possible sceneries for

explaining the deviations found in the time comparison.
One possibility is that there is integrity of the active part
and in this case the deviations could be due to different
conditions of the transformer or due to measurement
mistakes. The other possibility is that there is a
deformation in the three phases of the transformer, this is
not very likely but it should be considered as possible
scenery.

No deviations

Three-phase
deformation

Figure 9. Comprehensive phase-based comparison

If there are not deviations found in the comparison of
the phases of the Tests 1 and Test 2 in the regions of

The bases of knowledge for interpreting FRA results

reside on the capability of the expert in recognizing the
pattern of specific failure modes in FRA plots. A
generalization of the patterns of failures is a cumbersome
task because the patterns of the FRA response of the
transformer itself depend on the type of transformer and
design considerations. Nevertheless, in this section an
attempt to the characterization of the failure modes along
the frequency spectrum is presented. Such
characterization is given with base on the split of the
frequency spectrum in transformer-specific sub-bands as
presented in section 2.1.
In Table 2 a list of the electrical failures that can be
detected by FRA is presented. Actually the majority of
electrical failures can also be detected by traditional
diagnostic methods. The advantage of FRA is that taken
just one measurement, the same information is obtained
that using several traditional diagnostic methods.
Additionally FRA allows for the detection of other
failures modes that can be hardly detected by traditional
methods
as
ungrounded
core,
ungrounded
electromagnetic screens and short-circuits in current
transformers placed at the bushings.

Electrical failures characterize themselves for affecting

the magnetizing inductance of the transformer and the
winding resistance as well as the self-inductance of the
windings. This is the reason why their effects are visible
at low frequencies as indicated in Table 2.
Table 2. Electrical failure modes and sub-band of
detection
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5
Detectable failure mode
Short-circuit between strands /
turns
Short-circuit between windings
and core
Ungrounded core
Ungrounded electromagnetic
screen
Shorten core laminations
Open-circuit

plates and loose clamping structure can be appreciated in

the FRA plot in the sub-band B4.
Regarding to geometrical deformations of internal leads,
such as the connection leads between the regulating
windings and the tap changers and the leads between the
windings and the bushings, it can be said that these
changes can be appreciated in the sub-band B5.
Table 3. Mechanical failure modes and sub-bands of
detection
Detectable failure modes B1 B2 B3 B4 B5
Radial compression failure
(Buckling in inner windings)
Hoop tension failure (Buckling
in outer windings)
Tilt in conductors

Multiple core grounding

Axial collapse (Telescoping

failure)
Break of clamping plates

Short-circuits in bushing's CT

Loose clamping

Shorten leads

Spiral tightening

High impedance

The mechanical failure modes and the sub-bands in

which these can be observed in the FRA plots are shown
in Table 3. The failure modes related to deformations in
windings are visible in the sub-bands B3 and B4.
Radial deformations as the hoop tension failure are
mainly detected in the sub-band B4. In the sub-band B3
it might be also possible to observe the effects of a
buckling, but normally in this region the changes are
minimal this is the reason why the sun-band B3 should
only be used as secondary evidence. Typically the FRA
plots of buckling failures are related to horizontal
deviations of the FRA plot to the right in the region B4.
Other typical symptoms could be the creation of new
peaks in the region B4, depending on the severity of the
deformation. Other failure modes related to radial
deformations are the radial compression failures.
Tilting of conductors is caused by the axial cumulative
compression applied to the conductors via any axial
spacers or stampings. These deformations affect mainly
the series capacitance of the windings (Cs) and for this
reason its effects can be appreciated in the sub-band B4.
The axial telescoping failure refers itself to two
phenomena: a) movement of individual winding relative
to one another, and b) axial instability of a single
winding (outer turns moving upward or downward
relative to inner turns), that's why is sometimes also
called axial collapsed. This kind of deformations affects
both the sub-band B3 and the sub-band B4. On one hand,
the bulk movement of a winding modifies the interaction
among windings and hence the mutual couplings. And on
the other side, this kind of deformations produce a
decreasing in the series capacitance of the windings what
causes a typical shift of the peaks to the left in the FRA
plot. Other failure modes such as break of clamping

Shifted regulating winding

leads
Distorted leads

4. Factors affecting the repeatability

As discussed in the section 2.2, the comparison of FRA
results measured under different conditions is one of the
possible causes of deviations that could lead to an
erroneous assessment of FRA results. In this section, the
basic knowledge base is presented for the identification
of the effects that different factors have in the FRA plots.
Such factors are classified into three groups as shown in
Fig. 10. The conditions of the transformer (group A) are
of major importance. Not always the transformer is tested
under the same conditions and if this is the case, the
conditions have to be properly documented in order to
allow a reliable interpretation. The oil temperature does
not affect the results considerably, but it is recommended
to be documented. The experience has shown that in
many cases, the connection of the tertiary windings
during measurements in the primary or secondary
windings is one of the factors leading to wrong
interpretation of the results.
A

Transformer conditions
Temperature

Moisture

Oil

Insulation degradation

Core grounding
Tertiary windings

Bushings
Tank

Tester

Tap changer position

Factors
affecting the
Repeatability

Remanence

FRA instrument
Measurement cables
Injection point

Electromagnetic environment

Reverse connection

Stochastic factors

Measurement
mistakes

Arrangement of
cables

Tester and instrument related factors

Figure 10. Factors affecting the repeatability

Regarding to the tester and instrument related factors; the

connection technique of the FRA instrument plays a very
important role in the reproducibility. The connection
technique with aluminum braids has been recommended
by the CIGR WG A2.26 [2].
Table 3. Characterization of the effects of the factors
affecting the repeatability in sub-bands
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5
Factors
Moisture
Temperature
Oil level
Insulation degradation
Tertiary windings
Core grounding
Bushings
Tank
Tap changer position
Remanence
Electromagnetic environment
FRA instrument
Measurement cables

For the diagnosis, a link between the algorithms and the

real failure modes has to be established. For this purpose,
the development of an expert system is also proposed.
The application of the algorithms to FRA data of healthy
and failed or distorted transformers provides the
knowledge base for training the expert system.

6. Conclusions
An understanding of the frequency response of RLC
networks constitutes the bases for understanding the FRA
response of a real transformer. A generalization of the
FRA response of transformers is difficult, but for
transformers of the same family is possible to describe
general patterns. Identification of transformer-specific
sub-bands is a key element for the automatic detection
and diagnosis of FRA results. Patterns of the effects of
both failure modes and factors affecting the repeatability
of FRA results in the sub-bands can be built by means of
algorithms and subsequently be used as input to an
expert system for an automatic and reliable diagnosis of
the results what is one of the biggest challenges of the
FRA method.

Injection point

7. References

Reverse connection
Arrangement of cables
Measurement mistakes

5. Algorithms for automatic detection and

diagnosis
Different algorithms are proposed in this work for the
required analysis of deviations presented in section 2.2.
These algorithms can be structured in three groups as can
be observed in Fig. 11. As part of the statistical
algorithms, the cross-correlation, the standard deviation
and the covariance can be used as general indicators of
deviations. But for a more reliable detection, feature
extraction algorithms are also necessary, especially for
the detection of localized deviations. As a complement,
modeling techniques, such as mathematical modeling of
the transfer function by means of a rational functions and
circuit synthesis or network realizations provide also
very important information for the detection.
Statistical algorithms

Modeling
Mathematical

Z=

Physical

Feature Extraction

Circuit synthesis
without physical
meaning

Circuit synthesis with

physical meaning

A0 + A1s + A2 s 2
B0 + B1s + B2 s 2

Figure 11. Algorithms for automatic detection

[1] S.A. Ryder, Diagnosing Transformer Faults Using

Frequency Response Analysis, IEEE Electrical Insulation
Magazine March/April 2003. Vol. 19, No. 2, pp.16-22
[2] CIGRE WG A2.26, "Mechanical condition assessment of
transformer windings: guidance, April 2008.

8. Curriculum Vitae
Juan L. Velsquez received the B.Sc. degree in
Electrical Engineering from the Universidad Antonio
Jos de Sucre in Barquisimeto, Venezuela in 2002. In
October 2008 he jointed Omicron Electronics GmbH
in Austria, where he works as product manager of
diagnostic instruments for high voltage assets.
Dr. Miguel A. Sanz Bobi is professor at the
Computer Science Department and also researcher at
the Institute for Research and Technology (IIT) both
inside the Engineering School of the Pontificia
Comillas University, Madrid (Spain).
Miguel Gutierrez Received his Bachelor in electronic
and Licenciatura in Power System from the
University of Costa Rica in 1985 and 1988
respectively. He worked as a field engineer since
1985 to 1996 at the Costa Rican Institute of
Electricity in Costa Rica. In 1997 he worked for
Rochester Instruments Systems (USA) as a testing
engineer and Since 1999 he has been working for OMICRON
electronics (USA) as a sales and application engineer for Latin
America. He is member of the IEEE.
Dr. Alexander Kraetge received the Doctoral degree in Electrical
Engineering from the Technical University of Berlin, Germany in
2007. From 2006 he jointed Omicron Electronics GmbH in Austria,
where he works as product manager of diagnostic instruments for high
voltage assets.