Levelling

LEVELLING
Introduction
Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is:
1. To find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum
2. To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given
or assumed datum.
The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second
operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling deals
with measurements in a vertical plane.
The information obtained by the process of levelling proves very much useful in the initial
stages of design of the project as well as during the execution of various units of the project.
The process of levelling involves the operation of making linear measurements in the
vertical plane and it is because of the measurements in the vertical plane that the levelling
differs both in the methods and instruments of the measurements.
For engineering projects, the levelling is required for various purposes such as for
estimating the reservoir capacities, for setting out grades for sewers, for calculating depth of
cuttings, etc.

Definitions of some common terms in levelling:

Bench Mark: It is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to
some assumed datum is known.
Datum: Datum is any surface to which
elevations are referred. The mean sea level
affords a convenient datum world over, and
elevations are commonly given as so much
above or below sea level. It is often more
convenient, however, to assume some other
datum, especially if only the relative
elevations of points are required.
Horizontal Plane: The horizontal plane is
defined as the plane which is normal to the
direction of gravity at every point. The operations of chain survey, theodolite traverse
survey and plane table survey involve measurements in the horizontal plane.
Horizontal Line: It is the straight line tangential to the level line at a point. It is the line in a
horizontal plane.
Vertical Line or Plumb Line: The line normal to the level line at a point is known as a
vertical line or a plumb line. It is the line normal to a level surface.
Vertical Angle: The angle formed by the intersection of two lines in a vertical plane is
known as the vertical angle.
Level Line: It is the line drawn on a level surface. It is, therefore, normal to the plumb line
at all points.
Level Surface: A level surface is defined as a curved surface which at each point is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point. This is a surface on which all the
points are equidistant from the centre of earth. As earth is a sphere, a level surface will be a
curved surface. The surface of a still water is a truly level surface.
Mean Sea Level: The average height of the sea for all stages of the tides is known as mean
sea level or M.S.L.
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Reduced Level: The elevation of a point or its vertical distance above or below the datum is
known as its reduced level or R.L.
Elevation: The vertical distance of a point with respect to a given datum, either positive or
negative, is known as the elevation of that point. The difference in elevation between two
points is the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in which the two points lie.
Line of Collimation: The line joining the intersection of cross-hairs and optical centre of the
object glass and its continuation is known as the line of collimation. It is also sometimes
referred to as the line of sight.
Station: The point whose elevation is to be ascertained or the point that is to be established
at a given elevation is known as the station and it thus indicates the point at which the staff
is held and not the point at which the level is set up.
Height of Instrument: The elevation or R.L. of the line of collimation, when the instrument
is correctly levelled, is known as the height of instrument or the height of plane of
collimation. Or the height of instrument is the elevation of the plane of sight (line of sight)
with respect to an assumed datum. It may be noted that the term height of instrument does
not mean the height of the centre of the telescope above the ground where the level is set
up.
Back Sight: It is the sight taken on a rod held at a point of known elevation, to ascertain the
amount by which the line of sight is above that point and thus ascertain the height of
instrument. Back Sighting is equivalent to measuring up from the point of known elevation
to the line of sight. It is also known as plus sight as the back sight reading is always added
to the datum to get the height of the instrument. The object of back sighting is therefore to
ascertain the height of the plane of sight.
Fore Sight: It is the sight taken on a rod held at a point of unknown elevation, too ascertain
the amount by which the point is below the line of sight and thus obtain the elevation of the
station. Fore sighting is measuring down from the line of sight. It is also known as minus
sight at the reading is always subtracted from the height of instrument to get the elevation of
the point. The object of fore sighting is to ascertain the elevation of the point.
Intermediate Sight: All sights taken between B.S. and F.S. are known as intermediate sights
or I.S. It may be noted that the word sight does not imply any direction, but it denotes the
reading.
Turning Point: It is also known as change point. It is the point on which both the minus
sight and the plus sight are taken on a direct line of direct levels. The minus sight is taken
on the point in one set of the instrument to get the level while the plus sign is taken on the
same point in other set of instrument to establish the new line of sight.
Intermediate Station: It is a point intermediate between two turning points, on which only
one sight (minus sight) is taken to determine the elevation of the station.
Parallax: The term parallax is used to indicate the apparent movement of the image with
respect to the cross hairs and it occurs when the plane of image does not coincide with the
plane of cross hairs. It can be eliminated with the process of focussing.
Focussing: It is used to indicate the operation or process by which the clear image of the
object is brought in fixed plane of cross hairs. The process of focussing can be carried out
either by adjusting the eye-piece or the objective.
It involves two processes:
i. Focussing the eye-piece: The eye-piece unit is moved in or out with respect to the
cross-hairs so that the latter are clearly visible.
ii. Focussing the objective: The purpose of focusing the objective is to bring the image
of object in the plane of cross-hairs which are clearly visible. The focusing can be
done externally or internally.
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Methods of levelling:
Three principal methods are used for determining difference in elevation. They are:
1. Barometric levelling: Barometric levelling makes use of the phenomenon that
difference in elevation between two points is proportional to the difference in
atmospheric pressures at these points. A barometer, therefore, may be used and the
readings observed at different points would yield a measure of the relative elevations of
those points.
At a given point, the atmospheric pressure does not remain constant in the course of the
day, even in the course of an hour. The method is, therefore, relatively inaccurate and
is little used in surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory surveys.
2. Trigonometric Levelling (Indirect levelling): Trigonometric or Indirect levelling is the
process of levelling in which the elevations of points are computed from the vertical
angles and horizontal distances measured in the field, just as the length of, any side in
any triangle can be computed from proper trigonometric relations. In a modified form
called stadia levelling, commonly used in mapping, both the difference in elevation
and the horizontal distance between the points are directly computed from the
measured vertical angles and staff readings.
3. Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling): It is that branch of levelling in which the vertical
distances with respect to a horizontal line (perpendicular to the direction of gravity)
may be used to determine the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent
points. The method is also known as direct levelling. It is the most precise method of
determining elevations and the one most commonly used by engineers.

Levelling Instruments
The instruments commonly used for direct levelling are:
1. A level
2. A levelling staff
1. Level: The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight. Essentially, a level
consists of the following four parts:
a.
A telescope to provide line of sight
b.
A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
c.
A levelling head (tribrach and trivet stage) to bring the bubble in its centre of run
d.
A tripod to support the instrument.
2. Levelling Staff: A levelling staff is a straight
rectangular rod having graduations, the foot
of the staff representing zero reading. The
purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal
line of sight. The purpose of the levelling
staff is to determine the amount by which the
station (i.e., foot of the staff) is above or
below the line of sight. Levelling staves may
be divided into two classes:
a.
Self-reading staff: It is the one which
can be read directly by the instrument
man through the telescope.
The graduations are inverted so that
they are seen in erect position when
looked through the telescope.
It is of three types:
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Solid staff
Folding staff
Telescopic staff
Target staff: It contains a moving target against which the reading is taken by
staff man. A target is provided on the staff and under the instructions received
from the surveyor, the target is moved by the person holding the staff. The target
is clamped and the reading is then recorded by the staff-man. The target is
provided with a vernier and it helps in taking very accurate readings. This type of
staff is useful when the distances for taking readings exceed 100 m.
i.
ii.
iii.

b.

S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Self Reading Staff

The fineness of reading taken is less.

Target Staff
The fineness of reading taken is more
than that of self reading staff.
The level-man records the readingsThe
in staff-holder takes the readings in case
case of self reading staff.
of target staff.
The staff man need not be a trained The staff-man should be a trained
person.
person.
The readings from self-reading staff The taking of readings from target staff
can be taken easily and speedily
takes time and is not easy.

Precautions to be taken while using a levelling staff:

a.
Holding the staff: The level staff should be held truly vertical.
b.
Reading the staff: The reading to be taken on the staff depends on the manner in
which the figures arc written on the staff.
Essential parts of a level:
Any type of level contains the following three essential parts:
1. Bubble tube: This is also known as a level tube, and it helps in establishing a horizontal
plane. It is designed on the principle that any liquid surface at rest will always be
perpendicular to the direction of gravity.
2. Levelling head: It assists in bringing the bubble in the central position. It consists of
two plates which are held at a constant distance apart with the help of foot screws. The
bottom plate is known as foot plate and the hole in it is treaded so that the instrument
can be fixed on treaded tripod head to ensure stability. The top plate is known as bush
plate.
3. Telescope: It is the most important part of the level and it helps in taking the readings
from the levelling staff.
The telescope has four essential parts:
a. Objective: The objective is invariably a compound lens consisting of
i.
The front double convex lens made of crown glass
ii.
The back concavo-convex lens made of flint glass
The two being cemented together with balsm at their common surface. Such
compound lens is known as achromatic
lens, and two serious optical defects viz.,
spherical aberration and chromatic
aberration are nearly eliminated.
b. Eye Piece: It is also called as eye lens. It
is required to see the object and its size
corresponds to the size of human eye so
that other rays are avoided to see the
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c.

d.

object clearly. The eye piece may be of

erecting type or non-erecting type.
Diaphragm: The cross hairs, designed
to give a definite line of sight, consist
of a vertical and horizontal hair held in
a flat metal ring called reticule.
In modern instruments interchangeable
cross hairs are used and they are
carried in a cell or a capsule.
The cross hairs must be clean, fine,
opaque and without fringes. The cross
hairs are usually made up of spider's
web, silk web, lines on glass, fine
platinum wire, etc.
Cross hairs (a), (b) and (c) in the
diagram are used in levels.
Body and Focusing Device: The
focusing device depends upon whether
it is an external focussing telescope or
an internal focussing telescope.
i.
External Focussing: The movement of the objective or eye-piece is carried
out externally and the body of telescope consists of two tubes, one capable
of sliding axially within the other, by means of rack gearing. The focussing
screw controls the gearing arrangement and it is moved in clockwise or
anticlockwise direction till the image falls at the plane of diaphragm. This
type of focussing is not favoured.
ii.
Internal focussing: The objective and eye piece are kept fixed in position
and the focussing is achieved by moving an extra double concave lens
provided in the telescope between the objective and diaphragm hairs. Thus,
a short tube carrying the lens is moved along and inside the tube carrying
the objective by means of gearing arrangement. The modern instruments
contain internal focussing arrangement

Types of Levels
1.
Dumpy Level: It is a very simple, compact and stable level. It can be used for rough
work. The telescope is rigidly fixed with the support and hence, it is not possible to
rotate it about its own axis.
The instrument gives fairly
accurate work and possesses
greater
stability
of
adjustments.
The modern form of dumpy
level has the telescope tube
and the vertical spindle cast in
one piece and a long bubble
tube is attached to the top of
the telescope. This form is
known as solid dumpy.
In some of the instruments, a
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2.

3.

4.

5.

clamp screw is provided to control the movement of the spindle about the vertical
axis. For small or precise movement, a slow motion screw (or tangent screw) is also
provided.
The levelling head generally consists of two parallel plates with either three-foot
screws or four-foot screws. The upper plate is known as tribrach and the lower plate
is known as trivet which can be screwed on to a tripod.
The advantages of the dumpy level over the Wye level are:
a. Simpler construction with fewer movable parts
b. Fewer adjustments to be made
c. Longer life of the adjustments
Cooke's Reversible Level: This level combines the advantages of dumpy level and Vlevel. It contains the arrangements such that it can be rotated about its own axis in its
sockets and it can be removed and ends can be exchanged.
The telescope is supported by two rigid sockets into which the telescope can be
introduced from either end and then fixed in position by a screw. The sockets are
rigidly connected to the spindle through a stage. Once the telescope is pushed into the
sockets and the screw is tightened, the level acts as a dumpy level.
This type of instrument is heavy because there is an addition of an extra tube. There is
also possibility of the instrument being disturbed while changing the telescope end to
end.
Wye or Y-level: The
essential
difference
between the dumpy level
and the Wye level is that in
the former case the
telescope is fixed to the
spindle while in the Wye
level, the telescope is
carried in two vertical 'Wye'
supports. It is a very
delicate
instrument
consisting of various loose
parts. Hence, it requires
careful
handling.
The
telescope is put up on the supports having the shape of letter Y and it can be removed
and its ends can be exchanged. It thus grants the facility of carrying out the permanent
adjustments indoors. However, the adjustments soon get disturbed due to loose
supports and hence, it becomes necessary to check them quite often.
Cushing's level: In this type of level, the telescope is firmly secured in collars as in
case of a dumpy level. The ends of the telescope tube are enlarged to form two exactly
equal sockets, ground carefully to receive either the objective lens cell or the eyepiece
and diaphragm cell. It is thus possible to interchange objective for eye piece and
vice versa. This type of level is heavy due to the addition of the collar fittings.
Tilting Level: It is used for very precise work. A tilting screw is provided at the base
of telescope and at every observation; the line of collimation is made truly horizontal.
The line of sight can be tilted slightly without tilting the vertical axis. Thus, the line of
sight and the vertical axis need not be exactly perpendicular to each other. This
feature of this type of level helps in quick levelling.
The instrument is levelled roughly by the three-foot screws with respect either to the

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bubble tube or to a small

circular bubble, thus making
the vertical axis approximately
vertical. While taking the sight
to a staff, the line of sight is
made exactly horizontal by
centring the bubble by means
of a fine pitched tilting screw
which tilts the telescope with
respect to the vertical axis.

S. No.
1.

2.

3.
6.

Dumpy Level
The vertical axis and the axis of bubble
are fixed rigidly at right angles to each
other and hence, when the bubble is in
the centre i.e. axis of the bubble is
horizontal; the vertical axis is truly
vertical.
The line of collimation may get tilted
upwards or downwards and in that
case, the line of collimation and the
axis of the telescope will not coincide.
Thus, the adjustment will have to be
carried out with the diaphragm screw.
Two permanent adjustments are
required.

Tilting Level
The telescope and the bubble are
independent of the vertical axis and
as such, the line of sight and the axis
of the bubble can be made
horizontal without the vertical axis
being truly vertical.
In tilting level, the line of
collimation and the axis of the
telescope are made one and the
same.

Only one permanent adjustment is

required.

Gradientor or Gradiometer: In this level, the arrangement is made in such a way that
any desired gradient can be set up with the minimum interval of time. It thus
facilitates the measurement or setting out of long uniform gradients. It consists of a
level in which the telescope is so mounted that it may be set at various inclinations to
the horizontal and the gradient is registered on a drum.

Bench Marks
Following are the four types of bench marks:
1.
Arbitrary bench marks: Some permanent objects are selected to serve the purpose of
bench marks and they are given some arbitrary value. Such objects are known as
arbitrary or assumed bench marks and they are used for small levelling operations.
2.
G.T.S. bench marks: The survey department of Govt. of India has established all over
the country certain bench marks known as Great Trigonometrical Survey or G.T.S.
bench marks at intervals of about 100 km. These bench marks are established with
high precision and their positions and elevations are -published in catalogues or
shown on G.T.S. maps. The standard datum adopted for G.T.S. bench marks is the
mean sea-level at Karachi or Bombay.
3.
Permanent bench marks: The bench marks established as reference points on some
permanent objects between the G.T.S. bench marks by the state P.W.D. are known as
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4.

permanent bench marks. The permanent objects chosen for this type of bench marks
include tops of culverts or bridge kilometre stones, pillars, railway platform, isolated
rock, etc.
Temporary bench marks: The bench marks established for short duration at the end of
day's work or for some break in the work are of temporary nature and hence, they are
referred to as temporary bench marks. The unfinished work is started again with
reference to these temporary bench marks. The permanent objects chosen for this type
of bench marks include floor or verandahs, roots of the trees, tops of parapet; gate
posts, etc.

Temporary Adjustments of Levels

Each surveying instrument needs two types of adjustments:
1.
Temporary adjustments: These are also known as station adjustments and are those
which are made at every instrument setting and are preparatory to taking observations
with the instrument.
2.
Permanent adjustments: These need to be made when the fundamental relations
between some parts or lines are disturbed.
Temporary adjustments of a level consist of the following:
1.
Setting up the level: It includes:
a.
Fixing the instrument on the stand
b.
Levelling the instrument approximately by leg adjustment.
The instrument is removed from the box. To fix the level on the tripod, the clamp is
released; the instrument is held in the hand and is fixed on the tripod by turning
around the lower part with the other hand. The tripod legs are so adjusted that the
instrument is at a convenient height. Any two legs of the tripod are fixed on the
ground by pressing with the hand. The movement of the third leg is made in such a
way that the bubble remains in the centre. Thus the tribach is made approximately
horizontal.
2.
Levelling up: After having levelled the
instrument approximately, accurate
levelling is done with the help of foot
screws and with reference to plate
levels. The purpose of levelling is to
make the vertical axis truly vertical. The
manner of levelling the instrument by
the plate levels depends upon whether
there are three or four levelling screws.
For three-screw levelling head; the telescope is placed parallel to a pair of screws and
by turning these screws, inwards or
outwards, the bubble is brought at the
centre. The telescope is then turned
through 90 so that it now lies over the
third screw and centre of the line
joining the other two screws. By
turning the third screw, the bubble is
centred and then, the telescope is
brought in its original position. The
procedure is carried out till the bubble
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3.

remains in centre for both the positions which are at right angles to each other. It
should be noted that the bubble will move in the direction of movement of the left
thumb. For four-screw levelling head, the telescope is placed parallel to two
diagonally opposite foot screws in both positions and the above procedure is repeated
till the bubble remains in centre for both the positions.
In modern instruments, three foot screw levelling head is used in preference to a
four foot screw levelling head.
Elimination of parallax: Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the
objective is not in the plane of the cross hairs. Unless parallax is eliminated,
accurate sighting is impossible. Parallax can be eliminated in two steps:
a.
Focusing the eyepiece: point the eye piece unit towards the sky (or hold a
sheet of paper in front of the objective) and move eye-piece unit in or out with
respect to the cross-hairs so that the latter are seen sharp and distinct.
b.
Focusing the objective: The purpose of focusing the objective is to bring the
image of object in the plane of cross-hairs which are clearly visible. The
telescope is directed towards the staff and the focusing screw is turned till the
image appears clear and sharp.

Permanent Adjustment of Levels

Principles of Levelling
Some of the important principles which are to be observed in simple direct levelling are as
follows:
1.
Change point: The intermediate staff should be carefully selected and it should be in
the form of firm point which can be easily located. The elevation of change point
should be carefully determined as a slight error in it will be reflected in the subsequent
readings. If convenient, a bench mark can be used as a change point.
2.
Lengths of B.S. and F.S.: For accurate work, the lengths of B.S. and F.S. should be
maintained nearly equal. If this condition is satisfied, the error due to non parallelism
of the line of collimation and the bubble line will be reduced to a great extent. When
the bubble is in the centre of its 'run; the line of collimation is horizontal. . This is
only possible when the line of collimation and the bubble line are exactly parallel.
Even if careful adjustments are performed, there are chances of not achieving the
absolute parallelism between the line of sight and the axis of the level tube. It will
naturally lead to an-error in the staff reading which is proportional to the distance
from the instrument to the staff. If the lengths of backsight and foresight are kept
nearly equal, the error due to non-parallelism of the line of collimation and the axis of
the bubble can be eliminated. This is known as balancing backsight and foresight
distances
If the back sight and the foresight distances are balanced, the difference in elevation
between two points can be directly calculated by taking the difference of the two rod
readings and no correction either for the inclination of the line of sight or for
curvature and refraction is necessary.
3.
Position of level: As such, the level can be set up at any point. It is however desirable
to put the level on a firm spot from where maximum number of sights can be taken.
The selected spot for level should neither be too high nor too low and it should
preferably be located midway between the change points.
4.
Starting and ending: The process of levelling at any point should start with backsight
or B.S. and it should end with foresight or F.S. Also, the process of levelling should
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always commence from a permanent Bench Mark or B.M. and end on a permanent
B.M.

Methods of Levelling
The levelling can broadly be divided into the following two categories:
1.
Direct levelling or spirit levelling
2.
Indirect levelling
1.

Direct Levelling: It is the most commonly used method of levelling. The method
employs spirit level and telescope to measure vertical distances on the levelling staff
placed on various points. Various forms of direct levelling are as follows:
a.
Simple levelling: This is used to find out the difference in elevations of two
points which are visible from a
single position of the level.
Following points should be noted:
i.
If the point is situated at a
lower level, the staff
reading will be more and if
it is situated at a higher
level, the staff reading will
be less.
ii.
It should be seen that the
bubble remains in its central position, when the readings are taken.
b.
Differential levelling: The object of this method is solely to determine the
difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the
points with respect to each other. It is also known as compound levelling or
continuous levelling, is resorted to under the following circumstances:
i.
The points P and Q. are situated far away from each other.
ii.
The difference in
elevations
of
points P and Q is
too great.
iii.
There is presence
of
obstacles
between points P
and Q.
In this process, the
change points or C.P. are selected as required. The level is set up at O1 and with
the bubble in central position, the staff readings are taken for points P and first
C.P. The process is repeated at points O2 and O3 till the point Q is reached. The
difference in level of P and Q. can then be worked out by simple calculations.
Difference = (b1 a) + (c1 b2) + (b c2)

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c.

d.

If the difference works out to be positive, point Q is higher than point P and if it
works out to be negative point Q is lower than point P. It may be noted that the
readings at a change point are taken twice i.e. once before and the next after the
instrument is shifted. The location and situation of change point should be
carried out carefully. The positions O1, O2 and O3 of the instrument should be
selected in such a way that the level lies roughly midway between the points to
be read.
Reciprocal levelling: The
process of reciprocal
levelling is adopted to
calculate accurately the
true difference in levels
of two points which are
situated in such a way
that it is not possible to
set up the instrument at
any intermediate position
and from which the
lengths of the fore sight
and the back sight will be
even
approximately
equal.
When this method is
adopted, the total error
due
to
curvature,
refraction and imperfect
collimation adjustment disappears.
It is carried out across a river, or a ravine or any obstale requiring a long sight
between two points.
Profile levelling: The process of levelling carried out along a given line to
determine the elevations of points at known distances is known as the profile
levelling or the longitudinal sectioning. It is done for short distances. It is done
in order to obtain a profile of the surface along a fixed line. The fixed line may
be a single straight line, or it may be composed of a succession of straight lines
or a series of straight lines
connected by curves. It is
also known as longitudinal
section. By means of such
sections the engineer is able
to study the relationship
between the existing ground
and the levels of the
proposed construction in
the direction of its length.
This process is useful for
getting the data for the
design
of
engineering
structures such as road,
railway, canal, sewer, water

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e.

f.

g.

h.

2.

main, etc.
Cross sectioning: When the width of
the proposed project is not in the form
of a trip of small width, but exceeds
say 30m to 60m, it becomes necessary
to take levels in transverse direction
also. Such operation of levelling
carried out in the crosswise direction is
known as cross-sectioning and in most
of the cases, the cross-sections are
taken at right angles to the longitudinal
line as it is very easy to set up
perpendicular lines with the help of simple instruments like cross staff. The
cross-sections are usually run at constant distance along the centre line.
Precise levelling: For very accurate work, such as establishing bench marks,
extra-ordinary precautions are taken in the process of levelling to eliminate all
the possible errors.
The instruments used for such type of levelling are of the highest order and
perfectly in working condition. While working in the field, a high degree ofto
have any chance of error. For instance, the work of levelling is postponed on
rainy and windy days. No unnecessary haste is made to complete the work. The
check levels are taken in the opposite direction and preferably by another
surveyor.
Check levelling: The process of levelling carried out in the reverse direction i.e.
from end point to first point, just to check the difference in level between two
points, worked out previously, is known as check levelling. Many shortcuts may
be taken in check levelling as it is intended for checking the results of accurate
levelling done before hand.
Fly levelling: It becomes sometimes necessary to carry out levelling work along
two or three alternative routes of a proposed project. Hence, if accurate levelling
is adopted in such cases, it will take more time without any fruitful purpose.
Hence, to get in short time the rough idea about the nature of ground, the
levelling work is carried out speedily along each route. Such levelling is known
as fly levelling and the accuracy desired in the fly levelling is far less than that
in the check levelling.

Indirect Levelling: The relative levels of the points are found out by the indirect
observations and the following are the three forms of the indirect levelling.
a.
Barometric levelling: The principle that atmospheric pressure varies inversely
with the altitude of a point is applied in case of barometric levelling. A
barometer is therefore used in this method and the readings observed at different
points give a measure of the relative elevation of those points. The process of
barometric levelling gives approximate results and it is therefore adopted in the
reconnaissance or preliminary survey.
b.
Hypsometry: Init, the temperature at which water boils is taken as the basis for
determining the height of a point. As the altitude increases, the atmospheric
pressure decreases and due to this, the boiling point of water is lowered down.
c.
Trigonometrical levelling: In case of trigonometrical levelling, the relative
elevations of different stations are worked out by taking the vertical angles and

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Levelling

measuring or computing the horizontal distances. The vertical angles are

measured by means of a theodolite. The main advantage of this method is tha t it
brings down the number of change points to a minimum even though the
difference in level of two points is very great.

Entering the Staff Readings

Reduction of Levels
Levelling Problems
The following are some of the difficulties commonly encountered in levelling:
1.
Levelling on steep slopes: When levelling is to be carried out, either uphill or downhill, care should be taken to avoid the errors due to the non verticality of the staff and
imperfect adjustment of the level. The former error is minimised by holding the staff
vertical and using a pendulum plumb bob. The latter error is minimised by equating;
as far as possible, the backsight and foresight distances. It is quite evident that while
levelling down hill, the foresights will be near the top of the staff and the backsights
will be near the foot of the staff. The reverse will be the case for levelling, uphill.
2.
Levelling on summits and hollows: In levelling over summit, the level should be set
up
sufficiently high so that the
summit can
be sighted
without extra
setting.
Similarly, in
levelling
across a hollow, the level should be set only
sufficiently low to enable the levels of all the
required points to be observed.
3.
Taking level of an overhead point: When
the point under observation is higher than
the line of sight, staff should be kept
inverted on the overhead point keeping the
foot of the staff touching the point and
reading should be taken.
Such readings show the height of that
point above the line of sight and should be
added to the H.I. to get the R.L. of the
point.
4.
Levelling ponds and lakes: When
the ponds and lakes are too wide
to be sighted across, advantage
may be taken of the fact that the
surface of still water is a level
surface.
5.
Levelling across river: If the
width of the river is less, the
method of reciprocal levelling is
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Levelling

6.

7.

8.

to be used. If the river is too wide to be sighted across, levelling may be continued
from one side to the other with little error, provided care is taken to choose the
comparatively still stretch and to see that the water levels are taken at points directly
opposite each other.
Levelling past high wall: The problem of crossing a high wall during the process of
levelling can be solved in one of the
following ways:
i. Two pegs P and Q may be
driven on either side of wall.
The R.L. of point P is obtained
by taking a F.S. on it. The
height of wall is measured and
R.L. of top wall is determined.
The distance between top of
wall and peg Q is measured and
subtracting this distance from
the R.L. of top of wall, the R.L.
of peg Q is obtained. Then, a
B.S. is taken on peg Q and a
new line of sight is worked out. The levelling work is then continued.
ii. The line of sight is made to cut at point A on wall and from this point A, the
distance of top of wall is measured. The R.L. of top of wall is then worked out.
Now, the instrument is transferred on the other side of wall and line of sight is
made to cut the wall at point B. The distance between point B and top of wall is
measured and then, new H.I. is obtained by deducting this measurement from
the R.L. of the top of wall. The levelling is then continued.
Taking reading when B.M. or staff station is above the line of sight: It becomes
sometimes necessary to adopt the underside of a girder, a string course beam, lintel or
some such feature to adopt as a B.M. and the situation arises in which the point is
above the line of sight. A very simple operation is performed to overcome this
difficulty. The staff is held inverted on the point and the reading is taken and ids
designated as negative. It is treated either as negative F.S. or negative B.S., as the case
may be. A note stating, that the reading is taken by keeping the staff in inverted
position is entered in the remarks column.
As far as possible, the situation leading to the inverted staff reading should be
avoided.
Following are the disadvantages of holding the staff inverted:
i. In some cases, it may prove very difficult to keep the zero of the staff in line
with the point whose level is required.
ii. It is difficult to keep the staff truly vertical.
iii. The proper sign may not be given while booking the reading.
iv. The staff may be read wrong.
Taking reading when the staff is too near the level: It is desirable to a void the
situation of holding the staff very near to the level. However, when it is not possible
to a void such situation, the staff reading can be taken directly by looking through the
object glass or by measuring the staff up to the centre of the object glass.
Alternatively, a piece of paper may be used to serve the purpose of a target and it
should be moved up and down the staff till its edge is bisected by the line of
collimation. The reading where the edge of paper cuts the staff is then noted.

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Errors in Levelling
The process of levelling is subject to various errors and suitable precautions should be taken
to see that these errors do not cause appreciable effect on the results of the levelling work.
The errors can broadly be divided into the following three categories:
1.
Instrumental errors: The instruments used for the levelling work may not be of
adequate standard. The usual instrumental errors can be enlisted as follows:
a.
Defective levelling staff with incorrect lengths of graduations
b.
Faulty focussing arrangement;
c.
Line of collimation not parallel to the bubble tube axis
d.
Over sensitive or under-sensitive bubble tube
e.
Rigid joints of the tripod
2.
Natural errors: The usual natural errors caused by the natural external forces can be
enlisted as follows:
a.
Error due to atmospheric refractions and their changes;
b.
Error due to curvature of earth;
c.
Error due to settlement of tripod or change points;
d.
Error due to vibrations caused by wind and not permitting the staff to be held
vertical;
e.
Error due to variation in temperature; etc.
3.
Personal errors: The errors caused by persons carrying the levelling process are
serious in the sense that they can be easily avoided, if the work is done with due care.
They can be enlisted as follows:
a.
Bubble not at the centre while taking reading
b.
Careless levelling of the instrument
c.
Entering wrong remark against a reading
d.
Exerting pressure on the telescope while focussing
e.
The eye-piece and objective
f.
Improper sighting due to imperfect focussing of the eye-piece and objective
g.
Incorrect holding of the staff
h.
Mistake in taking the reading
i.
Omitting the entry
j.
Ordinary arithmetical mistakes
k.
Reading wrong metre mark on the staff
l.
Wrong booking of the reading

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