Objectives

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

Chapter 6

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

Gravitational Field
Gravitational Potential
Satellite Motion in Circular Orbits
Escape Velocity

Gravitation

Learning Outcome
(a)

g) use the formula for potential energy U = GMm/r

h) show that U = mg r = mgh is a special case
of U = -GMm/r for situations near to the
surface of the Earth
i) use the relationship g = - dV/dr
j) explain, with graphical illustrations, the
variations of gravitational field strength and
gravitational potential with distance from
the surface of the Earth

GMm/r2

and use the formula F =

(b) explain the meaning of gravitational field
(c) define gravitational field strength as force of
gravity per unit mass
(d) use the equation g = GM/r 2 for a
gravitational field
(e) define the potential at a point in a
gravitational field;
(f) derive and use the formula V = - GM/r
3

Reflection:

Reflection:

For every action there is an equal and

opposite reaction.
or
Whenever on object exerts a force on a
second object, the second object exerts an
equal and opposite force on the first object.
action = opposite reaction
F1 = -F2 or m1a1 = -m2a2
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Section 3.4

F1 = - F2 or m1a1 = - m2a2
Jet propulsion exhaust gases in one
direction and the rocket in the other direction
Gravity jump from a table and you will
accelerate to earth. In reality BOTH you and
the earth are accelerating towards each other
You small mass, huge acceleration (m1a1)
Earth huge mass, very small acceleration (m2a2)
BUT m1a1 = -m2a2
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Section 3.4

Newton's Laws in Action

Friction on the tires provides necessary centripetal

acceleration.
Passengers continue straight ahead in original
direction and as car turns the door comes toward
passenger 1st Law
As car turns you push against door and the door
equally pushes against you 3rd Law

Gravity is a fundamental force of nature

We do not know what causes it
We can only describe it
Law of Universal Gravitation Every particle
in the universe attracts every other particle
with a force that is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them
Gm1m2
Equation form: F =
r2

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/ips/ch03.ppt
Section 3.4

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Section 3.5

Gm1m2
Equation form: F =
r2
G is the universal gravitational constant
G = 6.67 x 10-11 N.m2/kg2
G:
is a very small quantity
thought to be valid throughout the universe
was measured by Cavendish 70 years after

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Section 3.5

F = Gm1m2 / r2
m1

F1

m2

F2

r
The forces that attract particles together
are equal and opposite
F1 = - F2 or m1a1 = - m2a2

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Section 3.5

10

6.1 Newton's Law of Gravitation

F =

Two objects with masses of 1.0 kg and 2.0 kg

are 1.0 m apart. What is the magnitude of
the gravitational force between the masses?
1.0 m

Gm1m2
r2

For a homogeneous
sphere the
gravitational force
acts as if all the
mass of the sphere
were at its center

1.0 kg

Negligible
force

2.0 kg

Force of
9.8 N

Force of
19.6 N
Earth

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Section 3.5

11

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Section 3.5

12

6.2 Gravitational Field

Gravitational field: a region where
gravitational force acts on a body.
Gravitational field strength, g at a point
in a gravitational field is the
gravitational pull per unit mass on a
body at that point, thus g = F/m.
Where F = -GMm/r2 ; then,
g = GM/r2

Two objects with masses of 1.0 kg and 2.0

kg are 1.0 m apart. What is the
magnitude of the gravitational force
between the masses?
Gm1m2
r2
(6.67 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2)(1.0 kg)(2.0 kg)
F=
(1.0 m)2
F = 1.3 x 10-10 N
F=

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Section 3.5

13

6.2 Gravitational Field

GME m
R2E

[force of gravity on object of mass m]

ME and RE are the mass and radius of Earth

weight (w = mg)
w = mg =
g=

GME
R2E

GME m
RE2

m cancels out
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Section 3.5

14

Variation of g with Altitude

Gravitational field strength = Force of Gravity on

Earth
F=

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g is independent of mass
Section 3.5

15

For a mass, m on the

surface of the Earth,
mg0 = GMm/R2
g0 = GM/R2
GM = g0R2
If r > R
surface),
mg = GMm/r2
g = GM/r2
g = gR2/r2
(1)
2
2
g = (R /r ) g0

m
r

h
R

r = R + h, h = altitude
16

Variation of g with Altitude

g-r Graph

g = (R2/r2) g0
m
g = g0R2/(R + h)2
g 1/(R + h)2
r
h
If r < R
surface), the gravitational
R
pull is due to the sphere of
M
3
radius r1 ; M = (4/3) R
from go = GM/R2 ;
r1
m
g0 = (4/3) GR ; thus
g/g0 = r1/R ; or
r = R + h, h = altitude
g r
17

g0
g

6.3 G. potential Energy -Proof

Let a baseball, starting from rest at a
great (infinite) distance from Earth, fall
toward point P. The potential energy of
the baseball-Earth system is initially
zero.
When the baseball reaches P, the
potential energy is the negative of the
work W done by the gravitational force
as the baseball moves to P from its
distant position.

19

1/r2

18

As before, the gravitational potential energy

decreases when the separation decreases.
We assume that the gravitational potential
energy Ep is zero for r = , where r is the
separation distance.
The potential energy is negative for any finite
separation and becomes progressively more
negative as the particles move closer together.
We take the gravitational potential energy of
the two-particle system to be Ep = - GMm / r

Acceleration due to gravity, g

6.3 Gravitational Potential Energy

1/(R + h)2 and for r < R: g

For r > R: g

Thus

dx

Ep

x
m

W
R

F dx

Fdx
GMm
x2

A baseball of mass m falls towards Earth

from infinity, along a radial line (an x
axis) passing through point P at a
distance R from th ecenter of Earth.

GMm
x2

dx
dx

GMm
x

GMm
R

21

22

Earth Orbit - Centripetal Force

Acceleration due to Gravity for

a Spherical Uniform Object
g=

20

1)

GM
r2

Proper Tangential
Velocity

2) Centripetal Force

g = acceleration due to gravity

M = mass of any spherical uniform object

Fc = mac = mv2/r
(since ac = v2/r)

The proper
combination will
keep the moon or an
artificial satellite in
stable orbit
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Section 3.5

23

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Section 3.5

24

Earth as the same rate

Tycho Brahe/Tyge Ottesen

Brahe de Knudstrup
(1546-1601)
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Section 3.5

Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630)

25

26

Elliptical orbits of
planets are
described by a
semimajor axis a
and an
eccentricity e
For most planets,
the eccentricities
are very small
(Earth's e is
0.00167)

The law of orbits: All planets move in

elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus
The law of areas: A line that connects the
planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas
equal
time intervals
The law of periods: The square of the
period of any planet is proportional to the
cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit
27

28

The law of orbits

The law of orbits

The orbit in the figure is described by given its

semimajor axis a and its eccentricity e, the latter
defined so that ea is the distance from the center of

An eccentricity of zero corresponds to a

circle, in which the two foci merge to a single
central point.
The eccentricities of the planetary orbits are
not large, so the orbits look circular.
The eccentricity of Earth's orbit is only 0.0167.

The sum of the perihelion (nearest the Sun) distance

Rp and the aphelion (farthest from the Sun) distance
Ra is 2a.
The sum of the distance from any position in the
orbit to two foci is 2a.
The equation of any position (x, y) in the orbit is

29

30

Second
For a star-planet system, the total angular
momentum is constant (no external torques)

rp

(r )(mv )

(r )(m r )

For a circular

mr 2

const
For the elementary area swept by vector r
1
dA r 2 d
r2
dA
( r )(rd )
2
dt
2 dt
2
dA
dt

law

GMm
r2

ma

(m)(r

GM
r3

From the definition of a period

4 2 3
r
GM

For elliptic orbits

L
2m

T
31

4 2 3
a
GM
32

6.4 Satellite motion in circular orbits

6.4 Satellite motion in circular orbits

For a circular

GMm
r2

ma

v2
( m)
r

Kinetic energy of a satellite

mv
2

GMm
2r

U
2

Etotal

Total mechanical energy of a satellite

K U

U
2

GMm GMm
2r
r

GMm
2r

K U
1
U
2

K
33

34

6.4 Satellite motion in circular orbits

For an elliptic orbit it can be shown

The Law of Areas

The planet will move most slowly when it
is farthest from the Sun and most rapidly
when it is nearest to the Sun.
The law of areas is a direct consequence of
the idea that all of the forces are directed
exactly toward the sun.

GMm
2a

Orbits with different e but the same a have

the same total mechanical energy

35

36

The Law of Periods

Example 1

Consider a circular orbit with

m
radius r. See figure.
r
Applying Newton's second
law, F = ma, to the orbiting
planet yield
M
GMm
( m )( 2 r )
2
r
If is replaced with 2 /T,
4 2 3
2
T
r
where T is the period of the
GM
motion, yield
The law holds also for elliptical orbits, provided we
replace r with a, the semimajor axis of the ellipse.

A satellite in circular orbit at an altitude h of

230 km above Earth's surface has a period T of
89 min. What mass of Earth follows from these
data?
Sol: From Kepler's law of periods we have
The radius r of the satellite orbit is
r = R + h = 6.37 X 106 m + 230 X 103 m
= 6.60 X 106 m, where R = radius of Earth.
M
37

4 2r3

4 2 (6.60 106 ) 3

GT 2

( 6.67 10 11 )( 89 60) 2

6.0 10 24 kg
38

Example 2
Comet Halley orbits about the Sun with a period of
76 years and, in 1986, had a distance of closest
approach to the Sun, its perihelion distance Rp, of
8.9 1010 m. (a) What is the comet's farthest distance
from the Sun, its aphelion distance Ra? (b) What is
the eccentricity of the orbit of comet Halley?
Sol:(a) From Kepler's law of period we have
1

GMT 2 3
4 2

Ra = 2a
Since
We have

1/ 3
(6.67 10 11 )(1.99 1030 )( 2.4 109 ) 2

Rp = 5.3 X 1012
ea = a Rp
e = (a Rp) / a = 1 Rp / a
= 1 (8.9 X 1010) / (2.7 X 1012)
= 0.97

4 2

2.7 1012 m
39

40

6.4 Satellite motion in

a circular orbit

The mechanical energy KE + PE of the

satellite remains constant.
We first assume that the orbit of the satellite
is circular.
GMm
The potential energy is PE
r
where r is the radius of the orbit.
a = v2/r
By Newton's second law,

=v
v
mv 2
Where
=r
r
r
r2
is the centripetal acceleration of the satellite.
6.4 Satellite motion in

r
T

4 2
GM

r3

mr

GMm GMm
GMm
2r
r
2r
For a satellite in an elliptical orbit of
semimajor axis a, we have
GMm
KE PE
2a

2
41

a circular orbit

2
mr
T

constant or

Accounting for the shape of Earth, projectile

motion has to be modified:

r33

r3

v2
R

ac

T32

42

6.5 Escape velocity

T12

mv 2
r

KE PE

For a satellite orbiting Earth, the gravitational

pull of Earth upon the satellite,

GMm

a circular orbit

The kinetic energy of a satellite is

GMm
1 2 GMm
KE
mv
2
2r
r2
The total mechanical energy is

GMm

6.4 Satellite motion in

gR

43

44

6.5 Escape Speed

6.5 Escape velocity

There is a certain minimum initial speed that

will cause a projectile to move upward
forever, theoretically coming to rest only at
infinity. This initial speed is called the escape
speed.
Consider a projectile of mass m, leaving the
surface of a planet with escape speed v. When
the projectile reaches infinity, it stops and
thus has no kinetic energy. It also has no
potential energy because this is our zeropotential energy configuration.

Escape speed: speed required for a

particle to escape from the planet into
infinity (and stop there)

Ki U i
m1v 2
2

Kf

Gm1m planet
Rplanet

Uf
0 0

2Gmplanet

vescape

R planet

45

46

6.5 Escape velocity

6.5 Escape velocity

If for some astronomical object

Nothing (even light) can escape from the
surface of this object a black hole

From the principle of conservation of energy,

we have

vescape

2Gmobject
Robject

3 108 m / s

Ek

Ep

1 2
mv
2

GMm
R

Where M is the mass of the planet and R is its

radius. Thus

v
47

2GM
R
48

Example

Answer

An asteroid headed directly toward earth,

has a speed of 12000 m/sec relative to the
planet when it is at a distance of 10 Earth
radii from Earth's center.
Ignoring the effects of the terrestrial
atmosphere on the asteroid, find the
asteroid's speed when it reaches Earth's
surface.

Because the mass of an asteroid is much less

than that of Earth, we can assign the
gravitational potential energy of the asteroidEarth system to the asteroid alone, and we can
neglect any change in the speed of Earth
relative to the asteroid during the asteroid's fall.

49

Thus,

Ekf

E pf

Eki

E pi

vf2

Let m represent the mass of the asteroid, M

the mass of the earth (=5.98X1024kg), and R
the radius of Earth (= 6.37X106 m), Thus

1
mv f 2
2

GMm
R

vf

Summary: Gravitation
Law of
Gravitation

Gravitational
Potential

V = -GM/r

G = GM/r2

F=
Gm1m 2/r2

Satellite

Escape
Velocity

v=
(GM/r)1/2

U=GMm/r

v=
(2GM/R)1/2
T2

2GM
1
1
R
10
2(6.67 10

2.567 108 m 2s

51

Gravitational
Field

vi 2

(12 103 ) 2

GMm
10R

1
mvi 2
2

50

r3

g = -dV/dr

53

11

)( 5.98 1024 )

6.37 106

0 .9

1.60 104 ms-1

52