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International Journal of
Organic Agriculture Research & Development
i
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
Editor-in-Chief: Dr. T.I. Olabiyi (Nigeria)
Editorial Address: Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ladoke
Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
E-mail: t.olabiyi@yahoo.co.uk
Founder: Dr. T.I. Olabiyi
Founded: 1 December 2007
Website: http:/www.organicjournal.org
Affiliation: International Journal of Organic Agriculture Research & Development is an
official organ of the Nigerian Organic Agriculture Network
Deputy Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Michelina Ruocco (Italy)
Technical Editor: Mr. Dave Dawson (UK)
Editorial Board Members: Prof. Philip J.C. Harris (UK); Dr. Anton Rosenfeld (UK); Dr.
Julia Wright (UK); Dr. David Pearson (Australia); Prof. Maurizio Canavari (Italy); Prof.
Balestra Giorgio (Italy); Dr. Henrik Egelyng (Denmark); Dr. Bill Sciarappa (USA); Renee
Ciulla (USA); Dr. M.A. Wahab Mahmoud (Egypt); Prof. J.O. Babatola (Nigeria); Prof. G.
Adeoye (Nigeria); Prof. A.B. Ogunwale (Nigeria); Prof. J.I. Olaifa (Nigeria); Prof. A.A.
Odunsi (Nigeria); Dr. F. Vinale (Italy); Dr. S. Lanzuise (Italy); Dr. S. Woo (Italy); Dr. R.
Maria (Italy); Prof. V.I.O. Olowe (Nigeria); Dr. E.E. A. Oyedunmade (Nigeria); Dr. J.J.
Atungwu (Nigeria); Dr. Oluwagbenga Ade-Oluwa (Nigeria); Dr. B. E. Sambo (Nigeria); Dr.
W.B. Akanbi (Nigeria); Dr. J.O. Olaniyi (Nigeria); Dr. J.A. Akinlade (Nigeria); Dr. I.A.
Emiola (Nigeria); Dr. Martina. R. Polepole (Tanzania); Dr. Merius E. Nzalawahe (Tanzania);
Dr. Hatem Chehidi (Tunisia); Dr. Petra Bakewell-Stone (Tanzania); Dr. Ferhunde Altindishi
(Turkey); Dr. Maria L. Dindo (Italy); Dr. Sadreddine Beji (Tunisia); Dr. Castillo Pablo
(Spain); Mumshimbwe Chitalu (Zambia); Dr E. C. Odion (Nigeria); Prof. M.C. Ofoh
(Nigeria); Prof. M. Lorito (Italy); Dr. Liz Trenchard (UK); Dr. James Bennet (UK); Prof. Ralp
Noble (UK); Dr. M. Al-Oun (Jordan).
SCOPE OF THE JOURNAL: IJOARD covers the following study areas: Organic
apiculture; Organic crop production; Agricultural economics, rural development and organic
agriculture; Organic agriculture & animal production; Organic food security; Organic food
quality, preservation, production, processing, conditioning and packaging; Education and
Organic agriculture; Organic aquaculture; Soil Science and Organic Agriculture; Soil fertility
building; Soil Health and Care; Soil management and Conservation; Pedology and Organic
Agriculture; Crop protection and Organic agriculture; Organic markets; Organic agriculture
and tourism; Organic agriculture, biodiversity and nature conservation; weed science and
organic agriculture; Women in organic agriculture; Organic seed production; Bio fuel
production in organic agriculture; Organic horticulture; Potentials of climate change and
organic agriculture; Organic cosmetics, body care and ecological detergent production;
Government and public support policies, and organic regulations; Convention process in
organic agriculture; Manure and compost production, application and technology; Organic
agriculture, human health and safety.
Editorial correspondence, books for review, news, e.t.c. should be sent to the Editor-in-
Chief.
Subscription should be sent to Editor-in-Chief
Publisher: OLA Publisher, Idi Oro, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria.
(C) 2010 IJOARD
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International Journal of Organic Agriculture Research and Development
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ABSTRACT
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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INTRODUCTION
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RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
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this circumstance, the paper can focus the problems on how to improve
the production model. The research thus enables a comparison between
the past standard of organic grazing livestock farming from the EEC-
Regulation (1804/99) and the actual conditions of grazing livestock in
Xinjiang.
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damaged. Further, the aggregate regional income has been increased with
the development of the mining economy and, predictably, food demand
and consumption have also increased. According to our research, with an
income increase of 1%, the consumption will rise by 1.23%; price rise
1%, the consumption only drop by 0.529. In a region such as Xinjiang,
food demand is price inelastic and income elastic. The results show that
consumption has strong relationship with the income, and is not very
sensitive to changes in the price.
Under these circumstances, they can improve their income by two ways.
One is to improve the productivity by the application of appropriate
technology (breeding, feeding and productivity). The second is to enlarge
the scale of breeding. The former is regarded commonly as the more
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Coefficient 0.0331 0.0542 0.0577 0.0549 0.0473 0.0392 0.0255 0.0166 0.0090 0.0187 0.0004
of risk
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Xiyong et al., 2004). There is no doubt that these policies have proved
effective to some extent.
However, most of these policies have constrained the herders’
mobility. Constriction of mobility is associated with development
interventions to settle nomadic pastoralists into ranches, encroachment of
rangelands by other forms of land-use such as cultivation and
conservation, increasing population densities in rangeland areas, and the
proliferation of water points, often accompanied by settlements. Some
research shows that the reduction of mobility of herders in semi-arid and
arid pastoral systems has increased the risk of degradation because of the
way it concentrates grazing pressure on the resource and reduces the
opportunities for resting parts of the vegetation (e.g. Coughenour, 1991;
Perkins and Thomas, 1993; Oba et al., 2000; Fernandez-Gimenez and
Swift, 2003; Kerven et al., 2003). In sparsely populated arid areas,
grazing impact is often concentrated in biospheres or ‘sacrifice zones’
around water points or settlements (Perkins and Thomas, 1993; Sullivan,
1999; Leggett et al., 2003).
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Animal feedstuffs ---Up to 25% conventional feed in a daily ration --->80% natural feed;
---Antibiotics and other additives are forbidden in ---Hormones, growth promoters and
regular feedstuffs as well as the use of hormones other additives never be used in
and growth promoters raising.
Housing conditions ---Allow farm animal to perform all aspects of ---Most of time livestock are fed
their innate behaviour; through grazing on pasture. Their
---Dry litter for their bedding; house is big enough for moving freely;
---Tethering of farm animal is forbidden. ---Application of dry litter for bedding;.
---Generally speaking, sheep are
never tethered.
Disease prevention ---Selection of breeds with abilities to resistance ---In Xinjiang native breeds are well
to disease, to avoid specific disease or health problems, adapted to local situation. being
which prevail in conventional livestock production. hardy, resistant to diseases;
---Livestock should be raised in a manner which suits ---Grazing in the natural pasture; It is
the requirements of the species and promotes a good the best way for native breeds;
resistance against diseases and infections. --- In general, the phenomenon of
---Application of good quality feeds, which together overcrowding does not exist.
with application of outdoor areas and grazing
strengthen the natural immune system of the animal.
---Securing a suitable space allowance in order to
prohibit overcrowding and associated health problems.
Veterinary ---Non-allopathic medicine should be chosen prior to In general, the cost of animal
treatment allopathic medicine; medicine is very low in grazing system
---Preventive treatments with allopathic medicine are in Xinjiang. One reason is the native
not allowed; breeds have good natural immune
---Keep a log of all veterinary treatment use of disease system; the other is that the
control agents; transhumance has influence on the
---It is not allowed for an adult animal to receive treatment immediately.
allopathic medicine more than three times during the
year.
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long as there are no other factors that drive such nomadic herders to
desperate measures (such as drought, animal disease etc).
(3) The potential market for organic food is very big in China
China has a very big domestic market with striking trends of growth of
demand with respect to various foods. Consumers’ ideas have changed
significantly. Food safety has been a major concern recently with issues
of pesticide contamination to the fore. More and more consumers do not
satisfy only their basic need, but begin to pursue a wider diet. There are
also clear policy drivers for increasing food safety.
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organic food is the benefits to health, and the perceived high quality.
That is to say, it is very important that consumers believe that organic
food is of better quality than conventional food. This relies on the system
of quality guarantee.
Generally speaking, there is a quality assurance system in the
slaughterhouse to prevent any contaminated diseased meat product
entering the market in Xinjiang. It is not enough just to control the
quality during breeding, feeding, fattening and transport. The systems
need to be in place all along the food supply chain from common pasture
to chopstick (or field to fork in Euro-parlance).
CONCLUSIONS
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without further market research and action research on how to effect the
full transformation to organic agriculture.
REFERENCES:
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Appendix A
This study used a projection pursuit regression (PPR) which was newly
developed in the last 20 years. This is mainly because that PPR can solve
the problem of “dimension curse” which may be caused by the non-
linear, non-normal data and conventional regression technique. The basic
idea of PPR is to project high-dimensional data to low-dimensional space
and to look for a meaningful projection direction by computer constantly
so that data in these projection directions can show the structural features
of the original data. Thus we can study and analyze high-dimensional
data by the analysis of the data structure in low-dimension space. PPR
model and its implementation are as follows: Let X=(x1,x2,…xp)is a
p-dimensional random variable, y=f(x) is a one-dimension random
variables. To avoid the contradiction that linear regression does not
reflect the actual nonlinear situation, PPR takes the sum of a series of
Ridge functions of Gm (Z) to approach the regression function.
M M
f ( x) mGm( Zm) mGm( m X )
m 1 m 1
of which, GM (Zm) is the m Ridge function
Zm= mx1+ m2x2+…+ mpxp is Ridge function variables, it represents
the projection of p-dimensional vector X in the direction of m . m is
also a p-dimensional vector in a certain direction. m is the number of the
Ridge function βm is the weight coefficient of the m Ridge function’s
contribution to f(x).
the key is the ultimate model of the estimated coefficients mj
and βm in the formula, Gm Ridge function and the optimization number
Mu. The discriminant of the minimum of the model still use least-squares
criteria, that is to say, we should select appropriate parameters of mj
and βm Gm(z) and combination to satisfy the following formula:
Mu p
L2 E[ y mGm mjxj ]2 min
m 1 j 1
The specific practice is to divide the whole parameters into
several groups, with the exception of one group, give an initial set, and
then optimize the parameters of the group left. The results obtained, set
the extreme point as the initial value, and ten optimize another group of
parameters in this initial value, repeated until the convergence of
parameters. That is to say, mj , j 1,2 , p; m , G m can be induced in
one group, m=1,2,…, M; There are total M groups. Fix one M-1 for a
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group, only optimize mj ' m and Gm( z ) is the group. Now divide it
into three sub-groups to optimize again, and then repeat this process until
L2 no longer decrease.
Appendix B
The paper defines risk as a king of uncertainty which bring loss
to producer. So that coefficient of risk can be calculated by the
formulation as following:
yi yi ei
r
Y Y
Which, r is the coefficient of risk; Y is the value of production
forecasted; Y is the average of sample; ei yi y 0
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ABSTRACT
Two-season field trials were conducted between 2004 and 2006 at the vegetable
research plots of the National Horticultural Research Institute Ibadan, Oyo state,
Nigeria to evaluate the effect of intercropping Telfairia occidentalis
cv.EN2000-25 with okra cv. NHAe47-4 and pepper NHV1A on the
populations of nematode pests of these vegetables. Raised seedlings of root-
knot nematode-susceptible T. occidentalis and root-knot nematode-tolerant
pepper varieties were each nursed and transplanted at 2 and 6 weeks
respectively. Okra seeds were sown directly after transplanting Telfairia and
pepper. The experimental layout was in each case a 4 x 2 factorial fitted into a
randomized complete block design with three replications. Sole cropping of
Telfairia served as the control treatment. The result shows significantly high
population of the nematodes in sole Telfairia plots, Telfairia/okra as well as
staked and unstaked Telfairia/okra/pepper mixtures. Lower population of the
nematodes in the soil and root of plants as well as the number of eggs were
observed in Telfairia/pepper intercrop. Root- knot rating was also significantly
lower. Sole Telfairia and Telfairia/pepper intercrop recorded the highest shoot
yield. Pod weight was heaviest in Telfairia/pepper intercrop. Yield of okra was
significantly different in staked Telfairia/pepper/okra mixtures while the lowest
value occurred in unstaked Telfairia/okra intercrop. The number and weight of
pepper fruits in Telfairia/pepper intercrop was superior to the values observed in
Telfairia/pepper/okra mixture. The interaction between cropping system and
staking method indicated that staked Telfairia/pepper intercrop exerted the
highest suppressive effect on Meloidogyne incognita populations while
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INTRODUCTION
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number of leaf and fresh leaf weight. Five nematode assays were
conducted in each plot (using 5 tagged plants) at four-week intervals in
each year. Soil nematode population was assessed from composite 200
ml soil samples collected from around the root zone of each individual
plant in each plot. Root-nematode populations were determined from
replicated 5g weight of root samples using the method described by Byrd
et al., (1983). The uprooted root systems were also rated for gall
development using the method of Barker (1978) viz: 0 = immune; 1 =
highly resistance; 2 = resistant; 3 = moderately susceptible; 4 =
susceptible; 5 = highly susceptible. The eggs were extracted using the
methods of Hussey and Barker (1973) while the eggs were counted in a
counting dish using a triple tatty counter. Pods of T. occidentalis were
harvested at maturity. Yield data form pepper and okra in the trials were
recorded. The two-year data were pooled and subjected to analysis of
variance (ANOVA) test using the SAS (1985) package.. The means
were separated using the Fisher’s Least Significant Difference at 5%
probability level.
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On Table 2a, the length of vine and numbers of leaves among the
treatments were not statistically at variance. Sole Telfairia plots and
Telfairia/pepper mixture recorded the heaviest shoot weight while the
lowest value occurred in Telfairia/okra and Telfairia/okra/pepper
mixture. Total shoot weight and number of pods significantly increased
from unstaked to staked intercropping systems compared to sole
cropping. These results justify the assertion that vegetative and
reproductive growth is enhanced when more leaves are exposed to
sunlight especially if such plants are staked (Vandermeer, 1989). Staking
provides the plant with opportunity to explore sunlight and enhance
assimilation of photosynthates (Vandermeer, 1989, Innis, 1997). This is
suggestive that staking confers some advantages to the plant than when
the plants were not staked. It is also possible that competition in
Telfairia/okra under no-staking condition encouraged crowdedness of
crops thus limiting aerial advantage and exposure to light intensity,
consequently reducing growth and yield performance of T . occidentalis
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On table 2b, Telfairia and okra used in this study are both
susceptible to the root-knot nematode. Their host status encouraged high
population build-up thus their effect on plant growth and development
translated to suppressed shoot growth and pod yield as opposed to the
observation in Telfairia/pepper mixture where the tolerant pepper
provided some level of protection to the main crop. This observation
may also be true for the significant observations made on some
parameters in Telfairia/pepper intercrop. The low values obtained in
most of the parameters as well as the high level of root damaged
evidenced by high root-knot rating of Telfairia/pepper/okra intercrop
presupposes that the intercropping model did not provide any protection
for Telfairia against infection, This observation suggests that growing M.
incognita susceptible okra in association with T. occidentalis in the field
naturally infested with the nematodes has some detrimental
consequences for yield of T. occidentalis. The decline in growth and
yield characters with increasing nematode populations strongly suggests
that the reduction in growth and yield attributes of these vegetables
resulted from population pressures to which the plants were exposed.
The earlier findings of Nwanguma (2002) and Nwanguma et al., (2005)
corroborate these findings.
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Table 3a: Effect of cropping system and staking method on growth and
yield of Telfairia occidentalis in Telfairia/okra/pepper mixture.
Staking Cropping Vine Fresh Leaf wt No. of Pod wt.
Method system length shoot wt. (g) pod (Kg)
(m) (Kg)
Staked SoleTelfairia 27.14a 27.14a 656.2b 9.66b 9.66b
Telfairia / pepper 29.06a 29.06a 768.10a 9.66b 9.66b
Telfairia/ okra 26.64ab 26.64ab 699.42ab 8.33b 8.33b
Telfairia/pepper/okra 31.33a 31.33a 675.45b 7.33bc 7.33bc
Unstaked Sole Telfairia 28.62a 28.62a 748.00b 6.66c 6.66c
Telfairia/pepper 22.73b 22.73b 821.20a 12.33a 12.33a
Telfairia/okra 22.57b 22.57b 554.30b 4.66c 4.66c
Telfairia/okra/pepper 25.85b 25.85b 734.09a 5.00c 5.00c
Means with the same letter in the column do not differ significantly at
5% probability level
Table 3b: Effect of cropping system and staking method on growth and
yield of Telfairia occidentalis in Telfairia/okra/pepper mixture
Staking Cropping system No of Soil nematode Root Root knot
Method eggs/5g pop./200ml nematode rating
root Soil pop./5g root (1-5)
Staked Sole Telfairia 2046bc 800.00b 17c 3.2b
Telfairia/ pepper 614c 103.33c 7e 2.4c
Telfairia / okra 4463b 666.66b 10d 2.7c
Telfairia/pepper/okra 5560a 1500.00a 25a 4.21a
Means with the same letter in the column do not differ significantly at
5% level of probability
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REFERENCES
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ABSTRACT
Crop rotation and soil fertility building schemes were assessed on some
organic farms in England between August, 2007 and June, 2008. A total
of 20 farmers in Cambridgeshire, Coventry, Leicestershire, Lancashire,
Herefordshire, Somerset and Warwickshire were consulted on crop
rotation and soil fertility building in organic systems. Crops with
different rooting depths were grown in rotation scheme. Major crops on
rotation by the organic farmers in the study areas were potato, cabbage,
parsnips, leeks, salads, cauliflower, broccoli, sweet corn, wheat, barley,
cucurbits, French beans, beets, chards, carrots, onion, spinach and broad
bean. The most common novel legume often planted as soil fertility
building was red clover; others include sweet clover, subterranean
clover, yellow trefoil, crimson clover, lucerne and persian clover.
Perennial rye grass was the only grass commonly grown with the novel
legumes during the soil fertility period which varies from one to two
years. Crop rotation varied widely between farms and was market driven.
Farmers with livestock had much longer grass clover leys since the
animals that grazed on them provided additional source of income. The
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medium (6 to 7 years) and long term (12 years) crop rotation schemes
were the common practices.
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INTRODUCTION
the soil for up to two or three years, even without any suitable host
(Guerena, 2006). Inclusion of leguminous crops into crop rotation is very
essential for soil fertility building in organic farming system (Nunis and
Harlock, 2005).
There were different organic farms with different soil fertility
schemes in England. One keeps on wondering why this is so, bearing in
mind that these organic farmers have the same aim for practising crop
rotation and soil fertility building. This study was therefore designed to
(a) check the base line information on crop rotation and soil fertility
building schemes being practised (b) to examine the advantages and
uniqueness of different crop rotation and soil fertility building schemes
at different organic farms (c) to document the lapses (if any) in crop
rotation and soil fertility building schemes presently in practice and to
make appropriate recommendations.
RESULTS
Year 2 Potatoes
Year 4 Leeks
Year 5 Salads
Year 11 Carrots
Year 12 Onions
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Figure IV: Model crop rotation pattern from farmers` interviewed (31.2%)
Broccoli (1 year) Rye grass + clover leys (1year) Potato (1 year) Leeks (1 year)
Sweet corn / celery /wheat (1 year) Rye grass + clover leys (1 year)
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DISCUSSION
depth and returning them to the soil when the plant dies. Although, some
of the organic farmers were apprehensive of soil borne nematode
diseases on their farms, none of them had ever encountered any soil
borne nematode disease on the farms. This is in conformity with Van
Bruggen (1995) and Litherick et al (2002) who reported that in organic
system, pest and disease are not significant problem since it involves
holistic approach. Lampkin (2002) stated that pest and disease do not
contribute any significant problem in a well established organic system,
although certain specific problems do require remedial action. This stems
from the fact that a healthy plant, given optimal soil conditions and
balanced nutrition, will be better able to resist pest and pathogen.
Diseases occur mostly when organism, plant or animal (livestock) is
stressed or their environment is unbalanced (Lampkin, 2002).
The medium and long term crop rotation schemes are quite
impressive and capable of suppressing the spread and multiplication of
soil-borne pathogens. Alternating susceptible and non-host with fallow
period of soil fertility building (planting of leys and novel legumes
mixture) appeared to be successful, effective and long lasting strategy of
breaking the life cycle of the virulent soil borne pathogenic organisms
(nematodes, fungi and bacteria). Appropriate crop rotation put in place as
reported by all the farmers might disallow the spread and multiplication
of the soil inhabiting pathogenic organsms. Welsh et al., (2002) reported
that crop rotation helps to maintain soil fertility and achieve weed, pest
and disease control in organic farming. Guerena (2006) was of the
opinion that crop rotation involving non-host crop is often adequate by
itself to prevent nematode population from reaching economically
damaging levels. Rotating family related crops might not control
nematode population, for example rotating pumpkin and cucumber.
However, rotating crops which are not in the same family significantly
reduced the multiplication rate of soil pathogenic organisms, such as
nematodes. For example, pumpkin and bell pepper; or asparagus, corn,
onions, garlic, small grains, cahaba white vetch, and nova vetch; or
sesame, cotton, peanuts and soybeans are good rotation crops to reduce
root knot nematode population below economic level. Crotalaria, velvet
beans, and grasses like rye are usually resistant to nematodes especially
root knot nematodes (Yepsen, 1984, Peet, 1996, Anonymous, 1997,
Wang et al., 2004).
Crops with a high nutrient demand, such as potatoes and
cabbage, are placed immediately after a fertility-building period, with
less nutrient-demanding crops, such as carrots and onions, placed later in
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novel legumes as leys by the farmers would restore soil fertility and also
make the soil healthy, which is an added advantage to the field crops.
This corroborates earlier findings of Lampkin (2002) and Stockdale et
al., (2002) who reported that the presence of leys in the crop rotation
scheme allows soil fertility to be restored, particularly in term of organic
matter and nitrogen. Soil fertility enhances crop growth and
development, and also makes crop to be resistant to disease conditions.
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Amosu, J.O. (1982). Cropping systems for control of root knot nematodes.
Proceedings of the 3rd Res. Plan. Conf. Root-knot Nematodes,
Meloidogyne spp., Ibadan. International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria, pp 254-258. Raleigh: NC State University
Graphic 275pp
Anonymous (1997). Sesame rotation controls nematodes and provides
Alabama a new cash crop.
www.ag.auburn.edu/aaes/communications/highlightsonline/spring97/in
dex.html Highlights of Agricultural Research 44(1), pages 1-9
Anonymous (2001). Oil radish green manure continues promise against
nematodes. The Grower, pages 1-7
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Ball-Coelho, B.A., Bruin, A.J., Roy, R.C. & Riga, E. (2003). Forage pearl
millet and marigold as rotation crops for biological control of root
lesion nematodes in potato. Agronomy Journal 95(2): 282-292
Baur, M.E., Kaya, H.K., Peng, Y.S & Jiang, J. (1995). Non-susceptibility of
the Honey Bee, Apis Mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae), to
Steinernematid and Heterorhabditid nematodes. Journal of Nematology
27(3): 378-381
Bridge, J. (1996). Nematode management in sustainable and subsistence
agriculture. Annual Review of Phytopathology 34: 201-225
Bridge, J. & Page, S.L.J. (1982). Plant nematodes of Papua New Guinea:
Their importance as crop pests. Report of a plant nematode survey in
Papua New Guinea. St. Albans, UK: CAB Commonwealth Institute of
Parasitology. 91 pp
Brown, P.D. & Morra, M.J. (1997). Control of soil borne plant pests using
glucosinolate containing plants. In: Donald, L.S. (ed.) Advanced
Agronomy, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 61: 167-215
Gosling, P. & Rayns, F. (2005). Fertility Building. In Organic Vegetable
Production: A complete Guide. Edited by Davies, G and Lennartsson,
M., in association with the Henry Doubleday Research Association,
UK. pp. 67-98.
Guerena, M. (2006). Nematodes: Alternative Controls. A publication of
ATTRA – National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service, 1-
800-346-9140. Driscoll, P. (eds), Page 1-16. www.attra.ncat.org/attra-
pub/PDF/nematodes.pdf
Ingham, E. (1996). The soil food web: Its importance in ecosystem health,
pages 1-13. http://rain.org:80/~sals/ingham.html
Kratochvil, R.S., Sardanelli, S., Everts, K., & Gallagher, E. (2004).
Evaluation of crop rotation and other cultural practices for management
of root knot and lesion nematodes. Agronomy Journal 96(5): 1419-
1428
Lampkin, N.H. (2002). Organic farming. Old Pond Publishing: Ipswich, UK.
First Edition reprinted with amendments. 701pp
Litherick, A.M, Watson, C.A. & Atkinson, D. (2002). Crop protection in
Organic Agriculture: A simple matter? In Powel et al (eds) UK Organic
Research 2002. Proceeding of COR conference, 26 – 28th March, 2002.
Aberystwyth. 203 - 206
Mal, W.F. & Lyon, H.H. (1975). Pictorial key to genera of plant parasitic
nematodes. Cornel University Press. Ithaca and London, pp: 1-129
Mulvey, H.H. (1961). The Mononchidae: A family of predacious nematodes
1. Genus Mylonchulus (Enoplida: Mononchidae). Canadian Journal of
Zoology 39: 665-696
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1
Federal College of Forestry Mechanization, P.M.B. 2273, Afaka,
Kaduna – Nigeria.
2
Department of Agronomy, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu
Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Samaru, Zaria – Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
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insects and much insect damage on grapevine fruits that were not treated
(control). The results also show that there were improved grapevine
growth and yield as compared with retarded growth and low yield of
grapevine in the control. The treatment combinations of NSE and NLS
recorded a 79% higher fruit yield (kg plant-1) over the control; and 48%
and 68% respectively over those treated with NSE and NLS. The neem
seed and leaf combination (NSE + NLS) was concluded to be most
effective in controlling the various insect pest complexes of the
grapevine; resulting in better crop growth and fruit yield.
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INTRODUCTION
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known that the neem tree withstood the periodic attacks of locusts.
Consequently, the Indian scientists took up neem research as way back
as 1920’s, but their work was little appreciated elsewhere until 1959
when a German scientist noticed a locust plague in the Sudan. During
this onslaught of billions of winged marauders, he noticed that the neem
tree was the only green plant left standing. On closer investigation he
observed that although the locust settled on the trees in swarms, they
always left without feeding on the neem tree. Since then, entomologists
have discovered that the neem plant extract can affect more than 200
species of insects as well as mites, nematodes, fungi, bacteria and even
some viruses (FAO, 1991; Sofowara, 1982; Neem, 1992).
Neem oil has been reportedly used to protect stored corn,
sorghum, beans and other stored grains or foods against pest for up to ten
months in certain controlled experiments and field trails. For instance, in
one such trial in which one-half of several soybean leaves were sprayed
with neem oil extracts and placed in a container with Japanese beetles,
the treated half remained untouched, but within 48 hours, the other half
were consumed right down to their woody veins. In another similar test
in the U.S.A, soybean sprayed with neem oil stayed unaffected for up to
14 days, while the untreated plant in the same field were chewed to
shreds by various insect species overnight. They attributed this observed
phenomenon to the substance azadirichtin, which was responsible for
stopping the many insect species from even touching their most
favorable plants. This substance found in the neem oil extracts, they
noted, is a very powerful repellant (Neem, 1992; Yusuf, 1998).
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administrators, very little work has been done and documented to assist
farmers in the knowledge of the numerous useful applications of the
neem. However, with the recent resurgence of resistance to the present
chemical control measures in place and the growing concern about the
sustainability of current pest control practices involving the use of highly
toxic chemicals with all the attendant implications; the versatile and
resilient neem tree offers organic great potential and hope for the
protection against the insect pest complex of grapevines and other fruit
tree crops; thus enhancing crop productivity. No doubt, the plant
kingdom is a source of potentially, organically powerful agents in pest
control management. The objective of this research is therefore to assess
the effects of neem extracts on the insect pests of grapevine.
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Jan. NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Feb. NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Mar. NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Apr. NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
May NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
June 54.2 32.2 33.4 27.9 80.8 73.4 76.6 7.5
Jul. 243.1 30.3 22.4 26.4 81.3 69.3 75.3 NA
Aug. 427.1 29.5 22.2 25.9 83.9 72.9 78.4 NA
Sept. 219.5 30.7 23.2 26.9 79.7 63.9 71.8 NA
Oct. 65.1 32.6 22.2 27.4 71.7 49.7 60.4 6.1
Nov. NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Dec. NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Total: 1019.0 155.3 123.4 134.5 397.4 329.2 362.5
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Physical Composition
% Sand 50
% Silt 30
% Clay 20
Textural class Sandy loam.
Chemical Composition
pH in H2O (1:2.5) 6.20
pH in 0.01 CaCl2 (1:2.5) 6.00
Organic Carbon (%) 0.25
Total Nitrogen (%) 0.05
Available Phosphorous (mg kg1) 4.29
Exchangeable bases (Cmol kg-1)
Ca 0.53
Mg 0.36
K 0.31
Na 0.44
CEC 5.00
H+Al 0.40
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noted to affect its growth and vigor (Roland, 1998; Neem, 1992).
Therefore, it could be said that the medium K-status of the soil of the
study site was instrumental to the observed sustained good growth of the
neem tree. This is supportive of the reasons why the neem tree is seen to
thrive well in the dry, hot, infertile soils of the semi-arid (desert) regions
of Africa and the world generally.
Table 3 shows result on the efficacy of the neem tree extract on
the control and preponderance of insect pest complex of the grapevine.
There was no difference between the control and other treatment (singly
and combination) in the pre-treatment observations of the preponderance
of insect pests on the grapevine.
7 DAS 14 DAS
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Table 4: Efficacy of the Neem tree extract on the foliage damage caused
by the insect pest complex on the grapevine at Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria; in
2004 – 2005
7 DAS 14 DAS
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Control 8.67c
NSE 22.00b
NLS 15.00b
NSE+NLS 42.00a
Significance **
LSD (0.05) 9.52
C.V (%) 9.49
Means followed by the same letter(s) in the same column of any set of
treatment are not significantly different at 5% level of probability using
the least significant difference (LSD) Test.
DAS = Days After Spraying NSE = Neem Seed Extract
NS = Not Significant NLS = Neem Leaf Suspension
** = Highly Significant Control = No treatment applied
NSE+NLS = Combination of both treatments
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CONCLUSION
From the findings of this study, it can be deduced that the sole
application of neem seed extract (NSE) and neeem leaf suspension
(NLS) was found to be effective in managing the spiraling whitefly and
mealy bugs and also deterred the activity of grasshoppers and scarabid
beetles on grapevine. However, the combination of NSE and NLS was
observed to have an effective impact in managing the various insect pest
problems in grapevine production, with resultant enhanced crop growth
and fruit yield. This offers an easily affordable, organically based option
for the control of insect pests on grapevine. This could also have
concomitant effect on the growth and yield enhancement; sustainable
eco-friendly environment for healthier foods consumption and “safe to
eat crop production”.
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REFERENCES
Armes, N.J; Jadhav, D.R.; Bond, G.S. and King, A.B.S. 1992. Insecticide
resistant Helicoverpa armigera in South India. Pesticide Science 34:
355 – 364.
F.A.O. 1991. Trees for life: A publication for the 10th World Food Day.
Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome. 26pp.
Rankin, T. 1986. ABCs of insect pests. 125pp. In: Natural crop protection
based on local farm in the tropics and sub-tropics. Stoll, G.(ed.).
Langen, Germany, Josef Margraf.
Watts, R. 1998. Neem: the natural solution. African Farming and Food
Processing Magazine, March/April 1998. 131pp.
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Yusuf, S. 1998. Extraction of Neem Oil and Cake and their Uses. A
seminar paper presented to the Department of Biological Sciences,
Usman Danfodio Universiry, Sokoto, Nigeria.
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ABSTRACT
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INTRODUCTION
Agronomic measurement
RESULTS
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The pod dry weight, number of pod and husk dry weight of
soybean were increased in sole cropping system and the treatment NP
fertilizer gave the highest husk dry weight. The interaction effect on the
pod dry weight and number of pod was best in NP treatment both in
mixed and sole cropping systems, while the husk dry weight was best in
the dual inoculation (MBRH) both sole and mixed cropping systems
(Table 3).
The sole cropping system increased the seed dry weight and
number of seeds while the mixed cropping system increased the 100 seed
weight. Treatment NP fertilizer significantly (P<0.05) improved the seed
dry weight, number of seed and 100 seed weight when compared with
the other treatments. In the interaction effect NP fertilizer increased the
grain yield parameters when compared with other treatments (Table 4)
The plant height and leaf area of cassava were better improved in
mixed cropping system while the number of leaf was better enhanced in
sole cropping system. The treatment effect was also increased in NP
fertilizer and least in control in the growth parameters studied. Plant
height, number of leaves and leaf area were best in treatments NP in the
interactions effects (Table 5)
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Treatment
NP 59.10 38.76 22.00
MBRH 47.88 36.52 17.83
MB 46.50 34.02 17.16
RH 46.45 27.41 16.66
ZERO 45.43 16.22 16.50
LSD 3.57 0.75 1.23
SE (DF) 0.53 (18) 0.11 (18) 0.26 (20)
Cropping X Treatment
Mixed MB 47.70 32.33 17.67
MBRH 48.70 35.84 18.33
NP 58.46 37.33 21.67
RH 46.80 25.94 17.00
ZERO 46.73 15.25 16.32
Sole MB 45.30 35.71 16.67
MBRH 47.06 37.19 17.33
NP 59.73 40.19 22.33
RH 46.10 28.88 16.33
ZERO 44.13 17.20 15.40
LSD (P=0.05) 3.57 0.75 1.73
SE (DF) 0.53 (18) 0.11 (18) 0.26 (20.)
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Treatment Pod dry wt/ plant (g) Number of pod/plant Husk dry wt/plant(g)
Cropping System
Mixed 7.31 13.66 2.60
Sole 7.84 15.00 2.84
LSD(0.05) 0.52 2.83 0.18
SE (DF) 0.10 (20) 0.67 (20) 0.04 (20)
Treatment
NP 12.03 17.33 3.85
MBRH 10.37 15.83 4.65
MB 7.94 14.50 2.26
RH 5.30 12.83 1.95
ZERO 2.23 11.16 0.89
LSD(0.05) 0.42 2.83 0.18
SE (DF) 0.06 (20) 0.42 (20) 0.02 (20)
Cropping x Treatment
Mixed MB 7.61 13.67 2.17
MBRH 9.94 15.00 4.44
NP 11.59 16.67 3.72
RH 4.99 12.33 1.84
ZERO 2.41 10.67 0.84
Sole MB 8.28 15.33 2.36
MBRH 10.81 16.67 4.86
NP 12.47 18.00 4.00
RH 5.62 13.33 2.07
ZERO 2.05 11.67 0.95
LSD (P=0.05) 0.42 2.83 0.18
SE (DF) 0.06 (20) 0.42 (20) 0.02 (20.)
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Treatment Seed dry weight Number of seed/plant 100 seed weight (g)
Cropping system
Mixed 4.64 28.46 15.50
Sole 5.13 29.86 14.70
LSD 0.31 2.34 0.31
SE (DF) 0.025 (20) 0.56 (20) 0.07 (20)
Treatment
NP 8.08 39.33 20.04
MBRH 5.70 35.50 15.63
MB 5.54 33.66 15.35
RH 3.44 22.50 13.64
ZERO 1.67 14.83 10.83
LSD (0.05) 0.31 2.34 0.31
SE (DF) 0.047 (20) 0.355 (20) 0.048 (20)
Cropping x Treatment
Mixed MB 5.32 33.00 15.19
MBRH 5.46 35.00 15.46
NP 7.64 37.67 19.31
RH 3.24 22.00 12.85
ZERO 1.57 10.67 10.70
Sole MB 5.78 34.33 15.52
MBRH 5.94 36.00 15.80
NP 8.54 41.00 20.77
RH 3.64 23.00 14.44
ZERO 1.77 15.00 10.97
LSD (P=0.05) 0.31 2.34 0.31
SE (DF)0.047 (20) 0.355 (20) 0.048 (20.)
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Treatment
NP 108.36 76.83 84.11
MBRH 96.60 67.66 73.72
MB 94.11 65.00 66.82
RH 70.36 59.50 61.19
Zero 60.95 51.83 57.42
LSD (P=0.05) 9.59 6.19 4.85
SE (DF=20) 1.44 0.93 0.73
Cropping x Treatment
Mixed MB 91.03 60.33 66.59
MBRH 90.76 61.32 70.35
NP 104.16 75.00 83.09
RH 67.10 53.66 60.68
Zero 55.80 50.00 55.80
Sole MB 97.20 69.66 67.05
MBRH 102.43 74.00 77.09
NP 112.56 78.66 85.12
RH 73.63 65.33 61.70
Zero 66.10 53.66 59.05
LSD (P=0.05) 9.59 6.19 4.88
SE (20) 1.44 0.93 0.73
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Treatment
NP 2.06 737.10 4.33
MBRH 1.86 662.73 4.16
MB 1.76 618.57 3.83
RH 1.53 368.25 3.33
Zero 1.50 345.68 3.00
LSD 0.14 36.71 0.76
SE (20) 0.02 5.56 0.11
Cropping x Treatment
Mixed MB 1.75 620.63 3.83
MBRH 2.07 647.47 4.17
NP 2.22 715.35 4.17
RH 1.45 404.65 3.50
Zero 1.42 337.60 3.00
Sole MB 2.02 791.03 3.83
MBRH 2.18 864.95 48.27
NP 2.53 966.97 4.33
RH 1.58 435.78 3.17
Zero 1.53 415.57 3.00
LSD 0.14 36.71 0.76
SE (DF=20) 0.02 5.56 0.11
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DISCUSSION
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with little on the components that made up the yield and these
components that made up the yield had been found to influence yield.
The yield components pod dry weight, number of pods and husk
dry weight of soybean in the mixed cropping system were reduced
relative to the components in sole cropping system and these were the
components which had major contribution on the final of these study.
Yield components were directly related to yield (Silwana et al., 2002). It
can therefore be deduced that lower grain yield of soybean under
intercropping with cassava can be attributed to reduced values of the
yield components of the crops under sole condition. This finding
highlighted the important of fertilizer whether chemical or biofertilizers
in the intercropping system involving soybean and cassava whether
grown sole or intercropped. The crops gave the lowest yield when no
fertilizer was applied. Similar results on the importance of fertilizer in
intercropping had been reported for maize/mungbean, maize/bean
intercrop and cassava/maize (Dhingra et al., 1991, Fininsa, 1997 and
Olasantan et al., 1997). In the crop mixture, soybean and cassava were
planted at the same time, hence soybean was fully established and
matured before cassava in the mixture was fully established.
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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REFERENCES
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ABSTRACT
Sweet potato (Solanum tuberosum), a staple tuber crop in Nigeria is known for
its resistance to drought, vigorous early growth and low input requirements.
Increase in population which has resulted to land shortages has led to reduction
in traditional methods of maintaining soil fertility. Technologies based on
combinations of organic and inorganic sources of fertilizer would produce
higher and more sustainable yields than either organic or inorganic fertilizer
alone or farmers’ indigenous management practices. Field trials to evaluate the
agronomic characters of two sweet potato varieties were conducted during the
raining seasons of 2004 and 2005 at the Institute for Agricultural Research
(IAR) Farm Samaru Zaria. The treatments were three rates of organic and
inorganic fertilizer, and two varieties of sweet potato. Effect of organic and
inorganic fertilizer application on vine length, number of leaves, number of
branches and total dry matter content of sweet potato were at par. Dan Zaria
however produced significantly more number of branches than Dan Bakalori,
which is attributed to differences in genetic composition of the sweet potato
varieties. Application of organic fertilizer increased the yield of sweet potato in
both years. Yield obtained from the variety Dan Bakalori was significantly
heavier than that obtained from Dan Zaria. Application of 4t/ha organic
fertilizer resulted in highest yield of sweet potato which was not significant The
result however suggests that further increase in organic fertilizer might lead to
increases in yield. This requires further long term studies.
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INTRODUCTION
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam) is believed to have its center of
origin in tropical America. The sweet potato was brought to Europe by
Columbus and subsequently introduced to Africa and Asia by Portuguese
and Spanish traders. The status of the sweet potato in most parts of the
tropics is that of a minor secondary crop. However, cultivation is
increasing as it gives high yields and requires minimum attention during
cultivation. According to FAO (2004) statistics world production is
127,000,000 tons. The majority comes from China with a production of
105,000,000 tons from 49,000km2 (FAO, 2004). Other Asian producing
countries include: Indonesia, Japan, Korea and Taiwan. Brazil is the
most important commercial grower, but sweet potatoes are mainly
consumed domestically and do not enter international trade either in the
fresh state or in a processed form.
In Africa, sweet potato is an important part of the staple diet of
the populations in tropical regions where it is grown up to an elevation of
2,000m. Nutritionally, sweet potatoes usually have rather higher protein
content than other tubers such as cassava and yams. Protein content
varies from 1 to 2.5 percent while carotene (precursors of vitamin A)
production is often present in yellow varieties. Sweet potatoes are
usually consumed without special processing. The fresh tuber is boiled,
baked, roasted or fried as chips, which may be sold as snacks or may be
salted and eaten like potato crisps. Sweet potato flour and starch may
also be prepared. The leaves of sweet potato is rich in carotene, vitamin
A and calcium are also a valuable addition to the diet. Sweet potato
varieties with dark orange flesh and richer in vitamin A than light fleshed
varieties and their increased cultivation is being encouraged in Africa
where vitamin A deficiency is a serious health problem. Sweet potatoes
are often considered a small farmer’s crop. However, in African
countries such as Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda, sweet potato is a staple
food. According to FAO (1990), Per-capita production in Burundi was
130kg.
In Africa, sweet potato is grown in abundance around upland
lakes in the East African Rift valley (Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi,
Tanzania, Kenya). It is also found in most African regions with large
variations in relief (Cameroon, Guinea, Madagascar) or where the dry
season is marked for cassava growing like in the Sudan-Sahelian fringe
or in North Africa. In Nigeria, sweet potato is grown in Sokoto, Zamfara,
Kebbi, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Gombe, Bauchi and parts of Plateau,
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Table 1: Physical and Chemical Properties of the soil at the site and
chemical composition of poultry manure at Samaru
Soil Physical Properties
Particle size distribution (%)
Clay 18.7
Silt 44.7
Sand 36.6
Textural class Loam
Chemical properties of the soil
pH in water 1:2.5 4.8
pH in cacl2 4.4
Organic carbon 0.42
Available P (PPM) 8.06
Total N (%) 0.073
Exchangeable bases (meg/100g soil)
Ca 0.58
Mg 0.32
K 0.23
Na 0.22
CEC. 6.2
Exchangeable acidity (meg/100g soil)
H+ Al 0.14
Poultry Manure
N 2.63
P 0.437
K 1.37
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The experiment was conducted during the rainy seasons of 2004 and
2005 at the Institute for Agricultural Research Farm, Ahmadu
Bello University, Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria (Lat 11o’N and
07o38’E and 686m altitude). The land was cleared, harrowed
and made into 0.75m row ridges. Two sweet potato varieties
were plantied. The sweet potato vines were obtained locally
from farmer in Milgoma town, Kaduna state, Nigeria. The two
varieties used were selected because they are most common
types cultivated in the locality “Dan Bakalori” or “Karas” is
yellow-orange skinned with orange flesh while “Dan Zaria” is
reddish-purple skinned with white flesh.
Individual plots consisted of four rows, 3m long and 0.7m apart
(main plot) while sub-plots consist of two inner rows, 3m long and
0.75cm apart. Intra row spacing was approximately 30cm. Treatments
consisted of two varieties of sweet potato, three rates of inorganic
fertilizer and three rates of organic fertilizer. All possible combinations
of the treatments were made and assigned in plots. The experimental
design was randomized complete block design with three replications.
Soil samples were collected from the site for analysis to determine soil
physical and chemical properties. Physical and chemical properties of the
soil from the experimental site and the inorganic fertilizer were analysis.
Inorganic fertilizer and organic fertilizers were applied at 2 and 4 weeks
after sprouting. The source of fertilizer was N:P:K 15:15:15 while the
source of inorganic fertilizer used was poultry manure. Experimental
plots were kept weed free by manual weeding.
Data were collected on vine length, number of branches and
number of leaves, total dry matter content and fresh tuber weight.
Yellowing and falling of leaves, and cracking of the soil were used as
maturity indicator for the sweet potato. The data collected was subjected
to analysis of variance (ANOVA), using the `F’ test as described by
Snedecor and Cochran (1967). Differences between the means were
partitioned using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (Duncan, 1955).
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Variety
Dan Bakalori 99.55 72.11 4.81b 104.14
Dan Zaria 111.29 77.85 5.96a 92.02
SE 4.980 3.059 0.360 8.054
Means followed by the same letter(s) within the same row or columns
are statistically similar at 5% level of significance
Table 3 shows the effect of inorganic and organic fertilizers on
the yield and yield parameter of the two sweet potato varieties. Yield of
sweet potato was not significantly affected by the application of
inorganic and organic fertilizer rates. However the two sweet potato
varieties used exhibited significant response to fertilizer rates where it
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Organic Fertilizer
(O t/ha)
2 5.878 0.661
4 6.033 0.783
6 6.350 0.850
SE 0.3508 0.1034
Variety
Dan Bakalori 6.715a 0.767
Dan Zaria 5.459b 0.763
SE 0.2864 0.0844
Means followed by the same letter(s) within the same row or column are
statistically similar at 5% level of significance
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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Mr Toma Iliya for his invaluable assistance
with the fieldwork and the Director IAR for permission to use the
research fields.
REFERENCES
Duncan, D.B.(1955).Multiple range and multiple F-test. Biometrics 11:
1-42 Food and nutrition paper No 20
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 1990.
Roots, tubers, plantains and bananas in human nutrition.
International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) 1992. Sustainable
food production in Sub-Saharan Africa 1.IITA’s contributions. IITA
Ibadan, Nigeria. 208pp
Janssens, M.J.J. (2001). Sweet Potatoes (Ipomoea batatas L) Lam. In
Crop Production in the tropical Africa. Romain H. Raemaekers ed p
205-220
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1
Department of Microbiology, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta,
Ogun State.
2
Department of Microbiology, Ogun State University, Ago Iwoye,
Ogun State.
3
Research & Development Centre, University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Ogun State.
ABSTRACT
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INTRODUCTION
The soybean seed used in this experiment was TGx-1448 collected from
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. The
Glomus sp. was isolated from sandy loamy soil collected from the
Teaching and Research farm University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun
State, Nigeria. The soil pH was 5.94. The soil was sieved by passing
through a 2mm sieve to remove coarse stones and extraneous materials.
Soils collected were divided into two batches. A batch of the soil was
steam sterilized for 2h at 120oC and left for 2 days before being planted
with soybean seeds in 10 kg soil in 15litre bucket. Another portion was
not sterilized. This was done to mimic and represent soil field condition.
Each pot is sown with 15 seeds that had been surface sterilized with 70%
ethanol. After germination the plants were thinned to 10 plants per pot.
All plants were grown under well watered conditions for 26 weeks
outside, under a maximum photosynthetically active radiation of
1500umol m 25-1 and average day/night temperature of 25-350C. Sixteen
pots were used, 8 pots contained sterilized soils while other 8 pots
contained unsterilised soil. Half of each set of pots were inoculated
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with 100 g each stock of Glomus sp. (1542 spores /100g of soil) and the
other half were uninoculated (control). Randomized complete block
design with three replications was used for the green house experiments.
Experimental measurement
Plant height (cm), leaf area (cm2), root length (cm), root weight (g)
number of nodules, dry matter of leaf, stem and root were determined at
21, 42, 63, 84 & 105 days after planting. Stem root and leaf dry weight
were oven dried to constant weight at 700C for 24h. The following
hormones, auxin, gibberellins and abscicic acid were determined by the
method Hogan and Scott, (1991). Twenty one day old fresh roots were
used for the hormone bio-assay.
100ml volumetric flask. The DDW was used to rinse the beaker and this
was made up to 100ml. The flask was covered, sealed with paraffin wax
and mixed well. The flask was labeled indicating the name of the growth
regulator, concentration and date of preparation. The stock solution
would give 0.1ml of growth regulator for each ml that would be pipette.
One gram of fresh weight 21 days old root sample was weighed into a
100ml beaker, 10ml of chloroform and 10ml methanol was added. The
mixture was allowed to stand for 1 hour and later filtered through a
Whatmann NO.2 filter paper into another 100ml beaker. The filtrate was
transferred into 250ml separating funnel and 10ml glacial acetic acid and
20ml warm distilled water was added to remove any aqueous
contaminants. The mixture was properly shaken until two layers
separated out. The organic layer was carefully siphoned out into a 30ml
centrifuge tube. This was corked until ready for reading on the
spectrophotometer. Concentrations of auxin ranging from 0-5ppm were
prepared from 100ppm standard auxin stock solution. One milliliter of
Williams reagent was added to sample extract and standards to develop
colour. A blank was also prepared. The absorbance of standards and
those of samples was measured on the spectrophotometer at a
wavelength of 510nm. The concentration of auxin in mg/100g was
obtained using the formula.
Determination of Gibberellins
One gram of fresh weight 21 days old root sample was weighed in a
100ml beaker, 10ml methanol and 20ml of 8% HCL in glacial acetic acid
were added and their mixture allowed to stand for 1 hour after which it
was filtered through a Whatmann NO. 2 filter paper into a 100ml beaker.
The filtrate was transferred into a 250ml separating funnel and 20ml of
propanol was added to totally remove the organic extract. Twenty
milliliter of warm distilled water was added to remove any aqueous
contaminant. The organic layer was carefully siphoned out into a 30ml
centrifuge tube and made ready for reading on a spectrophotometer. One
to five ppm (1:5ppm) of gibberellins was prepared from 100ppm
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One gram of fresh weight 21 days old root sample was finely grounded
weighed into 100ml beaker. Twenty milliliter of 50% propanol was
added and stirred with a glass rod. Twenty milliliter of warm DDW was
added to dissolve out any aqueous contaminants and allowed to stand for
1 hour. The extract was quantitatively filtered through a Whatmann
NO.1 filter paper into a 100ml volumetric flask using 50% propanol to
rinse. This was made up to mark with distilled water. One milliliter of
sample extract was pipette into a 30ml centrifuge tube, 5ml methanol,
5ml of 0.5N NaOH and 5% butanol were added and thoroughly mixed.
The mixture was allowed to stand for 10 minutes to develop colour for
reading on a spectrophotometer. Standard abscicic acid of concentration
1-10ppm were prepared and treated similarly as samples were measured
on a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 500nm. Concentration of
Abscicic acid in Mg/100g was calculated using the formula
Statistical Analysis
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RESULTS
The unsterilised soils significantly improve the root length, plant height,
leaf area, leaf number, number of nodules, and dry matter of root, stem
and leaf than sterilized soil at 21days after planting. The interaction
between inoculation and soil condition in all the parameters were
significantly higher than control in sterilized soil except plant height
where control was higher than treatment. But in unsterilised soil all the
parameters were improved in inoculated soil than control Table 2.
sterilized and unsterilised soil except dry matter of stem where the
control was higher in inoculated treatment in sterilized and dry matter of
root in unsterilised soil Table 5.
DISCUSSION
The results in this finding showed that Glomus inoculation and soil
condition had significant effect on plant development and
phytohormones.There was also growth promotion during the early stages
of root colonization by Glomus. Phytohormones auxin, gibberellins and
abscicic acid were produced more in sterile than unsterile soil. This
probable may be because the soil organisms in the unsterile soil had
metabolized the hormones (Strzelczgk et al.., 1973).
The inoculated soil recorded the higher auxin and gibberellins
than non inoculated soil (control) while non inoculated soil recorded the
highest abscisic acid. This shows that Glomus is able to produce auxin
and gibberellins more and less of abscisic acid. The auxin and
gibberellins produced in non inoculated sterile soil could be from the
Glomus. Increased auxin may (i) lengthen the mitotic cycle in the root
apical meristem, leading to the decreased of individual adventitious root
length, since auxin is involved in the control of cell division cycle
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CONCLUSION
REEFERENCES:
Allen, E.B. and Allen, M.F. 1986. Water relations of zeric grasses in the
field. Interaction of mycorrhiza and competion. New
Phytopathology 104:359-571.
Allen, M.F., Moore, T.S. and Christensen, M. 1982. Phytohormone
changes in Boutelona gracilis infected by VAM II. Altered levels of
gibberelin-like substances and ABA in host plant. Canada Journal
of Botany 60: 468-471.
Atayese, M. O., Awotoye, O.O., Osonubi, O. and Mulongoy, K. 1993.
Comparison of the influence of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal
on productivity of hedgegrow woody legumes and cassava on top
and base of a slopping land in alley cropping systems Biology
fertilizer of soil 16: 198-204.
Atayese, M.O., Omigbire, J.O. and Enikuomehin, O.A 2004. Growth
response of tomato seedling to Glomus inoculation in sterile and
unsterile soil conditions. The Ogun Journal. Agricultural. Sciences.
3 (1): 73-79.
Barea, J. M., Navarro, E. and Montoya, E. 1976. Production of plant
growth regulator by rhisosphere phosphate-solubilising bacteria.
Journal of Applied Bacteriology 19: 417-419.
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Osonubi, O., Mulongoy, K., Awotoye, O.O., Atayese, M.O. and Okali,
D.U.Y. 1991. Effects of ectomycorrhizal and vasicular-arbuscular
mycorrhiza fungi on drought tolerance of four leguminous woody
seedlings. Plant and Soil 136: 131-143.
Sieverding, E. 1991. Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal management in
tropical ecosystems. Deusche Gessellschaft fur Technishe
Zusamenarbeit (GTZ) Eschborn Germany.
Singh, S. 2005. Effect ofelevated levels of carbon dioxide and light on
mycorrhiza. Mycorrhiza News 16 (4): 2-11.
Smith, S.E. and Gianinazzi-pearson 1988. Physiological interaction
between symbionts in vesicular arbuscular mycorrza plants. Annu.
Rev. Plant Physiol. 39: 221-224.
Strzelczy, K. E. and Pokojska-Burdziej, A. 1984. Production of auxins
and gibberelin-like substances by mycorrhizal fungi, bacteria and
actinomycetes isolated from soil and the mycorrhizosphere of pine
(Pinus sylvestrig L.) Plant and Soil 81: 185-194.
Terelli, D. Trotta, A, Acerbi, L., Arcidiacono, G., Berta, G. and Branca,
C. 2000. IAA and ZR content in leek (Allium porrum L.) as
influenced by P nutrition and arbuscular mycorrhiza in relation to
plant development. Plant and Soil 226: 29-35.
Van Nuffelon, M. and Schenck, N.C. 1984. Spore germination,
penetration and root colonization of six species of Vasicular-
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on soybean Canadian Journal of
Botany 62: 624-628.
Walker, C. 1986. Taxonomic concept in the endogonaceae a fifth
morphological wall type in endogonaceus spores. Mycotaxon 25:
95-97.
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Olaniyi, C.O
ABSTRACT
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extract contents while dry matter content was similar (P>0.05). However, crude
protein and fat content were consistently patterned. Therefore, it can be
concluded that fish meal can be replaced with up to 20% Taro leaf meal in the
diet of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus).
Key words: Taro leaf meal, African catfish, growth performance, blood profile
and replacement value
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INTRODUCTION
Feed is the most expensive item in fish farming operation, accounting for
over two – third of the operation cost (Lovell, 1981). A general view of
fish farming in Nigeria shows that 86% of fish farmers do not make use
of standard supplementary feeds because of high cost (Eyo, 1995). The
success of fish farming operation depends largely on the provision of
suitable and economical fish feed. Protein is the most needed and
expensive of all the feed ingredients for Fish feed, particularly the fish
meal. Therefore, alternative protein source should be considered
(Olaniyi, 2008). Aquaculturists are in the quest for alternative protein
source from both plant and animal origin, which can replace fish meal
and nutrition and also increase the growth performance with good
survival rate of the fish. Thus, meeting the existing demand for fish at a
lesser production price and also enhances profit to the fish farmers. The
leaves of some plants serve as important component in the diet of non –
ruminant animals (Pachriston and Nastis, 1996) and have been used in
diet formulation.
Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is a tropical food crop with high
potential because of high yield of its root (corm) and foliage. It is grown
mostly in some parts of the world such as Nigeria, Ghana, China,
Cambodia, Cote d’ivoire and papua New Guinea. Taro leaves are rich in
vitamins and minerals such as thiamin, riboflavin, iron, phosphorous,
Zinc, vitamin B6, vitamin C, niacin, potassium, copper and manganese
(Wagner et al, 1999). Taro can be grown in water logged and terrestrial
fields. Taro leaf could replace up to 70 – 75% of the fish meal with
higher feed intakes and nitrogen retention than with 100% of the protein
from fish meal or from taro silage (Bunta et al, 2008). The use of the
Taro (Colocasia esculenta) leaf silage has been reported in Socorro,
Columbia to improve feed intake and body weight gain in fish
production (Preston, 2006). The objective of this study is therefore, to
evaluate the effect of Taro (Colocasia esculenta) leaf meal on the growth
and blood profile of the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus).
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HAEMATOLOGY
Blood Sample Collection: Blood samples for haematological analysis
were collected at the end of the feeding trial from the caudal peduncle of
both the test and control fish with a sharp blade. The blood samples were
dispensed into tubes containing Ethylene Di -amine Tetra Acetate
(EDTA). The following haematological parameters were assessed:
Erythrocyte count (RBC), Leucocyte count , Heamoglobin (Hb), Packed cells
volume (PCV), Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), Mean corpuscular
haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH)
and Total blood protein.
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RESULTS
Table 3 showed the growth rate of the fish fed with different
experimental diets. Weight gain was observed in weight was observed in
all the fish at the end of the experiment. The mean body weight average
daily body gain were not significantly different (P>0.05). The percentage
weight gain, total protein intake and total feed intake were significantly
different (P<0.05).
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Fish fed with diet A has the highest crude fat (6.39%) while fish
fed with diet D showed the least value (5.61%) crude fat value. Fish fed
with 0%TLM showed the highest value of crude fibre (9.70%), while
fish fed with diet A has the least value (1.47). Crude fibre values of the
five diets containing 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% TLM were not significantly
different (P>0.05). For ash content, feed containing 0%TLM showed the
highest value (14.60), while diet E showed the least value (11.82). Total
Ash values of fish fed with diets A -E were not significantly different
(P.0.05). Nitrogen free extract of diets A – D were not significantly
different. Table 5 showed the blood profile of the fish fed with different
experimental diets. The white blood cells (WBC) values obtained were
significantly different. Diet A has the highest value, while diet D has the
lowest values. The red blood cells (RBC) values were not significantly
different. Diet A had the highest value, while diet B has the lowest value.
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DISCUSION
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at 15% replacement level with TLM, Clarias gariepinus will utilize the
protein in the diet. The disparity in the protein efficiency ratio could be
attributed to the quantity of protein recorded in the diets since according
to Falaye et al., (1999), digestibility of protein varies with protein source.
The result also showed that diet 5 has the lowest FCR of 0.17 is the most
efficient in conversion of feed to flesh. Diet 4 has the highest FCR of
0.20. However, there is no significant difference (P>0.05) in the FCR
obtained for fish fish fed with diets A-E.
There is an increase in the protein value of fish carcass obtained
at the end of the feeding trial compared with that obtained at the
beginning of the feeding trial. Initial diet has the highest ash value in the
fish carcass compared to the ash value of the fish carcass at the
beginning and end of the experiment. Generally, there is a reduction in
the fibre content of fish carcass under treatments B-E compared with the
fibre content of fish carcass not fed taro leaf meal (diet A).
There was a decline in RBC value compared with the normal
value (24 x 106/μ) by Adedeji et al., (2000). The reduced erythrocyte
count may prelude the possibility of haemolytic anaemia which as stated
by Kelly (1974) may be due to toxic factor, infections and metabolic
disease. The MCHC values obtained for all fish across the treatments
still fall within the normal range of 30 – 35gm/l recommended by
Adedeji et al.; (2000). There is a marked decrease in the WBC count
across the treatment compared with the normal values (6.6 x 10 6/μ)
recommended by Adedeji et al.; (2000). Decrease in total WBC may be
attributed to a reduced production of Leucocytes in the Haemtopoietic
tissues of the Kidney and Perhaps the Spleen. Albumin-globin ratio were
greater than one across the treatments.
This is in contrast with Philips (1965) and Aboaba (1984) who
reported an albumin – globin ratio of less than one. The packed cells
volume(PCV)values of fish under diet 2,3, and 5 fall within the normal
range of 20 – 35% recommended by Wedemeyer and Yasutake (1977).
The higher PCV value than normal obtained from fish under treatment 1
(40.3%) and 5 (42.0%) may signify some degree of haemoconcentration
(Kelly, 1974). There was no significant difference in the mean
corpuscular heamoglobin concentration (MCHC) values obtained from
fish fed with diet A and B, while the MCHC value of fish fed with diet
D has the highest value of 33.1.
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CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
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Development Vol. 1 No 1 (2010) pp. 106-117.
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Development Vol. 1 No 1 (2010) pp. 106-117.
Lovell, R.T (19870: Nutrition and feeding of fish, Avi book, published
by Van Nostrand Reinhold New York 260p.
Marioghae (1991): Reproduction of fish in nature. Proceedings of the
fish seed propagation course. Pp 104 – 106.
N. R. C. (1993): Nutrient Requirement of Fish, National Academy Press
Washington D.C. 114p.
Pachriston C. A. and nastis J. E. (1996): textbook of Medical Physiology,
9th Edition. W. B. Saunders Company, U. S. A.
Pheng, B. Khiev, B. Preston, T.R and Ogle, B. (2008) Digestibility and
nitrogen balance studies in Non- ruminants Fed taro (Colocasia
esculenta) Pp 44 – 48.
Preston, T.R (2006): Forages as protein sources for non-ruminant in the
tropics. Pp 108 - 112.
Smith A. O. (1991): Nutritional Uniformly of Crude Protein fractions in
some tropical browse plant estimated by two in vitro methods.
Animal feed science and
Stickney M., (1992): Parkia biglobosa: changes in Resource allocation in
Kandiga, Ghana, M. Sc. Thesis, Michigan Technological
University, U. S. A.
Sydenham (1998): Statistical package for the social sciences. Release
10.0 SPPSS Inc.Pp 202 – 209.
Viveen W. J. A. R; Richter C. J. J., Van Oordt P. G W. J; Janssen J. A. L
and Huismen E. A. (1987): Practical Manual for the culture of
the African catfish: fisheries, Agricultural University of,
Netherlands.
Wagner, W.L. Herbst, D.R and Sohmer, S.H. (1999): Manual of the
flowering plants of Hawaii technology 78: 141 – 151.
Zailani G. A. and W. T. Y. Yasutate (1995): Anaemia in Dog. An
Analysis of Laboratory data. Journal of small Animal
production 18: 701 – 706.
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ABSTRACT
days for the leaves and stems added on the soil surface, and 32 – 40 and
43 – 53 days for the leaves and stems buried into the soil to decompose
respectively. The ability of cowpea fresh fodder to decompose when
incorporated into the soil could facilitate the release of an appreciable
amount of stored plant nutrients such as N; and more so improve the
health of the soil through an increase in soil (organic content, organic
matter and cation exchange capacity contents). This innovative farming
practice could hold the key to rejuvenating the degraded savannah soils
of Nigeria and other tropical countries; creating hope in the effort
towards the eradication of hunger and poverty and ensuring food security
through sustainable agricultural productivity.
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INTRODUCTION
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) features prominently in the
farming systems of the semi-arid tropics where they are grown mainly
for their mature seeds (Onwueme and Sinha, 1991); which provide food
for human beings (Purseglove, 1974), and fodder, forage, hay, silage, as
feed for livestock ( Purseglove, 1974; Odion and Singh, 2005).
The above ground plant parts of cowpea, except for its pods, are
usually harvested for fodder. In the Sahel, green fodder yields
approaching 30 - 40 t ha1 have been reported (IITA, 1989). In India,
under the fodder production system, designed to ensure the availability
of succulent, palatable and nutritive fodder throughout the year; cowpea
fodder yields (harvested at 60-70 days from sowing) were reported at
250 - 300t ha1 (Patil and Singh, 2004). Therefore, adopting appropriate
cultural and management practices such as clipping and the subsequent
use of the vegetative growth for placement and or its incorporation into
the soil as green manure for enhancing soil fertility after its
decomposition could boost and sustain agricultural productivity by the
farmer on the field in situ.
But climate, particularly the temperature and moisture
conditions, determine the rate of decomposition (green plant materials).
In Indian as in Nigerian soils, it has been reported that the content of
organic matter is generally low because of the high rate of decomposition
under tropical and sub-tropical climate (Murthy and Hirekerur, 2004;
Odion et al., 2007). It is reported that 3 to 6 weeks are sufficient to
ensure adequate decomposition in the tropics (Arakeri et al., 1962). A
somewhat shorter interval is necessary for light, sandy soils; while
loamy-clayed soils take longer (Klapp, 1967). Though, too early
incorporation can result in the loss of mineralized materials through
leaching (Muller-Samann and Kotschi, 1994).
For proper decomposition of the green manure, it is necessary
that the green fresh material should be succulent and there should be
adequate moisture in the soil (Patnaik, 2004; Adams et al., 1998). Plants
at the flowering stage contain the greatest bulk of succulent organic
matter with low carbon:nitrogen ratio. Therefore, it is recommended that,
it is better incorporate the green plant material at full vegetative
development so as to achieve maximum effect. This is at flowering stage
for legumes and somewhat earlier for grasses. The incorporation of the
green-manure crop into the soil at this time when the plants are rich in
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sugars, energy and easily soluble N-compounds, and poor in lignin and
cellulose allows a quick liberation of nitrogen in the available form
(Patnaik, 2004; Isichei and Akobundu, 1994). But the quality of organic
matter (OM) and its rate of decomposition are dependent on its chemical
composition.
As many agricultural farmlands in the savannah are degraded
due to various reasons ranging from intensive weathering and high
rainfall, high temperature, high decomposition rates, soil erosion,
leaching, deterioration of the soil structure generally characterized by
low soil organic matter (SOM) content, low cation exchange capacity
(CEC), low moisture retention capacity (MRC) on the soil continuous
cropping coupled with continuous nitrogen (N) fertilization; resulting in
low soil fertility. And more often than not, the ways of reviving such
soils is the farmers’ headache (Bache and Heathcote, 1969; Jones, 1976;
Pichot et al., 1981; Kurt, 1982; Kang and Balasubramanian, 1990; Kang,
1993; Singh et al., 1997).
Therefore, green manuring practices such as the growing of
legumes like the dual purpose cowpea, which has the potential for
producing large amounts of fresh clipped crop residues which can be
added on the soil surface and or incorporated into the soil, to make
available N, after its decomposition, avails a form of management
(through keeping a continuous layer of organic residue on the soil
surface) which simulates the forest ecosystem (Cooke, 1982; IITA,
1992); and has the additional potential of bringing extra nitrogen into the
system (Henao and Baanante, 1999). In fact its ability to biologically fix
atmospheric nitrogen in the rhizobia of the root nodules enhances its
important use by farmers in traditional farming system. Through this
process, it leavs a residue of nitrogen which has been estimated at 30-60
kg N ha-1 annually (Reijntjes et al., 1992), in the soil which benefits the
following crop (Steele, 1978; Onwueme and Sinha, 1991). Indeed, it has
been highlighted that a leguminous crop producing 8 to 25 tonnes of
green matter per hectare, will add about 60 to 90 kg of nitrogen when
ploughed under (Patnaik, 2004).This could be pivotal to sustaining both
the fertility status of the soils and the production levels of crops.
This study therefore assessed the total amount of organic plant
biomass from cowpea fresh fodder under a clipping management regime
and the time taken for it to decompose when placed on the soil surface
and or when buried in the soil; for soil fertility maintenance in a typical
savannah agro-ecology zone of Nigeria.
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Field experiments were carried out at the Research Farm of the Institute
for Agriculture Research, Samaru (110.11’N, 070.38’E and 686m above
sea level) Zaria, Nigeria, during the 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005 cropping
seasons. The research area was located in the northern guinea savanna
agro-ecology zone of Nigeria. Usually, rainfall in the region establishes
between mid-May and early June and peaks in July/August. Total annual
rainfall ranges between 883-1062 mm, with an average of 945.20mm.
The dry season starts at about mid-October and extends to the end of
April. The soil of the experimental site was loamy textured (USDA
classification), characterized with pH of 6.6; low organic carbon content
(0.30g kg-1); low total nitrogen (0.88g kg-1); a phosphorus value of
6.51mg kg-1 and a low level of potassium (0.10 Cmol kg-1).
The treatments comprised of three intra-row spacing, 15.0, 30.0
and 45.0cm on ridges, 75cm apart; three clipping heights (no clipping
control, 12.5cm and 25.0cm); and three clipping periods (64, 74 and 84
days after planting); giving a total of 27 treatment combinations. This
experimental was laid out in a randomized complete block design,
replicated three times.
Two seeds of cowpea were planted per hole at about 5cm depth
manually; at the specified intra-row spacing of 15, 30 and 45cm on 75cm
ridges. The fields were planted on 13th July, 17th July, 7th June and 17th
June, in 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005 respectively.
Fertilizer was applied at the recommended rates of 10kg N ha-1,
36kg P2O5 ha-1 and 20kg K2O ha-1 (Enwezor et al, 1989); sourced from
NPK (20:10:10), super phosphate (18%) and muriate of potash-MOP
(60%). Application was by placement 2 - 3 weeks after planting.
The clipped fodder yield was obtained by weighing and
recording the total clipped crop residue (fodder) from each plot at 64, 74
and 84 DAP, and this was recorded per plot; and subsequently converted
to total fodder yield in tons per hectare (t ha-1) basis. The first (harvest)
clipping was done on 15th September, 2002; 19th September, 2003; 10th
August, 2004, and 17th August, 2005, respectively. The clipped fodder
was placed on the plots to decay; while samples were buried at 15 –
30cm depth; and the number of days it took for the leaves and stems to
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CONCLUSION:
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REFERENCES
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1
Department of Agronomy, Ladoke Akintola University of
Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
2
Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
3
Department of Agriculture, Babcock University, Ilishin Remo,
Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Effects of three commercial organic fertilizers (Providence, Pacesetter and
Sunshine), tithonia compost and NPK inorganic fertilizer were assessed in two
trials on growth, shoot yield and nutritional quality of Solanum macrocarpon at
Ogbomoso, southwest Nigeria. The treatments were Providence fertilizer,
Pacesetter fertilizer, Sunshine fertilizer, tithonia compost, NPK mineral fertilizer
and control (non-fertilized plants). All the fertilizer treatments were analyzed
and applied at equivalent fertilizer recommendation rate of 60 kg N/ha. The
experimental design was randomized complete block with four replicates.
Parameters taken were stem height and girth, number of leaves and leaf area,
number of off shoots, dry matter and shoot yield as well as shoot elemental and
proximate composition. Application of fertilizers enhance development of
growth, shoot yield and nutritional
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Development Vol. 1 No 1 (2010) pp. 135-149
INTRODUCTION
concecutive years before cleared for use. The bimodal rainfall of the area
is between, 150mm – 1250mm of rainfall. The temperature regime is
high all the year round. The mean minimum temperature is 280C and the
maximum temperature 330C with a high relative humidity of about 74%
all year round except in January when the dry wind blow from the north.
The preplanting soil analysis shows that the soil is grossly inadequate
and lacks sufficient amount of nutrients required to grow Solanum
macrocarpon.
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RESULTS
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Plant stem girth, number of leaves and leaf area per plant were
significantly affected by type of fertilizer. Stem girth ranges from 2.3 in
the control to 3.1 cm in the Providence and NPK treatments. The number
of leaves per plant was highest in Pacesetter (22.8) and least with control
plants (13.5). Number of leaves observed with Pacesetter Organic
fertilizer was similar to what was obtained with the use of NPK,
Sunshine, Providence and tithonia compost. Leaf area per plant was
highly (P≥ 0.01) influenced by type of fertilizer. Pacesetter fertilizer
produced the largest leaves followed by Providence, NPK, Sunshine,
tithonia compost and control. There was no significant difference among
the various types of organic fertilizer used but the control had
significantly smallest leaves than the commercial organic fertilizers and
NPK. Dry matter accumulation of plants fertilized with Pacesetter was
the highest. This was 1.3, 2.2, 2.3, 50.4 and 54.0 % higher than what was
observed with the use of NPK, tithonia, Providence, control and
Sunshine, respectively.
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in Pacesetter Organic fertilizer (Table 4). The fat content of all fertilized
plants, irrespective of the fertilizer type, were similar and significantly
higher than the control plants. The carbohydrate composition was highest
in NPK treatment and least in control treatment. However, the crude
fibre of the control plants was highest while it is least with application of
Sunshine. In case of P, Ca and Fe contents, the non fertilized plants
consistently had lowest values. The shoot P varied from 36.2 to 47.1 g /
100 g edible portion. The P, Ca and Fe shoot contents of plants that
received the four organic fertilizers compared favourably with the values
obtained under NPK situation. The ascorbic acid was equally
significantly affected by different fertilizers. The ascorbic acid of the
control plants was significantly lower than where fertilizers were
applied. The order of ascorbic acid content was Sunshine > Providence >
Pacesetter > NPK > tithonia compost > control. Despite the low level of
Ca and Fe in the shoot of plants fertilized with Sunshine organic
fertilizer, this fertilizer type produced plant with highest ascorbic
content.
Shoot yield: The highest shoot yield (21.2 t/ha) was recorded for
Sunshine fertilizer treated plants while the least (4.6 t/ ha) was obtained
on plants where no fertilizer was applied (control). Generally, application
of fertilizer enhanced shoots yield production in S. macrocarpon. The
shoot yield produced with Sunshine (21.2 t./ ha) and Providence (20.4 t./
ha) organic fertilizers compared favourably with what was obtained with
NPK mineral fertilizer (20.6 t/ ha). The shoot yield of plants nourished
with tithonia compost was equivalent to that of Pacesetter and
significantly higher than that of control plants (Fig. 1).
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DISCUSSION
Enhancement of development of growth parameters of fertilized plants
observed in this study could be as a result of inadequate essential
nutrients in the growth medium of the control plots. It has been asserted
that cultivation of crop on soil with non limiting nutrients aid crop yield,
growth and development thereby improving the crop nutritional
components. This upholds what Akanbi (2002) and Olaniyan et al.,
(2006) reported on tomato and S. macrocarpon, respectively. In these
two reports, availability of essential nutrients (most especially N) in
adequate quantity and form enhanced protoplasmic development and cell
proliferation. These culminated in proper crop growth and development.
For most of the parameters taken, values observed with any of the three
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present study, the use of any of the four organic fertilizers could produce
seeds of equal quantity and quality like that of NPK.
The source of nutrients used to grow a crop could have great
influence on the crop nutritional attributes. The use of different organic
fertilizers in the present study accounted for various observations on
nutritional quality of S. macrocarpon recorded. Application of fertilizer,
irrespective of its type enhanced nutritional values of the crop. This
confirms the report of Ghoname and Shafeek (2005).
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
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149
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Olabiyi, T.I.1,*; Oyedunmade, E.E.A.2 and G. J. Ibikunle3
1
Faculty of Business, Environment and Society, Coventry University, Priory Street, CV1 5FB,
Coventry, U.K.
2
Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin.
3
Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B.
4000. Ogbomoso, Nigeria
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
Contents: Volume 1 Number 1 (2010)
Chai, J.; Slee, B.; Canavari, M.; Chen, T. and H. Huliyeti
THE SCOPE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE GRAZING LIVESTOCK SECTOR OF
XINJIANG BASED ON ORGANIC FARMING METHODS 1
Nwanguma, E. I.; Akinfasoye, J. A.; Aminu-Taiwo, B. R and W. B. Akanbi
EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERCROPPING AND STAKING IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
ROOT-KNOT NEMATODES FOR RURAL FARMERS IN INTENSIVE MIXED
VEGETABLE CROPPING SYSTEMS IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA 25
Olabiyi, T.I.; Harris, P.J.C.; Atungwu, J.J. and A. Rosenfeld
ASSESSMENT OF CROP ROTATION AND SOIL FERTILITY BUILDING SCHEMES IN
SOME ORGANIC FARMS IN ENGLAND 38
Sambo, B.E. and P.C. Okutu
EFFECTS OF NEEM EXTRACT ON INSECT PEST COMPLEX OF GRAPEVINE (Vitis
vinifera L.) 53
Akintokun, P.O., Togun, A.O., Akintokun, A.K. and W.B. Akanbi.
RESPONSE OF CASSAVA AND SOYABEAN GROWN SOLE AND INTERCROPPED
TO INOCULATION OF RHIZOBIUM AND ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZA FUNGI
67
Mukhtar, A.A.; Tanimu, B.; Arunah, U.L. and B.A. Babaji
EVALUATION OF THE AGRONOMIC CHARACTERS OF SWEET POTATO
VARIETIES GROWN AT VARYING LEVELS OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC
FERTILIZERS 83
Akintokun, A. K., Egberongbe, H.O. and P.O. Akintokun.
PHYTOHORMONE AND GROWTH RESPONSE OF SOYBEAN TO INDIGENOUS
Glomus sp. INOCULATION IN STERILE AND UNSTERILE SOIL CONDITIONS
93
Olaniyi, C.O
EFFECT OF SUBSTITUTING FISH MEAL WITH TARO LEAF MEAL ON GROWTH
AND BLOOD PROFILE OF AFRICAN CATFISH (Clarias gariepinus BURCHELL). 106
Sambo, B.E.; Odion, E.C.; Aliyu, L. and D.A. Labe
DECOMPOSITION RATE OF FRESH ORGANIC COWPEA FODDER AS INFLUENCED
BY INTRA-ROW SPACING, CLIPPING HEIGHT AND TIME ON SOILS FERTILITY
CONSERVATION FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY IN
SAVANNAH REGION OF NIGERIA 119
Akanbi, W. B; Ilupeju, E.A. O.; Togun, A. O. and S. A. Adeyeye
EFFECTS OF NIGERIAN COMMERCIAL ORGANIC FERTILIZERS, COMPOST AND
NPK ON GROWTH, SHOOT YIELD AND NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF Solanum
macrocarpon 135