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ExaminingGPSData(GPSandGIS)Part1

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ExaminingGPSData(GPSandGIS)Part1

ModernOrbit
Determinatio

ModernOrbitDetermination,
Wieselnowavailableinpaperback
createspace.com/345909

INWHICHwecontinueourdiscussionofthetheoreticalframeworkofGPSpositionfinding,andyoupractice
usingPCsoftwaretoinvestigatefilescollectedbyGPSreceivers.

OVERVIEW
SomeQuestionsAnswered
Asyoureadthelasttwotopicssomequestionsmayhaveoccurredtoyou.Andtheanswerstothese
questionsmaygenerateotherquestions.Herearesomethatcomeupfrequently:
Question#1:"ThecaptainoftheshipofFigure21hadamapshowingthelocationsofthesoundhouses.But
howdoestheGPSreceiverknowwherethesatellitesare?"
AmapisatwodimensionalscalemodelofthesurfaceoftheEarth.Butmodelscantakemanyforms,
includingmathematical.Duetothenatureofnature,aselucidatedbyIsaacNewtonandJohannesKepler,the
positionofasatelliteatanytimemaybepredictedwithahighdegreeofaccuracybyafewmathematical
equations.Asatelliteorbitingtheearthmaybemodeledbyformulascontainedinthememoryofthe
microcomputerinthereceiver.WhentheformulasareappliedtobodiesatthehighaltitudesoftheGPS
satellites,wheretheyarefreefromatmosphericdrag,theformulasarerelativelysimpleandcanpredictthe
positionofthesatellitequiteaccurately.
Almostallformulashaveageneralform,intowhichspecificnumbersare"loaded."Forexample,inan
equationoftheform

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AandBareparameterswhichrepresentconstantnumbersthatmaybeinsertedintheequation.WhenAand
Barereplacedbyactualnumbers,thentheequationisonlytrueforcertainvaluesofx,y,andz.Thereceiver
carriesthegeneralformoftheformulasthatgivethepositionofeachsatellite.Beforetherangereadingsare
takenbythereceiver,thesatelliteswillhavebroadcastthevaluesoftheirparticularparameterssothereceiver
cancompleteitsequations.Then,byknowingthecurrenttimeatagivenmoment(themomentatwhichthe
distancereadingistaken),thereceivercanknowwherethesatellitesare.
Actually,thesatellitemessagecomingtothereceiverantennaisinmanyparts.Twoofthesemightbecalled
thealmanacandtheephemerisdata.Almanacinformationisbroadcasttoprovideclose,butnotprecise,satellite
positioninformation.Thealmanacforallsatellitesisbroadcastfromeachsatellite.Furthermore,eachsatellite
broadcastsephemerisinformation(whichappliestothatsatelliteonly),thatprovidesuptotheminute
corrections.Thesatellitesarenotcompletelypredictableintheirorbitsbecauseofsuchforcesasgravitational
pullfromthesunandmoon,thesolarwind,andvariousothersmallfactors.Thereforethesatellitesare
carefullymonitoredbygroundstationsandtoldtheirpositionseachsatellitethenrebroadcaststhisinformation
toGPSreceivers.
Question#2:"Thecaptainneededtoknowexactlywhattimeitwasinordertodeterminehisdistancefromthe
soundhouse.HowistheclockinthereceiverkeptaccuratelyonGPStime?"1
TheshortansweristhatthereceiverclockisresettoGPStimebythesatelliteseachtimeapositionisfound.
Suchresettingisnecessarybecause,whilethereceiverclockisveryconsistentovershortperiodsoftime,it
tendstodriftoverlongerperiods.(Eachofthefouratomicclocksineachsatellitecostsabout$50,000the
singleclockinthereceiverobviouslycostsawholelotless,soyoucantexpectthesamesortofaccuracy.If
youdontusethereceiverforaweekortwo,youmaynoticeadifferenceofseveralsecondsbetweenthetime
thereceiverdisplaysandtruetime.)Theclocksinthesatelliteskeeptimetoaboutatenthofabillionthofa
second(atenthofananosecond).
Ifyouconsider"time"2asthe4thdimensionandacceptthatittakesonesatellitetofixeachdimension,thenit
isclearthatfoursatellites,workinginconcert,cansettheclockandprovidea3Dspatialposition.
RecallingourdiscussionofthetheoryofGPSandfromthegeometryofthediagramsyouexamined,you
mightpresumethatonlythreesatellitesarerequiredfora3Dfix.Butgiventhatthereceiverhasonlyan
approximateideaofwhattimeitis,whatmustbecalculatedisa4Dfix.Sofoursatellitesarerequired.Itisnot
correcttosaythatthreesatellitesareusedforthe3Dfixandthefourthsetsthereceiverclock.Rather,allofthe
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satellitesoperateinconcerttofindthetrue"position"ofareceiverantennathatmaymoveinspace(relativeto
theearth)anddoesmoveintime.
GPS,aspreviouslymentioned,hashadarevolutionizingeffectonthebusinessofkeepingextremelyaccurate
timetobetterthanabillionthofasecond.WhilemostofthosewhouseGPSareconcernedwithfinding
positions,thesystemalsosuppliesextremelyaccuratetimesignalstoreceiverswhosepositionsareknownwith
highprecision.GPShasmadeitpossibletosynchronizeclocksaroundtheworld.Thishasmadeitpossible,
amongotherthings,togainknowledgeaboutthemakeupoftheearthscenter.Sinceseismologiststhroughout
theworldknowtheexacttime,theycantracktheshockwavesfromearthquakesastheypassthroughtheearth.
AnotheruseoftheabilityofGPStosynchronizeclocksaroundtheworldisinroutingInternet(worldwideweb)
traffic.ItwouldnothavebeenunreasonabletohavecalledGPSbytheacronymGPTS:theGlobalPositioning
andTimingSystem.)
Question#3:"Thesoundhousesentasignaleveryminute.Howoftendoesasatellitesendasignal?Whatisthe
signallike?"
Actually,eachsatellitesendsasignalcontinuously,ratherlikearadiostationbroadcasts24hoursperday.The
radiostationsignalcanbeconsideredtoconsistoftwoparts:acarrier,whichisonallthetime,and
"modulation"ofthatcarrier,whichisthevoiceormusicthatyouhearwhenyoulistentothestation.(You
probablyhavedetectedthepresenceofthecarrierwhenthepeopleatthestationneglecttosayorplay
anything.3Thecarrierproducessilence,whereasifyourradioistunedtoafrequencyonwhichnonearby
stationisbroadcastingyouwillhearstatic.)
Eachsatelliteactuallybroadcastsontwofrequencies.Onlyoneoftheseisforcivilianuse.(ThemilitaryGPS
unitsreceiveboth.)Theciviliancarrierfrequencyis1575.42megaHertz(1,575.42millioncyclespersecond).
Incontrast,FMradiosignalsareontheorderofabout100megaHertz.SotheGPSradiowavescycleabout15
timesasoften,andare,therefore,onefifteenthaslong:about20centimetersfromwavetoptowavetop.Asthis
goestopressthereisseriousdiscussionaboutaddingoneortwonewciviliansignals.Havingtwosignalsat
differentfrequenciesavailableallowsareceivertocomputeamoreaccuratepositionthandoesasinglesignal.
ThemodulationoftheGPSwaveisprettydull,evenwhencomparedto"goldenoldies"radiostations.The
satellitesbroadcastonly"bits"ofinformation:zerosandones.Formostcivilianuse,thistransmission,andthe
abilitytomakemeaningoutofit,iscalledthe"C/Acode"standingforCoarse/Acquisitioncode.Theword
"Coarse"isincontrasttoanothercodeusedbythesatellites:the"P"or"Precise"code.Theterm"Acquisition"
refersthecapabilitythatallowsbothcivilianandmilitaryreceiverstoacquiretheapproximatepositionofthe
receiverantenna.TheC/Acodeisasequenceof1,023bitswhichisrepeatedeveryonethousandthofasecond.
AcopyoftheC/Acodeforagivensatellitemightlooklikethis:
10001101001011110110001
andonandonforatotalof1,023bits.Thenthesequencestartsagain.Thesequenceaboveprobablylooks
randomtoyouasthoughyoubeganflippingacoin,recordinga"1"eachtimeitcameupheadsanda"0"for
tails.Itis,infact,calledapseudorandomnoisecodetheterm"noise"comingfromtheideathatanaural
versionofitwouldgreatlyresemblestaticonemighthearonaradio.TheacronymisPRN.
Question#4:"Howdoesthereceiverusethe0sand1stodeterminetherangefromthesatellitetothe
receiver?"

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ThePRNcodeisanythingbutrandom.Agivensatelliteusesacomputerprogramtogenerateitsparticular
code.TheGPSreceiveressentiallyusesacopyofthesamecomputerprogramtogeneratetheidenticalcode.
Further,thesatelliteandthereceiverbeginthegenerationofthecodeatexactlythesamemomentintime.

ThereceivercanthereforedetermineitsrangefromthesatellitebycomparingthetwoPRNsequences(theone
itreceivesandtheoneitgenerates).Thereceiverfirstdetermineshowmuchthesatellitesignalisdelayedin
time,andthen,sinceitknowsthespeedofradiowaves,itcancalculatehowfarapartthetwoantennasarein
space.
Asanexample(usinglettersratherthanbitssowecanhaveamoreobvioussequence,andcookingthe
numberstoavoidexplainingsomeunimportantcomplications),supposethesatelliteandthereceivereach
began,at4:00P.M.,togenerateonehundredletterspersecond:
GJKETYUOWVWTDHK
Thereceiverwouldthenlookatitsowncopyofthissequenceandtheoneitreceivedfromthesatellite.
Obviouslyitsowncopywouldstartat4:00,butthecopyfromthesatellitewouldcomealongafterthat,because
ofthetimeittookthesignaltocoverthedistancebetweentheantennas.Belowisagraphicillustrationofwhat
thetwosignalsmightlookliketothecomputerinthereceiver:
Thereceiverwouldattempttomatchthesignals.Youcanseethatthesignalfromthereceiverbegantoarrive
sevenletterslaterthan4:00thereceiversmicrocomputercouldthereforedeterminethatittook7/100ofa
secondforthesignalfromthesatellitetoreachthereceiverantenna.Sincetheradiowavetravelsatabout300,
000kilometerspersecond,thetimedifferencewouldimplythatthesatellitewas21,000(thatis,
7/100*300,000)kilometersfromtheantenna.
Question#5:"Thereceivermustfindrangesfromatleastfoursatellitestodetermineitsposition.Howdoesthe
receiver"listento"severalsatellitesatonce?Sinceallsatellitesbroadcastonthesamefrequency,howdoesthe
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receiveridentifythesatellites?"
ThefirstthingtoknowisthateachsatellitehasitsowndistinctivePRNcode.Infact,thesatellitenumbers
youwerelogginginthefirstassignmentwerethePRNnumberswhichistheprincipalwaysatellitesare
identified.Asatellitemayalsohaveanumberpaintedonitsside,butitisthePRNnumberthatcounts.When
anoldersatelliteisretired,itsreplacementcantakeonitsPRNnumber.
Mostreceivershaveseveralelectroniccomponents,called"channels,"thataretunedtoreceivethecivilian
GPSfrequency.Althoughallchannelsaretunedtothesamefrequency,asinglechannelcantrackaGPS
satellitebylockingontoitsPRNcode.Inmoreexpensivereceiverswithseveralormanychannels,each
channelisassignedfulltimetotrackingasinglesatellite.Otherreceivers"timeshare"achannelflippingit
betweensatellites,asyoumightflipbetweenchannelsonaTV,tryingtokeeptrackoftwoprogramsatonce.
Question#6:"IveheardthattheaccuracyofGPSreceiverswasgreatlyincreasedrecentlywhenselective
availabilitywasturnedoff.Whatwasselectiveavailability?Whydiditexist?"
SelectiveAvailability,orSA,wastheerrordeliberatelyintroducedbytheGPSmanagersintheC/Acode
broadcasttodiminishtheaccuracyofGPSreceivers.Sometimesthesatellitesliedabouttheirpositions.
Sometimestheyliedaboutwhentheysentthecode.
WhatwastheextentoftheerrorcausedbySA?Thegovernmentguaranteedthat95%ofthetimeafix
wouldbewithin100metersofthetrueposition.TounderstandwhySAexistedyouhavetorealizethatthe
NAVSTARsystemstartedasamilitaryprojecttoprovidenavigationforunitsofthearmedforces.Inthebroad
sense,GPSwasdesignedasaweaponssupportsystem.Onedoesntwantonesweaponstofallintoenemy
hands.Sostepsweretakentodenyuseofthesystemtoallbutauthorizedreceivers.Infact,theveryexistence
oftheGPSsystem,whosefirstsatellitewaslaunchedin1978,remainedsecretforseveralyears.
Itwasneverplannedthatyoucouldbuya$200receiverforyourfishingboat.Themilitaryfearedsuchusesasa
terroristwithamortarknowingexactlywherehewas,andhencebeingabletomoreaccuratelytargethisfire.
Orthecomputerinamissilebeingabletomonitoritspositionandcorrectitspathduringitsflight.
Ifsufficientwarningweregiven,ofcourse,theentireciviliansideofNAVSTARcouldbeshutdowntodeny
itsusetohostileforces.(Theconsequenceswouldbedisastrous,butnotasmuchsoasanuclearwar.)But,in
anyevent,themilitarywasstilluncomfortablewithallowingthebestGPSaccuracyinthehandsofeverybody.
SowhywasSAturnedoff?Asitturnsout,verygoodaccuracymaybeobtainedbyusingtwoGPSreceiversin
concertandfortheverybestaccuracyyouneedtworeceivers,SAorno.SoSAbecamemoreofanuisancethat
offerednorealprotection.Infact,theArmyCorpsofEngineersbeganbroadcastingcorrectionstopositions
obtainedbycivilianreceivers.UnderpressurefromthecivilianGPSusers,andothercountriesJapanand
EuropeanwhobegancontemplatingtheirownversionofGPS,usingthemoregeneraltermGlobalNavigation
SatelliteSystem(GNSS)4theU.S.governmentabruptlyclickedtheSAswitchoff.Thisoccurredon2May
2000,justaftermidnightEasternTime.ItwasanimportantenoughdecisionthatthePresidentmadethe
announcementhimself.TheslimprotectionSAprovidedmightbereplacedandenhancedbyjammingtheGPS
signalsinselectedgeographicalareas,ifnecessary.IfyouareinterestedinSA,andothermattersrelatedtoGPS
policy,youcangotothewebsiteoftheInteragencyGPSExecutiveBoard(www.igeb.gov)andfindout
considerablymorethanthereisspaceforhere.YoucanalsoviewthePresidentsdeclarationof1May2000.
Question#7:"Howisitthatasatellite,cuttingEarthsmeridiansat55andmovingat8600mph,generatesa
trackthatisalmostduenorthsouthinthevicinityoftheequator,asseeninFigure11?"
Whilethesatelliteismovingveryfast,itisalsofaroutinspace.Thereforethemotionofthecorresponding
pointontheEarthssurfacealongthesatellitestrack(picturewherealinefromthecenteroftheearthtothe
satellitewouldintersectthesurfaceoftheEarth)isconsiderablyslowerabout2100mph.Thesatellitestrack
alongthesurfaceoftheEarthmovesatthisspeedtowardthenortheastontheupswingandsoutheastonthe
downswing,sotheeastwardpartofitsmotionisinthesamedirectionastherotationoftheEarth.Anygiven
pointonEarthssurfaceattheequatormovesabout1050milesperhoureastwardduetoEarthsrotationabout
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itsaxis.Thenorthorsouthcomponentofthesatellitesvelocityisabout1700mph,whiletheeastcomponentis
onlyabout1200mph.Soanobserverattheequatorwouldseeonlyaslowdrifting(about150milesperhour)
ofthesatellitetotheeastovertheperiodofanhourortwo.
Question#8:"Iftheorbitalperiodis12hours,whydoeseachsatelliteriseandsetaboutfourminutesearlier
eachday?CouldtheNAVSTARsystemdesignersarrangetohavethesamesatellitesinviewatthesametime
eachdayinagivenlocation?"
Theshortanswertothefirstquestion,ifyouknowabitofastronomy,isthatthesatellitesorbittheearth
twiceduringasidereal(pronouncedsideareul,meaning"starbased")day,ratherthanasolar(sunbased)day.
Alongerexplanation:SupposeyoulookupatthestarsonmidnightofthefirstofAprilandnotetheirpositions.
ToseethesamepictureonMayfirstyouhavetolookupat10:00P.M.Inthe30daysthestars"moved"120
minutesfourminutesaday.Ofcoursethestarsdidntmovetheearthrotated.Bymidnightitwouldhave
turnednotonlythe10,800degrees(thatis,360perdaytimes30days)fromitsdailyrotation,but30degrees
further(360degreesmultipliedbyonetwelfth)fromitsyearlyrotationinitsorbitaroundthesun.The10,800
degreesworksouttozerobasically(youarebackwhereyoustartedfrom)butthe30degreesissignificant.
Orthinkofitthisway:WhileeachindividualsatelliteisinorbitabouttheEarth,makingitscircuitexactly
twiceaday,thesetofsatellitesareindependentlyinorbitaboutthesun.Theyorbitthesunasapackagethe
ringsoftheirorbitmakingupsortofasphericalbirdcage.ThecageiscenteredontheEarthandcontainsit.The
Earthisabodythatrotatesindependentlywithinthiscage.Thecagedoesnotrotateatallonitsownaxis,but
orbitsthesun.
Tounderstandwhat"notrotatingonitsaxis"means,realizethatthemoonrotatesonitsownaxisonceduring
eachtriparoundtheearth,sothatitalwaysshowsthesamefacetoEarth.Ifthemoondidnotrotate,wewould
seedifferentsidesofitasitmadeitswayaroundtheEarth.Incontrasttothemoonearthsituation,considerthe
cagesunsituation:thecagedoesnotrotateonitsaxisandthereforedoespresentdifferentsidesofitselftothe
sunoverthecourseofayear.
Soatanygiventime(saynoon,whenthesunisdirectlyoveragivenmeridian),apersononEarthwillsee
(thatis,"lookthrough,"towardthesun)onesideofthecageonthesolsticeinJanuary.Butfromthesamepoint
onearththatpersonwouldbelookingthroughtheoppositesideofthecageinJuly.Ineffect,then,thecagewill
beseenfromEarthtohavemadehalfacompleterotationaroundtheEarthonceeachhalfyear.Toapersonon
theEarth,then,thecageapparentlymovesabout1/365thofarotationperday.Thatamountstoaboutfour
minutesadaycalculatedas1440minutesinadaydividedbythenumberofdaysinayear.
InanswertothesecondpartofQuestion#8,ifthesatellitesorbitswereboostedanother50kilometersorso
furtherouttheywouldappearintheskyatthesameplaceatthesametimeeachday.Thefurtherasatelliteis
fromtheearththelongeritsperiodbothbecauseitmovesmoreslowlyandbecauseithasfurthertogo.
Question#9:"Inearliertextitwassuggestedthatitwassomewhatmoreimportantthattherebeagoodviewof
theskytothesouthforgoodreception.Why?"
Thestatementaboutreceptionbeingbettertowardthesouthappliesonlytothemiddleandupperlatitudesin
thenorthernhemisphere.Asyouknow,thesatellitesareinobliqueorbits.Theirtracksgivethenorthandsouth
polesawideberth.InFigure31youarelookingdirectlydownonthenorthpoleatsatellitetracksgenerated
overasixhourperiod.Thedashedcircleisaparallelat45,soyoucanseethatthereisadearthofsatellites
overheadifyougoveryfarnorthofthat.ThereisstillgoodGPScoverageallthewaytotheNorthPole.

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Figure31.GPSsatellitetracksseenfromspacelookingtowardtheNorthPole.

STEPBYSTEP
Recallthestoryofthetwo"logicallychallenged"peoplewhorentedaboatandwentfishing.Theywerehighly
successfulcatchingalotoffish.Said"A"to"B,""Besuretomarkthisspotsowecancomebacktoit."Asthe
dayendedandtheywereapproachingthedock,"A"asked"B":"Didyoumarkthatfishingspot?",towhich"B"
replied:"SureIdid,justlikeyouaskedmerighthereonthesideoftheboat"Therewasapauseas
theabsurdityofthispenetrated"As"brain.Youidiot!Whatifnexttimewedontgetthesameboat?"
Butnow,aswemoveintoanewcentury,youhaveawayofmarkingwhereyouwere.Infact,youhavedone
so.Byuseoftheprogramyoucandeterminewhereyouaretowithin5to15meters.Ourgoalnowistolookat
thoseuploadedfiles,andsomeothers,bothgraphicallyandstatistically.Youwillalsoacquireanunderstanding
ofthequalityofyourdata.
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Nextpost:ExaminingGPSData(GPSandGIS)Part2
Previouspost:AutomatedDataCollection(GPSandGIS)Part3
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RelatedLinks
GlobalPositioningSystemandGIS
BasicConcepts(GPSandGIS)Part1
BasicConcepts(GPSandGIS)Part2
BasicConcepts(GPSandGIS)Part3
BasicConcepts(GPSandGIS)Part4
BasicConcepts(GPSandGIS)Part5

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