Productivity Improvement Handbook For Fossil Steam Power Plants Third Edition

Productivity Improvement Handbook for
Fossil Steam Power Plants: Third Edition

A. F. Armor and R. H. Wolk
SED
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M AT E
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Technical Report
Productivity Improvement
Handbook for Fossil Steam Power
Plants: Third Edition
1006315
Final Report, October 2002
Authors
A. F. Armor
R. H. Wolk
EPRI Project Manager

A. F. Armor
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
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CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
EPRI
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Author
A. F. Armor
Wolk Integrated Technical Services (WITS)
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Author
R. H. Wolk
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Productivity Improvement Handbook for Fossil Steam Power Plants: Third Edition, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2002. 1006315.
iii
REPORT SUMMARY
This handbook discusses how to inspect, maintain, and repair major equipment in fossil-fired
generating plants. It provides guidance for those involved in renovating and preparing fossil
steam plants for operation in a competitive generation market. The first two editions of this
handbook in 1998 and 2000 quickly found application in fossil plants, and were broadly
distributed within generating companies worldwide. Since then, the book and its regular updates
have been available through an epri.com website to members of the Productivity Improvement
User Group. This edition includes those updates, specifically the critically assessed case studies
describing innovative technologies that have found considerable value within operating
generating units.
Background
Over the years, many reports, tests, conferences, and case studies have been published on
maintaining and upgrading boilers, steam turbine-generators, heat exchangers, and other major
equipment items in fossil steam plants. In addition, applications of new technology have been
demonstrated in operating plants around the world. As these new innovations continue to
emerge, it is valuable to review and assess the advances for the benefit of plant operators. In
addition, generation companies increasingly require that plant staff is trained in the best methods
to detect and avoid equipment failures and anomalies in order to minimize operating and
maintenance costs. The information in this handbook is organized so a reader can quickly and
easily grasp the current state-of-the-art in maintaining fossil steam units, obtain guidance on
specific plant problems, and implement solutions.
Objectives
To document causes of equipment failure and identify ways to inspect and maintain boilers,
steam turbines, and balance-of-plant components.
To underscore cost-effective approaches for minimizing downtime due to planned and

unplanned outages.
To review and critically assess the application of new technology and ideas in operating
generating units.
Approach
For each major piece of equipment in a fossil steam plant, the authors reviewed past EPRI
reports, industry experience, and specific plant case studies. They extracted current practices that
have been most effective in the areas of maintenance, inspection, and repair. Particular attention
has been paid to new methods and technologies implemented in operating units.
Results
This handbook deals first with overall plant issues and then addresses equipment concerns,
beginning with the boiler. Turbine, generator, and balance-of-plant chapters follow. Each major
piece of equipment is discussed in terms of failures, inspections, and maintenance/repair actions.
The handbook provides case studies of productivity improvements in operating plants, many
with critical technical assessments.
The productivity handbook will guide generating company staff in detecting, understanding, and
resolving the most commonly experienced problems. To delve more deeply into specific
engineering practices for an identified failure mode, each chapter includes an extensive reference
and bibliography. Generating companies should look at this handbook as a first-level assessment
for station personnel and for all those involved in maintaining fossil steam plants or in making
asset management decisions.
EPRI Perspective
Reliable operation of a fossil power plant is not a simple charge, particularly when the generating
unit is required to cycle up and down or on and off to match demand. The most essential step is
to understand the consequences of this duty on key equipment and be ready to handle any
maintenance needs. This handbook therefore provides plant personnel with a starting point when
faced with plant maintenance, refurbishment, or upgrades. The descriptions and critical reviews
of productivity improvement case studies will be of particular interest when assessing what
technologies have proven valuable in operating plants. To provide timely information on these
case studies, EPRI has instituted a web-based Productivity Improvement User Group that
regularly receives technology updates. Specific information on this user group can be obtained
from EPRI project manager Tony Armor at 650/855-2961, aarmor@epri.com.
Keywords
Boilers
Turbine-Generators
Balance-of-Plant
Availability
Maintenance
Inspection
vi
EPRI Licensed Material
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors, Tony Armor and Ron Wolk, want to thank the technical staff at EPRI for
overseeing many of the technology advances described in this book. In this edition the critically
assessed case studies and reviews of emerging technologies are an important addition. Expert
reviewers include Kevin Shields, Mark Perakis, Dave OConnor, Barry Dooley, Dick Rhudy,
George Offen, Jan Stein, Rob Frank, Rich Brown, Dave Gandy, Ralph Altman, Cyrus Taft, Rich
Tilley, Kent Coleman, John Tsou, Dave Broske, Jeff Stallings, Tony Facchiano, Mike Pugh, Jim
Sharkey, Kent Zammit, Ramsey Chang, and Dean Golden.
In addition, many power plant staff and generating companies participated in the in-plant tests
and demonstrations cited throughout the text. We would like to acknowledge collectively their
support and contributions to the techniques, methods and validations of the many power plant
practices described here. This is a volume that describes a broad collaborative effort over many
years that has greatly enhanced the reliability and performance of fossil-fired power plants
vii
PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

Since the publication of the Second Edition in 2000, the search for improved technologies for
refurbishing and improving the productivity of the existing fleet of fossil units has intensified.
The flow of technical innovations and the application of these to operating units are described in
publications and conferences around the world, and the timely review and deployment of
productivity improvements so as to improve the asset value of generating plants is a key step in
maintaining the profitability of any generating company. This Third Edition includes updated
sections in all chapters and a substantial number of critically assessed application case studies.
Chapter 2 has new information on current plant performance, as well as updates on the electricity
market, spark spreads, capacity reserves, and fuel options. Chapter 3 includes latest data on
boiler tube failures, a new section on boiler slagging and fouling, additional case studies in SCR
and SNCR, and a section on mercury emissions and controls. Chapter 4 has additional case
studies on turbine weld repair, and a new section on advanced materials and designs for
supercritical units. Chapter 5 discusses two growing issues for electric generators: stator winding
water leaks, and blockage of stator bar strands due to copper oxide deposits. Chapter 6 has case
studies on coal handling, feed water heater and condenser performance improvement, a new
section on water cooling systems, and updated sections on precipitators, SO2 scrubbers, and feed
water chemistry.
The Productivity Improvement Handbook, and regular upgrades on critically assessed case
studies in operating units, are posted on EPRIs Productivity Improvement website, accessible by
members of the Productivity Improvement User Group. This group currently represents more
than 300,000 MW of installed capacity worldwide, and over 250 operating power plants.
Tony Armor
Ron Wolk
Palo Alto, September 2002
ix
COMMENTS FROM USERS OF THE HANDBOOK

AND THE WEBSITE
Information on plant equipment in the Productivity Improvement Handbook, along with the
comments and insights about the applicability of the specific case results, are helpful in
evaluating plant projects. The lists of papers at the end of each report is valuable additional
information. The Handbook allows for a good, quick assessment of a project.
Ed Knowles, Southern Company Generation
I like the fact that theProductivity Improvement Handbook covers such a wide range of issues.
You never know what problem is going to crop up next in a power plant and it's nice to have a
reference book you can pull off the shelf and dig into immediately. Plus the Website is a great
vehicle for getting updates on recent real life plant problems.
Jim Watson, Dynegy Midwest Generation
Ideas presented in the Productivity Manual, as well as the Website updates, are forwarded
right to the plant floor where technicians and engineers can then apply them in a timely,
practical manner. At Coal Creek lessons learned about oxygenated water treatment, O&M cost
reduction strategies, boiler tube failure reduction, generator stator bar contamination, slag
reduction, weld repair, and magnetic couplings have been applied.
Charlie Bullinger, Great River Energy
EPRI and Progress Energy are working together to allow PlantView, a web based intranet
knowledge management system, to link directly to EPRI's Productivity Improvement Website. By
linking PlantView and the Productivity Website, it will allow timely connectivity to leading case
studies that will support real-time analysis and awareness of available technical solutions.
Bernie Cook, Progress Energy
We review the various stories from utilities to see how they might apply to our facilities and
applicable technical interests are passed on to the appropriate group leader in the plants. We
will use the Handbook and Website with increasing frequency as our company attempts to unlock
more value out of our assets.
Scott Ramsey, Oglethorpe Power
xi
It is our belief that there is much valuable information that can be shared among electricity
producers around the world. The EPRI Productivity Improvement Handbook and Website is a
readily accessible database of the typical problems that all generating facilities are faced with
today. This productivity improvement database provides an excellent means for problem solving,
and generates ideas for improvement projects.
Bob Osco, Reliant Energy
Our participation in the Productivity Improvement Users Group allows us to benefit from the
experiences, problem solving, performance improvements, etc. of a wide range of other plants.
This is especially valuable to us as a small utility, operating one large coal-fired power plant,
because it gives us the same kind of information previously only available to utilities with large
fleets of plants. Hearing how other facilities have dealt with a problem, improved their
performance, or upgraded a system, and being able to speak directly with the people involved,
lets my organization gain the benefit of the experience without having had to pay the sometimes
painful price of the experience.
Russell Huffman, Public Service Company of New Mexico
The Productivity Improvement User's Group website has provided tactical information for
current issues facing fossil generation within our fleet. We believe the value to be tremendous
for insight into the operational and maintenance issues that have existed within the fleet for
years, and for emerging issues on emissions reduction that we face.
Lois Sparks, LGE Energy
xii
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1-1
2 BROAD ISSUES FOR PLANT OPERATORS .......................................................................2-1
STRATEGIES FOR OPERATING GENERATING PLANTS .................................................2-1
New Coal and Gas-fired units...........................................................................................2-2
Electricity Pricing and Price Fluctuations..........................................................................2-3
Spark Spreads and Plant Value .......................................................................................2-5
RELIABILITY AND CAPACITY RESERVES.........................................................................2-6
Economic Life is the Issue................................................................................................2-8
The Environmental Challenge ..........................................................................................2-9
Current Regulatory Proposals ..........................................................................................2-9
The Present Performance of Fossil Plants .....................................................................2-11
Subsystem Outages .......................................................................................................2-13
IMPROVING ASSET MANAGEMENT ................................................................................2-14
Marks of Excellence for Fossil Power Plants..................................................................2-17
The Impact of Fuel Selection and Fuel Cost ..................................................................2-18
The Fuel Options ............................................................................................................2-19
Powder River Basin Coals: Increased Use for the Western Low Sulfur Fuel .................2-20
THE IMPACTS OF CYCLING ON POWER PLANT PERFORMANCE...............................2-21
Brief Case Histories of Improved Cycling Operation ......................................................2-25
IMPROVING MAINTENANCE APPROACHES...................................................................2-26
Predictive Maintenance ..................................................................................................2-29
Productivity Tools ...........................................................................................................2-30
Detailed Case History of Improved Maintenance Practices ...........................................2-32
1000 MW Merom Plant Reduces O&M Costs by Improving Maintenance Practices .....2-32
Brief Case History of Improved Maintenance Practices .................................................2-34
Nevada Power Institute a Plant Maintenance Optimization Program ........................2-34
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................2-34
xiii
Other Literature of Interest .............................................................................................2-37

Asset Management ....................................................................................................2-37
Maintenance ..............................................................................................................2-38
Productivity Improvement Tools.................................................................................2-38
3 BOILERS ................................................................................................................................3-1
GENERAL DESCRIPTION....................................................................................................3-1
Boiler Design Process ......................................................................................................3-2
The Supercritical Steam Boiler .........................................................................................3-3
Supercriticals: United States........................................................................................3-3
AVAILABILITY.......................................................................................................................3-4
Cycling Problems in Boilers..............................................................................................3-6
BOILER TUBES ....................................................................................................................3-9
General Discussion of Boiler Tube Failures .....................................................................3-9
Which Tubes Fail First?..................................................................................................3-11
Tracking Down the Cause ..............................................................................................3-12
Inspection of Boiler Tubes ..............................................................................................3-19
Corrective Actions for Boiler Tubes ................................................................................3-21
Boiler Tube Monitoring and Diagnostic Techniques .......................................................3-25
Detailed Case Histories of Effective Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Programs ..............3-28
OPPD Reduces Availability Loss Due to Boiler Tube Failures From 6% in 1990
to less than 1% in 2000..............................................................................................3-29
Managing the Pressure Parts Supply Chain Reduces the Number of Boiler
Tube Failures at the 4x500 MW Loy Yang Power Station in Australia ......................3-32
ESKOM Reduces Losses of Availability Due to Boiler Tube Failure Outages to
0.68% in 2000 ............................................................................................................3-35
Comprehensive BTF Management Program Used at Black Coal Boilers in New
South Wales, Australia Keeps Availability Loss to About 1 % ...................................3-37
Residual Stress Resulting from the Manufacturing Process Led to Stress
Corrosion Cracking in Platen Superheating Tubing at the Navajo Generating
Station........................................................................................................................3-39
Cyclone Boiler Tubes Repaired More Rapidly with Automated Welding System ......3-41
Brief Case Histories of Effective Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Programs ....................3-43
BTF Reduced by PECO, PSI and KCP&L .................................................................3-43
ComEd Reduces Waterwall Corrosion Fatigue Failures by Controlling Dissolved
Oxygen Prior to Startup .............................................................................................3-43
Corrosion Fatigue Causes Tube Failures in an Oil Fired Cycling GPU Unit..............3-44
xiv
Chromized Panels Reduce Boiler Tubes Failures in PEPCOs Supercritical

Units...........................................................................................................................3-44
TVA Evaluates High Chrome Steel Reheat Assemblies............................................3-44
New York Power Authority Uses Infrared Photography and Reduces
Superheater Temperatures........................................................................................3-45
BOILER SLAGGING AND FOULING..................................................................................3-45
EPRIs VISTA Product for Slagging and Fouling Predictions .........................................3-51
Detailed Case Histories of Slag Control Systems ..........................................................3-52
Injection of Chemical Compounds Reduce Slag Build-up at Pacificorps 480
MW Hunter Unit #3 ....................................................................................................3-52
Water Cannons In The Three Lignite-Fired 750 MW TXU Martin Lake Units
Reduce Slag Problems, Improve Efficiency, and Reduce NOx ..................................3-54
Intelligent Sootblowing System Demonstration at 500 MW Hammond Unit 4 of
Georgia Power Indicates Potential For Reducing Sootblowing Frequency ...............3-58
Installation of an Intelligent Sootblowing System at Reliants 600 MW Parish
Units 7 and 8 Has Significantly Reduced Sootblowing Costs ....................................3-61
Fouling Monitor Helps Operators Avoid Convective Section Plugging at the
Sundance 1 and 2 and Wabamun 3 Units of TransAlta Utilities ................................3-64
HEADERS AND DRUMS ....................................................................................................3-66
General Discussion of Header and Drum Failures .........................................................3-66
Superheater Headers ................................................................................................3-68
Economizer Headers .................................................................................................3-68
Inspection of Headers and Drums ..................................................................................3-69
Corrective Actions for Headers and Drums ....................................................................3-72
Temperbead Weld Repair..........................................................................................3-72
Boiler Materials for Supercritical Plants..........................................................................3-73
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Headers and Drums .............3-74
Arizona Public Service Extends Superheater Outlet Header Life ..............................3-74
Lower Colorado River Authority Installs a P91 Header..............................................3-75
PG&E Reduces Inspections With Creep-Fatigue Pro................................................3-75
Kansas City Power and Light Uses Creep-Fatigue Pro For Run/Replace
Decisions ...................................................................................................................3-75
Arizona Public Service Economizer Replacements ...................................................3-75
Electricit de France (EdF) Detects Cracks in Headers and Drums..........................3-75
Consolidated Edison Uses Temperbead Repair on a Reheat Manifold.....................3-76
HIGH ENERGY PIPING ......................................................................................................3-76
Damage Mechanisms in Main Steam and Hot Reheat Piping........................................3-79
xv
Seam Welded Piping Failures....................................................................................3-80

Cold Reheat Piping ....................................................................................................3-83
High Energy Valves ...................................................................................................3-84
Brief Case Histories of Observed Damage in High Energy Piping .................................3-84
South Carolina Electric and Gas Repairs Steam Line Cracks ...................................3-84
San Diego Gas and Electric Installs Creep Resistant Wye Fittings ...........................3-84
Flow Accelerated Corrosion ...........................................................................................3-85
Inspection for Flow Accelerated Corrosion ................................................................3-87
Detailed Case History of Flow Accelerated Corrosion....................................................3-87
Predictive Approach Confirmed by Field Observation of Flow Accelerated
Corrosion and Other Wear Mechanisms....................................................................3-87
OTHER BOILER EQUIPMENT ...........................................................................................3-90
General Discussion of Damage Mechanisms, Inspections, and Corrective Actions
for Other Boiler Equipment .............................................................................................3-90
Detailed Case History of High Pressure Control Valve Upgrade....................................3-93
KCP&L Increases Capacity and Profitability at 342 MW Once-through
Supercritical La Cygne Unit #1 by Retrofitting Replacement Control Valves.............3-93
NOx CONTROL ....................................................................................................................3-95
General Discussion ........................................................................................................3-95
Control Options...............................................................................................................3-96
Post Combustion Options ..........................................................................................3-97
CONTROLLING SCR SYSTEMS........................................................................................3-98
SCR Basics................................................................................................................3-99
The SCR System--How it Works................................................................................3-99
Optimizing SCR Outlet NOx Concentration ..............................................................3-100
Combustion Modifications for NOx Control ...................................................................3-101
Estimated Costs of NOx Reduction Alternatives ...........................................................3-102
Measurement of Pulverized Coal Flow.........................................................................3-103
NOx Control in Gas-Fired Boilers ..................................................................................3-104
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Combustion Systems
for NOx Control ..............................................................................................................3-106
Multiple Combustion Modifications at Duke Powers Allen and Lee Units
Reduce NOx Emissions to Less Than 0.20 lb/MMBtu and Maintain LOI on Fly
Ash...........................................................................................................................3-106
Combustion Modifications at Reliants 820 MW Limestone Unit Reduce NOx
Emissions on Powder River Basin Coal to Less Than 0.20 lb/MMBtu.....................3-109
xvi
Consumers Power Utilizes a Combination of PRB Coal and Combustion

Modifications to Reduce NOx to 0.15 lb/MMBtu at 156 MW Cobb #5 and 265
MW Campbell #1 Units ............................................................................................3-112
Modeling Points the Way to Lower NOx Emissions at NYPAs 865 MW Charles
Poletti Unit ...............................................................................................................3-114
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Combustion Systems for
NOx Control ...................................................................................................................3-116
Hawaiian Electric NOx Control ..................................................................................3-116
Kansas Power and Light Installs Low NOx Burners..................................................3-116
Potomac Electric Optimizes Combustion to Control NOx .........................................3-116
Entergy Installs Induced Flue Gas Recirculation to Control NOx .............................3-117
Southern Company Uses GNOCIS to Increase Combustion Efficiency While
Maintaining Compliance NOx Emissions ..................................................................3-117
TVA Optimizes Combustion Parameters to Control NOx .........................................3-118
Louisville Gas & Electric Modify Burners at Cane Run ............................................3-118
Duquesne Light Burners Modified at Elrama to Reduce NOx 30-44% .....................3-118
Deseret G&T Tunes Burners Using Flame Analysis................................................3-118
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of SCR Systems for NOx
Control ..........................................................................................................................3-119
Static Mixing Improves SCR Performance to Better than 90% NOx Emission
Reduction in Twin 750 MW PP&L Montour Units ....................................................3-119
Acoustic SCR Sootblowers Reduce Sootblowing Costs by 75% at Mirants 250
MW Birchwood Power Facility .................................................................................3-122
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of SNCR Systems for
NOx Control ...................................................................................................................3-124
SNCR Reduces NOx Emissions from Twin 250 MW Coal Fired Boilers at
KEPCOs Honam Plant by 40% to Meet Local Emission Requirement of Less
Than 300 ppm..........................................................................................................3-124
Carolina Power and Light Reduces NOx to 0.28 Lb/MMbtu at their 198 MW Coal
Fired Ashville #1 Boiler with Fuel Lean Gas Reburn and SNCR .............................3-127
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades for SCR and SNCR
Systems for NOx Control ...............................................................................................3-129
Southern Energy Inc. Utilizes SCR at the Birchwood Plant .....................................3-129
LILCO Installation of SNCR .....................................................................................3-129
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Coal Flow Control
Systems for NOx Control ...............................................................................................3-130
On-line Coal Flow Measurements Improve Performance At PG&Es 225 MW
Logan Generating Station ........................................................................................3-130
xvii
Burner Line Orifices Improve Coal Distribution to Burners at Consumer

Energys 260 MW Karn and 780 MW Campbell Plants ...........................................3-133
SPECIAL ISSUES OF B&W CYCLONE UNITS................................................................3-136
General Discussion ......................................................................................................3-136
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Cyclone Boilers ..................3-137
CFD Modeling Aids in Reducing NOx in Cyclone Boilers .........................................3-137
American Electric Power Uses Water Spray to Reduce Cyclone Boiler NOx
Emissions ................................................................................................................3-137
Wisconsin Power and Light Uses Coal Reburning to Reduce Cyclone Boiler
NOx Emissions..........................................................................................................3-137
Nebraska Public Power Injects Anhydrous Ammonia In SNCR System..................3-137
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................3-138
Other Literature of Interest ...........................................................................................3-147
Boiler Tube Failures.................................................................................................3-147
Steam Drums and Headers .....................................................................................3-147
Monitoring and Diagnostics......................................................................................3-147
Sootblowing .............................................................................................................3-148
NOx Reduction ..........................................................................................................3-148
Cyclone Boilers ........................................................................................................3-149
Weld Repair .............................................................................................................3-149
4 STEAM TURBINES ................................................................................................................4-1
Typical Configurations ......................................................................................................4-1
Design Approaches ..........................................................................................................4-3
Impulse Turbines ..............................................................................................................4-4
Reaction Turbines ............................................................................................................4-5
Low Pressure Blading.......................................................................................................4-5
Materials of Construction for Rotors and Disks ................................................................4-6
Materials for Ultrasupercritical Turbines ...........................................................................4-8
Turbine Forgings..........................................................................................................4-8
Beyond 1200F .............................................................................................................4-9
Casting Steels............................................................................................................4-10
Turbine Blades...........................................................................................................4-10
Overall Materials Summary........................................................................................4-11
Cooling Schemes for Supercritical Turbines..............................................................4-12
xviii
Worldwide Designs for Supercritical Turbines................................................................4-14

Russian Designs ........................................................................................................4-15
Direct Contact Heaters...............................................................................................4-16
Baumann Exhaust Schemes......................................................................................4-19
Side-by-Side Condensers ..........................................................................................4-22
Designs in Japan .......................................................................................................4-23
Cycling Flexibility in Japan.........................................................................................4-24
Designs in Europe .....................................................................................................4-27
Evolution of European Plants.....................................................................................4-27
By-Pass Systems.......................................................................................................4-28
PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................4-29
Efficiency Losses............................................................................................................4-31
AVAILABILITY.....................................................................................................................4-34
Cycling Issues for Steam Turbines.................................................................................4-36
Minimizing Outages and Outage Duration......................................................................4-38
Water Induction Monitors on Two Cogeneration Combined Cycle Plants .................4-38
Valve Leak Detection at Baltimore Gas and Electric .................................................4-38
STEAM TURBINE ROTOR FORGING AND DISKS ...........................................................4-39
Summary of Rotor Forging and Disk Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques
and Corrective Actions ...................................................................................................4-39
Additional Comments on Rotor Forging and Rotor Bore Damage Mechanisms........4-41
Vibration Problems in Turbines ......................................................................................4-43
Lube Oil Periodic Monitoring......................................................................................4-44
Public Service of Indiana Solves Turbine Vibration Problems ...................................4-46
Inspection Techniques....................................................................................................4-46
Life Prediction and Corrective Actions............................................................................4-48
Rotor Life Prediction ..................................................................................................4-48
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Rotor Forgings and
Disks...............................................................................................................................4-50
Weld Repair of Twelve Southern Company Low Pressure Steam Turbine
Rotors ........................................................................................................................4-50
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Rotor Forgings and Disks.....4-53
GPU Rotor Inspection Interval Extension and Potomac Electric Rotor Analysis .......4-53
Potomac Electric Weld Repairs Damaged Control Stage..........................................4-53
PECO Energy Weld Repairs a Reheat Rotor After Creep Damage ..........................4-53
xix
STEAM TURBINE BLADES AND DIAPHRAGMS ..............................................................4-54

Summary of Blade and Diaphragm Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques
and Corrective Actions ...................................................................................................4-54
Additional Comments on Blade and Diaphragm Damage Mechanisms ....................4-56
Blade Roots ....................................................................................................................4-57
Inspection Techniques....................................................................................................4-59
BLADE Analysis.........................................................................................................4-59
Corrective Actions ..........................................................................................................4-59
Dealing with Solid Particle Erosion (SPE)..................................................................4-60
Reducing SPE Damage ........................................................................................4-61
Brief Case Histories of Blade Refurbishments and Upgrades ........................................4-62
Southern California Edison Converts a Control Stage to Restore Partial Arc
Admission Capability..................................................................................................4-62
Southern California Edison and Pennsylvania Power and Light Control Stage
Modifications ..............................................................................................................4-62
BB73 Blade Investigation...........................................................................................4-63
TVA Utilization of the BLADE Code ...........................................................................4-63
Florida Power and Light Utilization of the BLADE Code ............................................4-63
Penelec Utilized Eddy Current Probe System to Detect Turbine Blade Cracks ........4-63
Southwestern Public Service Detected Cracks in Steam Turbine Blades with
Ultrasonic Inspection .................................................................................................4-64
WEPCO Refurbished L-1 Turbine Buckets................................................................4-64
ELCOM Re-balanced L-2 Blades to Eliminate Failures .............................................4-64
STATIONARY COMPONENTS...........................................................................................4-64
Summary of Component Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques and
Corrective Actions ..........................................................................................................4-64
Additional Discussion on Damage Mechanisms ........................................................4-65
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Stationary Turbine
Components ...................................................................................................................4-66
Niagara Mohawk Repairs Cracked HP/IP Casings....................................................4-66
PowerGen Weld Repairs Cracked Steam Chests .....................................................4-67
Public Service of Indiana Casing Repair....................................................................4-67
PERFORMANCE RECOVERY ...........................................................................................4-67
Surface Roughness ........................................................................................................4-69
Steam Turbine Blade Improvement................................................................................4-69
Replacing Seals and Packings .......................................................................................4-70
xx
Retractable Packings .................................................................................................4-70

Bell Seals ...................................................................................................................4-71
Brief Case Histories of Performance Upgrades..............................................................4-71
Upgrade Packages ....................................................................................................4-71
Replacement LP Turbines .........................................................................................4-71
Southern California Edison Steam Turbine Performance Recovery..........................4-72
San Diego Gas and Electric Rotor Replacement.......................................................4-72
Improved Seal Rings at Brayton Point .......................................................................4-73
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................4-73
Rotors ........................................................................................................................4-79
Disks ..........................................................................................................................4-80
Shaft OD ....................................................................................................................4-81
Solid Particle Erosion.................................................................................................4-81
Thermal Performance ................................................................................................4-81
5 GENERATORS.......................................................................................................................5-1
AVAILABILITY.......................................................................................................................5-2
Cycling Issues for Generators ..........................................................................................5-3
GENERATOR COMPONENTS.............................................................................................5-5
Summary of Generator Component Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques
and Corrective Actions .....................................................................................................5-5
Rotor Components.......................................................................................................5-6
Stator Components ......................................................................................................5-7
Other Stationary Components .....................................................................................5-9
Discussion of Major Issues for Individual Components ....................................................5-9
Generator Rotor ...........................................................................................................5-9
Retaining Rings .........................................................................................................5-12
Commonly Asked Questions......................................................................................5-13
Stator Bars and Laminations......................................................................................5-14
Partial Discharge Testing...........................................................................................5-14
Loose Bars and Core Overheating ............................................................................5-15
Water-Cooled Generator Leaks .................................................................................5-16
Flow Restrictions in Stator Water Systems Due to Deposition of Copper .................5-20
xxi
Water Chemistry Practices ...................................................................................5-21

Inspections and Chemical Cleaning......................................................................5-22
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Generators .....................5-25
ESKOM uses Elevated pH Water Treatment to Prevent the Plugging of
Generator Stator Bars................................................................................................5-25
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Generators ...........................5-28
TU Electric Deals with Several Leaking Stator Bars ..................................................5-28
Wisconsin Public Service (WPS) Use Epoxy Injection to Repair Stator Bar
Leaks. ........................................................................................................................5-28
Generator Upgrades from a Vendor Viewpoint..........................................................5-28
Flux Probes Detect Shorted Turns in the Rotor .........................................................5-29
Eddy Current Techniques Detect Generator Retaining Rings Flaws.........................5-29
Evaluation of Retaining Rings with RRing-Life Code Results in Extension of
Useful Life..................................................................................................................5-29
Retaining Ring Fails at Public Service of Colorado Due to Torsional Stimulus .........5-30
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................5-30
Rotors ........................................................................................................................5-32
Retaining Rings .........................................................................................................5-32
Zone Baffle Rings ......................................................................................................5-32
Insulation ...................................................................................................................5-33
Wedges......................................................................................................................5-33
Leaks .........................................................................................................................5-33
6 BALANCE OF PLANT EQUIPMENT AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS......................................6-1
AVAILABILITY.......................................................................................................................6-1
BOILER AUXILIARIES ..........................................................................................................6-2
Boiler Feedpumps ............................................................................................................6-3
Feedpump Operation: Key Concerns ..........................................................................6-3
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Boiler Feed Pumps.................6-7
Boiler Feed Pump Modifications by Pennsylvania Power & Light................................6-7
Draft Fans.........................................................................................................................6-7
Fan Maintenance .........................................................................................................6-8
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Draft Fans ..............................6-9
Armoring Public Service of Colorado Cherokee Station Fans .....................................6-9
xxii
Air Preheaters.................................................................................................................6-10
Air Heaters: Key Concerns ........................................................................................6-11
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Air Heaters ...........................6-13
Air Heater Performance Improved by Reducing Cold End Temperatures .................6-13
Coal Handling Systems ..................................................................................................6-13
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Coal Handing
Systems..........................................................................................................................6-14
Magnetic Couplings Reduce Maintenance Costs at the 821 MW Coronado
Generating Station of Salt River Power District .........................................................6-14
New Crusher System for Breaking up Frozen Coal Improves Cold Weather
Productivity at the 1000 MW Cayuga Plant of Public Service Indiana.......................6-16
AmerenUE Installs a 4000 T/H System at the Meramec Plant for Unloading and
Transshipment of Powder River Basin Coal to Reduce Transportation Costs ..........6-18
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Coal Handling Systems........6-21
Coal Handling and Distribution Issues Resolved at PECO........................................6-21
Pulverizers......................................................................................................................6-21
Fires and Explosions..................................................................................................6-22
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Pulverizers......................6-24
New Design for Coal Mill Exhauster Reduces Wear at Mirants 510 MW
Potomac River Station ...............................................................................................6-24
Coal Bunker/Silos ...........................................................................................................6-26
Stacks.............................................................................................................................6-26
STEAM TURBINE AUXILIARIES ........................................................................................6-27
General Comments About Power Plant Heat Exchangers .............................................6-28
Feedwater Heaters .........................................................................................................6-29
Feedwater Heater Operation: Key Concerns.............................................................6-29
Detailed Case History Of Feedwater Heater Refurbishment and Upgrade ....................6-32
Monitoring Feed Water Heater Performance Uncovers Efficiency Losses at
Georgia Powers 845 MW Plant Hammond ...............................................................6-32
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Feed Water Heaters.............6-34
Central Hudson Gas and Electric Detect Feedwater Heater Tube Leaks
Acoustically ................................................................................................................6-34
Header Feedwater Heaters Installed by LILCO and Union Electric...........................6-34
Feedwater Heater Tubing Upgrade by LILCO ...........................................................6-35
Condensers ....................................................................................................................6-36
Condenser Fouling and Biocorrosion .............................................................................6-37
Pulsed Acoustics...................................................................................................6-38
xxiii
Galvanic Corrosion................................................................................................6-38
Condenser Performance Issues ................................................................................6-40
Tube Cleaning ...........................................................................................................6-40
Mechanical On-Line Cleaning Systems .....................................................................6-43
Plugging Tubes .....................................................................................................6-43
Detailed Case History Of Condenser Refurbishment and Upgrade ...............................6-45
Reducing In-Leakage of Air to Condenser at the 520 MW Northside Unit 3 of
the Jacksonville Electric Authority Saves $200,000/year...........................................6-45
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Condensers..........................6-47
TVA Redesign of Condenser Hoods..........................................................................6-47
Alabama Power Replaces Tubes and Deals with Fouling .........................................6-48
Nevada Cogeneration Associates Re-tube Condenser and Solve ErosionCorrosion Problem .....................................................................................................6-48
City Water, Light & Power Find Copper-Nickel Better than Stainless Steel...............6-48
TU Electric Uses On-Line Mechanical Condenser Tube Cleaners ............................6-48
In-Situ Condenser Tube Recoating at Florida Power Corp........................................6-49
Instrumentation and Modeling for Condensers ..........................................................6-49
Improved Condenser Tube Cleaning at LILCO..........................................................6-49
New England Power Finds Condenser Leaks with Tracers.......................................6-49
Deaerators......................................................................................................................6-50
Water Cooling Systems ..................................................................................................6-50
Once-Through Cooling...............................................................................................6-51
Re-Circulated Steam Plant Cooling ...........................................................................6-52
Cooling Towers...............................................................................................................6-54
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Plant Water Systems......6-55
Capacity Losses Restored at Entergys 480 MW Sabine Unit by Overhauling
the Steam Turbine, Feedwater and Cooling Systems ...............................................6-55
South Carolina Electric and Gas Uses Hydrogen Peroxide to Keep the Cooling
Tower of the 218 MW Unit 3 at the Canadys Generating Station Free of Biofilms ....6-58
Cogentrix Uses HRA (Halogen Resistant Amine) to Reduce Copper Corrosion
at its 250 MW Whitewater Combined Cycle Cogeneration Plant...............................6-59
Sprayable Ceramic Coatings Prevents Circulating Water Pump Casing and
Impeller Corrosion at 2 X 642 MW Constellation Energy Brandon Shores Units ......6-61
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Plant Water Systems............6-63
Union Electric Upgrades Thermal Performance of 1233 MW Calloway Plant ...........6-63
ComEd Converts Cooling Tower from Crossflow to Counterflow ..............................6-64
xxiv
Entergy Upgrades Cooling Tower by Controlling Air/Water Problems.......................6-64

Dairyland Power Removes Zebra Mussels with Hot Water at the J. P. Madgett
Station........................................................................................................................6-64
Chlorine Dioxide Control of Zebra Mussels Tested at Illinois Power's Wood
River Station, Central Illinois Power Service's Meredosia Station, and PSI
Energy's Gallagher Station ........................................................................................6-64
Illinois Power Successfully Uses Molluscicide for Zebra Mussel Control ..................6-65
Coatings for Blue Mussels at LILCO..........................................................................6-65
Brayton Point Units Incorporate Redesigned Condensate Systems to Increase
Output and Reduce Heat Rate...................................................................................6-65
Northeast Utilities Upgrade Traveling Water Screens ...............................................6-65
Improved Cooling Water System Reduces Auxiliary Power Losses at Cardinal
Plant...........................................................................................................................6-66
POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS ...................................................................................6-66
Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems .................................................................................6-66
Maintenance Issues in FGD Systems........................................................................6-69
Maintenance of Materials ......................................................................................6-70
Specific Materials Problems in FGD Systems.......................................................6-70
Spray Dryer Problems...........................................................................................6-72
Mechanical Equipment Maintenance ....................................................................6-73
Cost Reduction Strategies for FGD Systems .................................................................6-76
Mist Eliminators.....................................................................................................6-77
FGD Performance Monitoring ....................................................................................6-78
Wet FGD Process Chemistry ................................................................................6-78
Managing Chemistry ..................................................................................................6-79
Increasing Total SO2 Removed ..................................................................................6-80
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Air Heaters/Scrubbers ....6-80
Heat Recovery from the Flue Gas Increases Output and Efficiency at Three
European Power Plants .............................................................................................6-80
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of FGD Systems.......................6-84
Redesigned Mist Eliminators Improve Performance at Kansas City Power and
Light and Cincinnati Gas and Electric ........................................................................6-84
Indianapolis Power and Light Reduce FGD Duct Corrosion......................................6-84
First Energy Tests Limestone-Based, Forced Oxidation Process ...........................6-85
AES Beaver Valley Station Converts FGD to New Forced Oxidation Process..........6-85
Precipitators and Baghouses..........................................................................................6-85
Precipitator Performance ...........................................................................................6-85
xxv
Improving Precipitators ..............................................................................................6-86

Tracking Precipitator Problems..................................................................................6-87
An Alternate Approach to Gas Conditioning ..............................................................6-89
Consumers Energy Testing...................................................................................6-90
Demonstrations of Wet ESPs at Sherco and Dickenson Plants ...............................6-90
Utility Demonstrations of Wet ESP Technology ....................................................6-90
Wet ESP Technology: What is it? .........................................................................6-91
What Impact does Water have on ESP Behavior? ...............................................6-92
Water can be Condensed from the Flue Gas........................................................6-92
Sherco Plant Demonstration: Modifying the Scrubber Outlet................................6-92
Dickerson Station Demonstration: A Wet/Dry Hybrid............................................6-93
Operating Problems at Dickerson Leaves Some Questions Unanswered ............6-94
Baghouses......................................................................................................................6-94
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Precipitators and
Baghouses......................................................................................................................6-95
Oklahoma Gas and Electric Reduces Electrostatic Precipitator Power
Consumption..............................................................................................................6-95
Columbia Energy Center Uses Additives to Enhance Precipitator Performance.......6-96
Consumers Energy Uses EPRICON System to Reduce Opacity ..............................6-96
Kentucky Utilities Uses Intermittent Energization to Reduce Energy Costs ..............6-96
Missouri Public Service Use Wide Plate Placing to Improve Precipitator
Performance ..............................................................................................................6-96
BG&E Uses Baghouse Performance Monitor to Improve Performance ....................6-96
State Line Plant Converts Precipitator to Fabric Filter ...............................................6-97
MERCURY EMISSIONS AND CONTROLS........................................................................6-97
Emission Reduction ...................................................................................................6-97
Prediction of Amount and Cost of Reductions ...........................................................6-99
Mercury Speciation ....................................................................................................6-99
Status of Emission Reduction Technology ................................................................6-99
Carbon Injection and Particulate Collection .............................................................6-100
Impact of NOx Controls on Mercury Emissions and Their Control ...........................6-100
Low Temperature Catalysts .....................................................................................6-100
Chemical Additives ..................................................................................................6-101
Capture Through Amalgams....................................................................................6-101
Multi-Pollutant Capture Options ...............................................................................6-101
xxvi
Beneficial Utilization of Coal Combustion Products ..........................................................6-101

EPRI Activities in the Area of Coal Combustion By-Products ...........................................6-103
FEEDWATER CHEMISTRY..............................................................................................6-104
Feedwater Treatment...............................................................................................6-105
Key Concerns in Chemistry Treatments ..................................................................6-107
Major Turbine Problems Related to Steam Chemistry.............................................6-108
Deposition, Corrosion and Damage Mechanisms Specific to the LP Turbine .........6-109
All-Ferrous Feedwater Systems and Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)................6-109
Mixed-Metallurgy Feedwater Systems and Problems Relating to Copper...............6-109
Guidelines ................................................................................................................6-110
Benchmarking ..........................................................................................................6-110
Detailed Case Histories of Upgrades of Boiler Feedwater Systems ............................6-111
Boiler Makeup Water System Upgraded with Reverse Osmosis Unit at the 698
MW Conectiv, Edge Moor Station............................................................................6-111
Switching to Partial Oxygenated Treatment at the TVA Paradise Fossil Plant
Saves $2.7 Million Annually by Eliminating Annual Chemical Cleaning ..................6-114
Chemical Process Indicators (CPIs) Provide the Key to Reducing Phosphate
Hideout at TVAs Gallatin Fossil Plant .....................................................................6-117
Constellation Energy units Brandon Shores 2 and Wagner 4, use Oxygen
Reduction Potential (ORP), to Control Hydrazine Injection and Sharply Reduce
Iron and Copper Corrosion Rates ............................................................................6-120
Brief Case Histories of Upgrades of Boiler Feedwater Systems ..................................6-124
Georgia Power Extends Boiler Cleaning Intervals with Oxygenated Treatment......6-124
OT Reduces Boiler Corrosion at TU Electric ...........................................................6-124
BG&E Uses Isokinetic Sampling to Monitor Reheat Steam Composition................6-124
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS ..........................................................................6-125
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Instrumentation and
Controls ........................................................................................................................6-125
Temperature Sensor Reliability and Accuracy Studies at PG&E and Duke
Power.......................................................................................................................6-125
RTDs ...................................................................................................................6-126
TCs......................................................................................................................6-127
TVA Installs A Distributed Control System at Kingston Unit 9 .................................6-127
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................6-127
Other Literature of Interest ...........................................................................................6-138
xxvii
Pumps......................................................................................................................6-138
Air Heaters ...............................................................................................................6-138
Feedwater Heaters ..................................................................................................6-138
Condensers .............................................................................................................6-139
Cooling Towers ........................................................................................................6-140
Flue Gas Desulfurization..........................................................................................6-140
Precipitators and Baghouses ...................................................................................6-141
Continuous Emission Monitors ................................................................................6-142
Advanced Sensors...................................................................................................6-142
Plant Cycling, Chemistry Effects..............................................................................6-143
Compact Simulators.................................................................................................6-143
xxviii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 U.S Installed Capacity by Fuel Percentage ..............................................................2-1
Figure 2-2 Increases in Gas Fired Capacity ..............................................................................2-2
Figure 2-3 Variation in Peak Power Prices ................................................................................2-3
Figure 2-4 Variation in Day-Ahead Electricity Prices .................................................................2-4
Figure 2-5 Electricity Price Inflation in California .......................................................................2-5
Figure 2-6 Spark Spread............................................................................................................2-6
Figure 2-7 North American Electricity Reliability Council (NERC) Regions. ..............................2-8
Figure 2-8 Legislation for NOx Aims to Reduce U.S. Emission Levels to 4 Million
Tons/Year by 2005...........................................................................................................2-10
Figure 2-9 Competitive Coal Plant Availability Factors ............................................................2-11
Figure 2-10 Boiler Outages for 40 Competitive Coal fired Units ..............................................2-13
Figure 2-11 Steam Turbine Disassembly.................................................................................2-14
Figure 2-12 Moss Landing Power Plant...................................................................................2-16
Figure 2-13 Competitive Plant Data.........................................................................................2-17
Figure 2-14 Typical Boiler Tube Failure...................................................................................2-18
Figure 2-15 Coal is the Fuel Most Widely Used for Power Generation in the US....................2-19
Figure 2-16 Powder River Basin Coal Use .............................................................................2-21
Figure 2-17 Creep Fatigue Interaction....................................................................................2-22
Figure 2-18 The Major Problems in Cycling Fossil Boilers ......................................................2-23
Figure 2-19 The Major Problems in Cycling Turbines..............................................................2-24
Figure 2-20 The Major Problems in Cycling Generators..........................................................2-24
Figure 2-21 A Header Feedwater Heater for a Cycling 400 MW Unit ......................................2-26
Figure 2-22 Maintenance Model ..............................................................................................2-27
Figure 2-23 Best-In-Class Maintenance ..................................................................................2-28
Figure 2-24 Installing Draft Fan Sensors .................................................................................2-29
Figure 2-25 Outage Data Distribution For Competitive Power Plants......................................2-30
Figure 2-26 Periodic Surveillance of Small Plant Components ...............................................2-31
Figure 2-27 PMO Program Results..........................................................................................2-32
Figure 3-1a Boiler Heat Flows ...................................................................................................3-1
Figure 3-1b Typical Boiler Layout ............................................................................................3-13
Figure 3-2 Boiler Forced Outages..............................................................................................3-6
Figure 3-3 Cycling Issues With Boilers ......................................................................................3-8
xxix
Figure 3-4a Boiler Tube Outages in the Year 2000 in Coal, Oil, and Gas Fired Power
Plants. ................................................................................................................................3-9
Figure 3-4b Boiler Tube Outages in the Year 2000 in Coal Fired Power Plants....................3-910
Figure 3-5 Corrosion Fatigue Failure .......................................................................................3-13
Figure 3-6 Oxide Scale On Internal Surface Of Superheater Tube .........................................3-14
Figure 3-7 Long-Term Overheating .........................................................................................3-14
Figure 3-8 Oxygen Pitting ........................................................................................................3-14
Figure 3-9 Steam Blanketing, Caustic Corrosion.....................................................................3-14
Figure 3-10 Caustic Deposits And Gouging.............................................................................3-14
Figure 3-11 Acidic Attack .........................................................................................................3-14
Figure 3-12 Hydrogen Damage Failure ...................................................................................3-15
Figure 3-13 Boiler Fireside Corrosion ......................................................................................3-16
Figure 3-14 Micrograph Of Caustic Gouging Failure ...............................................................3-17
Figure 3-15 Dissimilar Metal Weld In Superheater Tubing ......................................................3-18
Figure 3-16 EMAT Inspection Of Boiler Tubes ........................................................................3-20
Figure 3-17 Shielding Superheater Tubes in a Lignite-Fired Boiler .........................................3-22
Figure 3-18 Acoustic Leak Detection .......................................................................................3-25
Figure 3-19 Acoustic Leak Trace .............................................................................................3-26
Figure 3-20 OPPD BTF Rates .................................................................................................3-29
Figure 3-21 Loy Yang Plant BTF Rates ...................................................................................3-32
Figure 3-22 ESKOM BTF Rates ..............................................................................................3-35
Figure 3-23 New South Wales BTF Reduction Program Results ............................................3-37
Figure 3-24 Steam Leakage Impingement Damage ................................................................3-39
Figure 3-25 Poletti Station .......................................................................................................3-45
Figure 3-26 Slag formation on the superheater tubes of a lignite-fired boiler ..........................3-48
Figure 3-27 Coal Combustion Process ....................................................................................3-51
Figure 3-28 Pacificorp Hunter Unit #3......................................................................................3-52
Figure 3-29 Water Cannon Spray Patterns..............................................................................3-54
Figure 3-30 The Use of Seven Groups of Sootblowers is Optimized by A Fuzzy Logic
System .............................................................................................................................3-58
Figure 3-31 Fuzzy Logic Diagram for Intelligent Sootblowing Application ...............................3-59
Figure 3-32 Thermal Fatigue Cracks in a Parish Unit 8 Waterwall Tube Resulting from a
Prior 2.5 Year Period of Unrestricted Use of Waterlances for Tube Cleaning .................3-61
Figure 3-33 Warnings Provided by Fouling Index Monitors Allows Operators to Prevent
Shutdowns .......................................................................................................................3-64
Figure 3-34 Susceptible Areas in a High Temperature Header ..............................................3-67
Figure 3-35 Typical Superheater Header Cracks ....................................................................3-68
Figure 3-36 Typical Economizer Header Cracking Location....................................................3-69
Figure 3-37 Header Rupture ....................................................................................................3-70
xxx
Figure 3-38 Weld Repair Of Reheat Header............................................................................3-72

Figure 3-39 Superheater Outlet Headers For Dayton Power and Light ...................................3-73
Figure 3-40 Seamless Steam Piping For A 500 MW Unit ........................................................3-77
Figure 3-41 Inspections Of Hot Steam Lines ...........................................................................3-80
Figure 3-42 Seam Welded Pipe Failure...................................................................................3-81
Figure 3-43 Circumferential Crack In Hot Reheat Line ............................................................3-83
Figure 3-44 Schematic Representation Of The Flow Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)
Process ............................................................................................................................3-86
Figure 3-45 Searching Out Flow Accelerated Corrosion .........................................................3-86
Figure 3-46 Susceptible locations for Flow Accelerated Corrosion..........................................3-87
Figure 3-47 Typical Attemperator Design ................................................................................3-92
Figure 3-48 Attemperator Spray Head After 23 Years Service................................................3-92
Figure 3-49 Improved High Pressure Valves ...........................................................................3-93
Figure 3-50 Typical Low NOx Burner ........................................................................................3-96
Figure 3-51 NOx Control Systems ............................................................................................3-98
Figure 3-52 Typical SCR System Configuration ......................................................................3-99
Figure 3-53 SCR Control System ..........................................................................................3-101
Figure 3-54 Microwave PC Sensor ........................................................................................3-104
Figure 3-55 GasREACH Concept ..........................................................................................3-105
Figure 3-56 Low NOx Burners Reduce NOx Emissions from Powder River Basin CoalFueled Plants .................................................................................................................3-109
Figure 3-57 Low NOx Burners Cut Emissions from Blended Coal Fuel Operations...............3-112
Figure 3-58 Poletti Plant NOx Reduction Modeling Predictions..............................................3-114
Figure 3-59 Induced Flue Gas Recirculation Duct Arrangement ...........................................3-117
Figure 3-60 Vortex Mixers......................................................................................................3-119
Figure 3-61 Acoustic Cleaners...............................................................................................3-122
Figure 3-62 NOx Emission Results with Fuel Lean Gas Reburn and SCR ............................3-127
Figure 3-63 Coal Flow Distribution Monitoring.......................................................................3-130
Figure 3-64 Coal Preparation and Distribution.......................................................................3-131
Figure 3-65 Burner Line Orifices Effectively Control Flow Distribution ..................................3-133
Figure 3-66 Coal Flow Distribution Improvements at Kingston 9 ...........................................3-135
Figure 3-67 The Cyclone Furnace .........................................................................................3-136
Figure 4-1 A 220 MW Double Reheat Supercritical Turbine......................................................4-2
Figure 4-2 Single Reheat Steam Turbine With Single Flow LP .................................................4-3
Figure 4-3 Comparison of a) Impulse and b) Reaction Stages..................................................4-4
Figure 4-4 600 MW Control Stage .............................................................................................4-5
Figure 4-5 Low Pressure Turbine and Disk Attachments ..........................................................4-6
Figure 4-6 Turbine for a Modern 700 MW Supercritical Plant....................................................4-7
Figure 4-7 Materials for Turbine Forgings..................................................................................4-8
xxxi
Figure 4-8 A New Rotor Steel Envisioned .................................................................................4-9

Figure 4-9 Stress Rupture Curves for Alloys ...........................................................................4-10
Figure 4-10 Creep Rupture Strength of High Temperature Casting Materials, 1993
Assessment......................................................................................................................4-11
Figure 4-11 Strong Ferritic Steels ............................................................................................4-12
Figure 4-12 Early Turbine Cooling Scheme ............................................................................4-12
Figure 4-13 Limits on Ferritic Steels1993.............................................................................4-13
Figure 4-14 Cooling Schemes .................................................................................................4-14
Figure 4-15 Cycle Diagram, Standard Russian Supercritical Turbine.....................................4-16
Figure 4-16 Direct Contact (DC) Horizontal Feedwater Heaters Deployed in Russian
Supercritical Plants ..........................................................................................................4-17
Figure 4-17 Layout of Direct Contact Heaters ........................................................................4-19
Figure 4-18a Baumann Design of Turbine Exhaust.................................................................4-20
Figure 4-18b Baumann Exhaust, Modified Version .................................................................4-21
Figure 4-18c Modification to the Flow Exiting the Lower L-1 Stage .........................................4-21
Figure 4-19 Use of Side-by-Side Condensers in Russian Supercritical Machines ..................4-22
Figure 4-20 Modern Supercriticals are Suitable for Load Swinging........................................4-25
Figure 4-21 Achieving Full Load .............................................................................................4-26
Figure 4-22 A high capacity (25% to 50%) turbine by-pass system........................................4-29
Figure 4-23 Rankine Cycle Diagram........................................................................................4-30
Figure 4-24 Low Pressure Turbine ..........................................................................................4-33
Figure 4-25 Steam Turbine Problems Related to Cycling........................................................4-36
Figure 4-26 Turbine Rotor Forging ..........................................................................................4-40
Figure 4-27 Welded Turbine Rotor ..........................................................................................4-42
Figure 4-28 On-Line Bearing Monitor ......................................................................................4-43
Figure 4-29 Extracting Lube Oil Sample ..................................................................................4-44
Figure 4-30 Turbine LP Shaft Being Machined........................................................................4-47
Figure 4-31 SAFER Code Analyses ........................................................................................4-48
Figure 4-32 Cracking Close to a Failure ..................................................................................4-50
Figure 4-33 Welded Replacement Forging for Damaged Rotor ..............................................4-54
Figure 4-34 Corrosion Damage Areas in LP Blades ................................................................4-56
Figure 4-35 Blade Problem Areas............................................................................................4-57
Figure 4-36 Blade Root Attachments.......................................................................................4-58
Figure 4-37 Representative Blade Root Crack Locations ........................................................4-58
Figure 4-38 Control Stage Blade .............................................................................................4-60
Figure 4-39 Steam Turbine Nozzle Erosion.............................................................................4-61
Figure 4-40 Effect of Blade Surface Deposits on Stage Efficiency ..........................................4-69
Figure 5-1 A Large Hydrogen Cooled Generator.......................................................................5-2
Figure 5-2 Generator Modifications to Deal With Cycling ..........................................................5-4
xxxii
Figure 5-3 A Rare Catastrophic Failure of a Turbine-Generator Rotor ......................................5-5

Figure 5-4 A Gap-Pickup Cooled Rotor ...................................................................................5-10
Figure 5-5 The End Windings of a Generator Rotor ................................................................5-11
Figure 5-6 Collector Shaft Failure ............................................................................................5-12
Figure 5-7 Core Meltdown .......................................................................................................5-15
Figure 5-8 Stator End Winding Section....................................................................................5-16
Figure 5-9 Water Leakage in Generators ................................................................................5-17
Figure 5-10 Repairs of Leaking Stator Bars.............................................................................5-18
Figure 5-11 Repair Times for Leaks. .......................................................................................5-19
Figure 5-12 Stator Water Strainer Deposits.............................................................................5-20
Figure 5-13 Long-Term Trend of Stator Water Flow and Pressure Drop.................................5-22
Figure 5-14 Generator Flow Testing ........................................................................................5-23
Figure 5-15 Looking for Strand Blocking..................................................................................5-23
Figure 5-16 Cleaning Stator Bars ............................................................................................5-24
Figure 5-17 Stator Bar Cooling Water Flow Rates...................................................................5-25
Figure 5-18 On-Line Stator Water-Conditioning System...........................................................5-27
Figure 6-1 Boiler Feedpump, Driven By Main Steam Turbine ...................................................6-4
Figure 6-2 Axial Flow Draft Fan .................................................................................................6-7
Figure 6-3 Three Types of Airheaters ......................................................................................6-10
Figure 6-4 Regenerative Air Preheater ....................................................................................6-11
Figure 6-5 Heat Pipe Airheaters ..............................................................................................6-12
Figure 6-6 Magnetic Coupling on 72-inch Coal Conveyor Belt Drive Unit ...............................6-14
Figure 6-7 Crusher Installation Used to Break Up Frozen Coal...............................................6-16
Figure 6-8 Coal Handling System Flow Scheme .....................................................................6-18
Figure 6-9 Bowl Mill .................................................................................................................6-23
Figure 6-10 Backward Curved Fan Blades Minimizes Contact With Abrasive Coal
Particles in Pulverizer Exhauster Extends Expected Life to Two Years...........................6-24
Figure 6-11 Damage Locations in Heat Exchanger Tubes ......................................................6-28
Figure 6-12 Header Feedwater Heater ....................................................................................6-29
Figure 6-13 Stress Corrosion Cracks in a Low-Pressure Feedwater Heater ...........................6-30
Figure 6-14 Tubesheet Cracking .............................................................................................6-31
Figure 6-15 Carbon Steel Tube, High Pressure Feedwater Heater Life Cycle ........................6-32
Figure 6-16 Failure of Expansion Joint in 500 MW Unit 4 Indicated by Increase In.................6-32
Figure 6-17 Header Feedwater Heater for the UE Sioux Unit 2 ..............................................6-35
Figure 6-18 Typical Steam Surface Condenser.......................................................................6-36
Figure 6-19 Condenser Tube Sheet ........................................................................................6-39
Figure 6-20 Condenser Tube Cleaning....................................................................................6-41
Figure 6-21 An On-Line Condenser Fouling Monitor ...............................................................6-42
Figure 6-22 Air/Water Propelled Brush ....................................................................................6-42
xxxiii
Figure 6-23 Continuous Sponge Ball Cleaning System ...........................................................6-43

Figure 6-24 Pin and Collar Type Plug......................................................................................6-44
Figure 6-25 Step-Wise Reduction in Air Leakage Following Modifications Confirms the
Value of the Approach......................................................................................................6-45
Figure 6-26 Fresh Water Use for Cooling Power Plants ..........................................................6-50
Figure 6-27 Water Withdrawal and Evaporation Rates in Steam Plants With OnceThrough Cooling...............................................................................................................6-51
Figure 6-28 Re-Circulated Steam Plant Cooling Using a Wet Cooling Tower .........................6-52
Figure 6-29 Re-Circulated Steam Plant Cooling Using a Cooling Pond ..................................6-53
Figure 6-30 Dry Cooling Systems ............................................................................................6-53
Figure 6-31 Cooling Tower ......................................................................................................6-54
Figure 6-32 Sandblasting Improves Turbine Efficiency ...........................................................6-55
Figure 6-33 Cooling Tower Fill Before and After Treatment with Hydrogen Peroxide .............6-58
Figure 6-34 HRA Reduces Total Copper Concentration in Plant Water Discharge to
Levels Below Permit Requirements of 66 ppb .................................................................6-59
Figure 6-35 Two Layer Sprayable Ceramic Coating Remains in Excellent Condition After
Four Year Service With Brackish Water...........................................................................6-61
Figure 6-36 Wet scrubbers using lime compounds are particularly common on
bituminous coal units........................................................................................................6-67
Figure 6-37 Wet scrubbers using limestone are the most common form of FGD unit,
widely deployed on Eastern-coal burning units................................................................6-67
Figure 6-38 Use of spray dryers is mainly, though not exclusively, confined to Western
sub-bituminous, low sulfur coalburning units. ................................................................6-68
Figure 6-39 Wet Limestone Flue Gas Desulfurization System ................................................6-69
Figure 6-40 Effect of Coal Sulfur Content on Total O&M Costs, for Scrubbers Using
Limestone (Forced Oxidation and Inhibited Oxidation) and Mg-Lime Sorbents for
High Sulfur Coal ...............................................................................................................6-72
Figure 6-41 Some Key Equipment Selected from the Hundreds of FGD System
Components.....................................................................................................................6-74
Figure 6-42 Environmental Severity Varies with Location in FGD Systems ............................6-79
Figure 6-43 Recovering Flue Gas Waste Heat Upstream of Scrubber Increases Power
Output by 1.5 % and Overall Efficiency by 0.5 % at the 2 x 800 MW Schwarze
Pumpe Power Plant .........................................................................................................6-80
Figure 6-44 Air Preheater Bypass System Increases Power Output by 3% and Overall
Efficiency by 1.5% at the Niederaussen 950 MW Unit K..................................................6-81
Figure 6-45 Electrostatic Precipitator.......................................................................................6-86
Figure 6-46 Typical V-j Curves for a Healthy 4-Field Precipitator ............................................6-88
Figure 6-47 V-j Curves for a Variety of Problem Situations in Precipitators.............................6-89
Figure 6-48 Horizontal Plate and Vertical Tubular ESP Configurations...................................6-91
Figure 6-49 Conceptual Retrofit of a Wet ESP into an Existing System ..................................6-94
Figure 6-50 Pulse-Jet Baghouse .............................................................................................6-95
Figure 6-51 Options for the Removal of Mercury .....................................................................6-98
xxxiv
Figure 6-52 Power Plant Steam-Water Systems ...................................................................6-105

Figure 6-53 Two Pass Reverse Osmosis Retrofit..................................................................6-111
Figure 6-54 Rapid Pressure Drop Buildup At the Paradise Fossil Plant With AVT................6-114
Figure 6-55 ORP Utilized as a Water Chemistry Control Parameter .....................................6-120
Figure 6-56 Isokinetic Steam Sampling Device .....................................................................6-125
xxxv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Demand and Capacity as Reported by the NERC Regions, Summer 2001 ..............2-7
Table 2-2 Multi-Emission Control Proposals............................................................................2-10
Table 2-3 Plant System Availability Rankings..........................................................................2-12
Table 2-4 Sub-System/Component Availability Rankings........................................................2-15
Table 2-5 Cycling Case Studies...............................................................................................2-25
Table 2-6 Productivity Enhancement Software Tools ..............................................................2-31
Table 3-1 Typical Design Conditions for 400 MW Pulverized Coal Fired Boilers ......................3-2
Table 3-2 Double Reheat Supercriticals in the United States....................................................3-4
Table 3-3 Forced and Scheduled Outages and Deratings of Boilers.........................................3-5
Table 3-4 Boiler Tube Failure Mechanisms .............................................................................3-11
Table 3-5 An Overview of Why Tubes Fail ..............................................................................3-12
Table 3-6 Avoiding Boiler Tube Failures by Changing Operating and Maintenance
Practices ..........................................................................................................................3-21
Table 3-7 Inspection and Repair of the Most Likely Damage Locations ..................................3-23
Table 3-8 Some Specifics for Tube Repair ..............................................................................3-24
Table 3-9 General Guidelines on Tube Thickness...................................................................3-24
Table 3-10 Approaches to Detecting Boiler Tube Leaks .........................................................3-25
Table 3-11 OPPD FACT Team Composition and Functions ...................................................3-30
Table 3-12 OPPD Power Plants ..............................................................................................3-31
Table 3-13 Causes of New South Wales Boiler Leaks ............................................................3-38
Table 3-14 New South Wales Power Plants ............................................................................3-39
Table 3-15 Descriptions of ash deposits in boilers and their locations ...................................3-46
Table 3-16 Observed Slagging and Fouling Conditions and Suggested Potential
Causes. ............................................................................................................................3-49
Table 3-17 Header Damage Mechanisms ...............................................................................3-67
Table 3-18 Rank Order of The Nine Most Inspected Areas of a Header .................................3-70
Table 3-19 Inspection Techniques for Superheater and Reheat Headers and Drums ............3-71
Table 3-20 Corrective Actions for Headers and Drums ...........................................................3-73
Table 3-21 Summary of Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques and Possible
Corrective Actions for Main Steam, Hot Reheat Piping, and High Energy Valves ...........3-78
Table 3-22 Summary of Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques and Corrective
Actions for Cold Reheat Piping ........................................................................................3-79
xxxvii
Table 3-23 Summary of Seam Welded Pipe Cracking and Failure Experience.......................3-82
Table 3-24 Sequential Steps in the Pipe Inspection Process .................................................3-88
Table 3-25 Selected Results of FAC Inspections by UT ..........................................................3-89
Table 3-26 Damage Mechanisms, Inspections, and Corrective Actions for Other Boiler
Equipment ........................................................................................................................3-91
Table 3-27 NOx Control Costs................................................................................................3-103
Table 3-28 NOx Reduction Results with LOFIR Technology.................................................3-107
Table 3-29 TLN 3 Performance Summary Data Table..........................................................3-111
Table 3-30 Poletti Parametric Case Descriptions ..................................................................3-115
Table 3-31 Key Montour NOx Reduction Test Results ...........................................................3-120
Table 3-32 Key SNCR Results at Kepcos Honam Plant ......................................................3-125
Table 4-1 Typical Materials Used For Steam Turbine Rotors and Disks ...................................4-7
Table 4-2 Recent coal-fired ultrasupercritical units in Japan. Several other supercriticals
are oil or LNG-fired...........................................................................................................4-23
Table 4-3 New and upcoming coal- fired ultrasupercritical units in Japan. .............................4-24
Table 4-4 Recent European supercritical units with advanced steam conditions. The
trend in Europe appears to be in the direction of larger unit sizes. ..................................4-27
Table 4-5 Approximate Efficiency Losses in Turbine Generator Components for a Single
Reheat Supercritical Turbine............................................................................................4-32
Table 4-6 Turbine Blade Efficiency Losses..............................................................................4-34
Table 4-7 Steam Turbine Forced and Scheduled Outages and Deratings ..............................4-35
Table 4-8 Steam Turbine Reliability as a Function of Size- NERC GADS 1995-1999
Fossil Steam Plants Data.................................................................................................4-35
Table 4-9 Steam Turbine Rotor Forging and Disk Damage Mechanisms................................4-41
Table 4-10 Relationship of Elements to Equipment and Lubricant Condition ..........................4-45
Table 4-11 Steam Turbine Rotor Forging and Disk Inspection Techniques ............................4-47
Table 4-12 Steam Turbine Rotor Forging and Disk Component Corrective Actions................4-49
Table 4-13 Weld Repair Summary...........................................................................................4-52
Table 4-14 Southern Company Turbine Characteristics ..........................................................4-52
Table 4-15 Steam Turbine Blade and Diaphragm Component Damage Mechanisms ............4-55
Table 4-16 Root Causes of Steam Turbine Blade Failures .....................................................4-56
Table 4-17 Steam Turbine Blade and Diaphragm Component Inspection Techniques ...........4-59
Table 4-18 Steam Turbine Blade and Diaphragm Component Damage Corrective
Actions .............................................................................................................................4-60
Table 4-19 Approaches to Reducing Solid Particle Erosion ....................................................4-62
Table 4-20 Stationary Turbine Component Damage Mechanisms ..........................................4-65
Table 4-21 Repair Options for Turbine Casings ......................................................................4-66
Table 4-22 Root Cause Analysis of Turbine Performance Problems.......................................4-68
Table 5-1 NERC GADS 1995-1999 Generator Availability Data All Unit Sizes, All Fuels,
1534 Units, Average Size 300 MW ....................................................................................5-3
xxxviii
Table 5-2 Summary of Generator Component Damage Mechanisms, Inspection

Techniques and Corrective Actions ...................................................................................5-6
Table 5-3 Some Basic Repair Methods for Water-Cooled Stator Leaks..................................5-19
Table 6-1 Balance Of Plant Equipment and Auxiliary Systems .................................................6-2
Table 6-2 Summary of Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques and Corrective
Actions for Boiler Auxiliaries...............................................................................................6-3
Table 6-3 Eleven Recommendations to Improve Reliability of Feedpumps...............................6-6
Table 6-4 Root Causes of Fan Availability Problems.................................................................6-8
Table 6-5 Fan Problems That Reduce Unit Efficiency ...............................................................6-9
Table 6-6 Pulverizer Damage ..................................................................................................6-21
Table 6-7 Reported Fire and Explosions in Bowl Mills and Solutions ......................................6-22
Table 6-8 Summary of Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques, and Corrective
Actions for Heat Exchangers in the Steam Turbine Cycle ...............................................6-27
Table 6-9 Typical Defect Types Found in Condenser Tubing of Different Materials................6-37
Table 6-10 Galvanic Potential Differences Among Condenser Metals and Alloys...................6-39
Table 6-11 Improving Cooling Tower Performance .................................................................6-56
Table 6-12 FGD Components That Need Special Attention ....................................................6-76
Table 6-13 List of Cost Reduction Strategies and Their Impacts............................................6-77
Table 6-14 Lime/Limestone FGD Process Performance Indicators.........................................6-78
Table 6-15 Improving Efficiency in European Plants by Modifications in Back End Heat
Recovery ..........................................................................................................................6-82
Table 6-16 Mercury Emission Reductions from the ICR (A first assessment based on
preliminary stack emission measurements) .....................................................................6-98
Table 6-17 Use of Coal Combustion Products (CCP) in 1999, Tons .....................................6-102
Table 6-18 Comparison of Normal Cycle Chemistry Limits at the Economizer Inlet (The
AVT (Mixed Metallurgy) applies also at the Deaerator Inlet)..........................................6-107
Table 6-19 Root Causes, and Solutions to Steam Chemistry Related Problems in
Turbines .........................................................................................................................6-108
Table 6-20 Guidelines for Boiler Feedwater Treatment .........................................................6-110
Table 6-21 Chemical Indicators of Boiler Feedwater Problems .............................................6-117
xxxix
1
INTRODUCTION
This book is written to help electric generation staff operate their plants more profitably in a
competitive environment. Responsibility for keeping the plant running falls directly on the
shoulders of plant personnel, so they need to understand what can go wrong, receive information
on the current condition of equipment, and fix things when equipment fails or performs poorly.
The information in this book is organized so a reader can quickly and easily grasp the current
state-of-the-art in maintaining fossil steam units, obtain guidance on specific plant problems and
move ahead with solutions.
Many reports and guidelines have been issued on boilers, turbines, generators, heat exchangers
and other plant equipment covering failure modes, causes, fixes and maintenance practices.
Liberal use has been made of these reports to extract the salient recommendations and the
citations and bibliographies acknowledge these sources. The reader is directed to the
comprehensive list of reports and papers for further details on specific issues. The scope of this
book does not permit a detailed and extensive treatment of each of the hundreds of potential inplant problems, but does permit the reader to get a first assessment of likely symptoms and
modes of failure and enough information to do something about it.
The report has been structured to provide advice in proportion to the historic loss of availability
in fossil steam plants. The boiler and turbine chapters, for example, are covered in most depth.
But we recognized the impact of generators, heat exchangers, pumps, fans, pulverizers,
precipitators, scrubbers and other balance of plant equipment and have included the essential
operating and maintenance issues.
Each chapter includes case studies of productivity improvements that have been implemented in
power plants, and that have found value for the generating company. A number of these case
studies are brief synopses with a reference. Others are described in more depth and include
critical assessments by experts in the technology being implemented. The reader will find many
potential opportunities in these case studies, and the confidence that the technologies have
already found useful application.
One clear use of the book will be in planning a plant operation and maintenance improvement
process. A premise we have taken is that in any plant managers portfolio should be a step-bystep way of keeping his equipment in prime running condition. Since fossil plants are extremely
complex and the modes of deterioration many, preventing or dealing with failure events is a
process requiring daily attention. So plant staff need to be vigilant, knowledgeable, and prepared
to take prompt action. This book then is designed to promulgate that way of thinking. Its a
working handbook for fossil plant staff, who are daily faced with protecting the integrity and
reliability of their electric generation business.
1-1

Introduction
In the Fall of 2001 the book, with the continual addition of critically assessed, productivity
improvement case studies, was placed on an epri.com website. This allows new information to
be immediately accessible to website members for timely use in their plants. This third edition
includes those case studies that have been added since the start of the website.
1-2
2
BROAD ISSUES FOR PLANT OPERATORS
STRATEGIES FOR OPERATING GENERATING PLANTS

Energy Information Administration shows 498 GW of fossil-steam generating facilities in the
United States in 1999. This includes 407 GW at utilities, and 91 GW at non-utilities. Coal-fired
units dominate with 1393 units capable of generating 305 GW. All told, fossil-steam plants
generate more than 70% of all electric energy in the country (Figure 2-1), and these aging units,
on average more than 30 years old, will remain the foundation of the power industry for the
immediate future.
U.S. installed capacity by fuel percentage. Total
capacity was 812 GW in 2001.
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
coal
gas
uranium
water
oil
other
Figure 2-1
U.S Installed Capacity by Fuel Percentage
More than 70% of installed capacity in the United States is fossil-based.
In many countries, and particularly in the United States, the electricity generating business is
transitioning from a cost-plus, monopoly environment with an obligation to serve, to a
competitive environment for the sale of its product. Ownership of generation assets is being
decoupled from the ownership of transmission and distribution assets. Focus has switched from
achieving maximum performance of all generating plants to obtaining the maximum possible
return on plant investments. In this new business environment, the electricity produced from any
2-1

Broad Issues for Plant Operators
individual plant may be sold to Independent System Operators (ISOs), power brokers, marketers,
direct wholesale customers, distribution companies, retail companies and others. These sales may
be a result of a daily auction to obtain the lowest priced electricity or the result of short term or
long term contracts with an intermediate party or the ultimate end user. In order to maintain a
competitive edge in such a market, asset managers will be trying to identify the best markets to
serve and the most profitable operating modes for each plant. Plant operators need to meet the
demands of its identified market and to improve the performance of the plant to allow it to
compete for more profitable sales. Emphasis will be placed on minimizing the number and
duration of forced and planned outages. In contrast to a regulated monopoly situation in which
another company-owned plant is most likely to pick up the load when a unit goes down, in a
competitive market that load could now be supplied by a competitor. The result is a loss of total
rather than incremental revenue. It may, for example, be more important in the competitive
environment to maximize availability only during peak demand periods. (Ref. 2-1). The
availability of peaking capacity at times of high spot market costs for electricity is of increasing
importance in taking advantage of a volatile market, and has led to a demand for units suitable
for cycling and fast start-ups.
New Coal and Gas-fired units
New plants, both coal and gas-fired, are planned for the next five to ten years. By late 2001 more
than 300 GW of new capacity were forecasted, mostly natural gas-fired, and in 2002 nearly 69
GW of new gas-fired plants are under construction (Figure 2-2). But coal plants are also
resurging as new ways to remove environmental emissions are demonstrated. Most industry
observers now project a balanced future fossil portfolio of coal and gas-fired plants.
1 ,1 5 5
160
163
390
N e w E ng la nd
2 ,2 4 7
1 ,1 5 6
736
320
458
4 ,5 9 6
1 ,4 5 2
215
1 ,9 0 8
4 ,4 4 0
3 ,4 9 9
800
168
47
1 ,6 3 0
374
471
518
1 ,9 4 7
3 ,2 4 9
1 ,2 6 0
1 ,9 4 0
3 ,9 1 3
5 ,2 7 9
3 ,9 2 1
6 ,7 9 6
6 ,5 0 9
2 ,2 1 5
220
335
N e w C a pac ity
in M W
4 ,9 7 7
2 ,5 0 1 a nd A b o ve
1 ,0 0 1 to 2 ,5 0 0
1 to 1 ,0 0 0
T o ta l = 6 9 ,4 6 4
N o A c tivity
Figure 2-2
Increases in Gas Fired Capacity
New gas-fired capacity expected in 2002 implies significant generation increases in New England,
Florida, Texas, and California. The availability of natural gas in the long term is still a concern, and
38 GW of new coal-fired capacity through 2013 has also been announced.
2-2

Electricity Pricing and Price Fluctuations

Beginning in 2000 there appeared unusually severe fluctuations and spikes in electricity prices,
particularly in the West. Towards the end of 2000, prices at the California-Oregon Border (COB)
peaked at over $3000/MWh. Caused by several factors, including natural gas supply shortages as
well as generation demand/supply imbalances, this situation elevated industry awareness of the
potentially volatile nature of electricity markets. Average spot prices in the first half of 2001
were still several times those that had been traditional, and in most cases significantly exceeded
the actual cost of generation (Figure 2-3). But to illustrate the continuing changes in the power
industry and the fluctuating nature of electricity supply and demand, Figure 2-4 shows the same
period in 2002, when prices to California had moderated to levels more in keeping with earlier
years.
Day Ahead Electricity Prices for Peak

Power. COB (California-Oregon Border)
in 2001
600.00
500.00
400.00
300.00
200.00
100.00
0.00
1/
2/
01
1/
16
/0
1/ 1
30
/0
2/ 1
13
/0
2/ 1
27
/0
3/ 1
13
/0
3/ 1
27
/0
4/ 1
10
/0
4/ 1
24
/0
1
5/
8/
01
5/
22
/0
1
Electricity Price $/MWh
The lessons to be learned here are that (1) the future markets are very difficult to predict from
year to year and (2) opportunities to generate profits from generating plants can be of relatively
short duration. Clearly the ability to put generation on line quickly, and to follow rapid load
swings safely, is of great value in volatile market situations.
Figure 2-3
Variation in Peak Power Prices
Spot prices can change daily as electricity demand and availability fluctuate. At such times the
availability of fast- start peaking power is an opportunity to generate profits over a period of a few
hours or a few days. Conversely, it is an inopportune time for units to be out of service, whether
the outage is planned or unplanned. Generating companies seek to maximize on-line generation
at such times.
2-3

Day Ahead Electricity Prices for Peak Power.

California-Oregon Border (COB) in 2002
50.00
Electricity Price $/MWh
45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
2
/2
00
24
00
2
4/
10
/2
00
2
4/
/2
3/
27
20
02
3/
1
3/
20
02
2/
2
7/
20
02
2/
1
3/
20
02
0/
1/
3
20
6/
1/
1
1/
2/
2
00
02
0.00
Figure 2-4
Variation in Day-Ahead Electricity Prices
Electricity prices at the COB hub in 2002 had moderated from a year earlier, as a comparison with
Figure 2-3 shows. Cost of generation for some units might make it more difficult to generate
profits during these times of lower prices, putting increased attention on the operational and
performance issues that affect the marginal cost of generation.
It is interesting to note, in Figure 2-5, that the electricity prices have not closely tracked the
demand curve in California for more than two years. In fact the price spike anomalies of mid2000 to mid- 2001 had essentially retreated to the levels of $30-40/MWh by 2002, on a monthly
average basis. Daily price spikes of about $10/MWh were still occurring in mid-2002 though.
2-4

Electricity Demand and Average Price in California 2000-2002

(Source: California Independent System Operator)
Electricity Deand millions MWh,

Average Price/month c/kWh
Demand MMWH
Average Price c/kWh
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Dec-99 Apr-00
Jul-00
Oct-00 Jan-01 May-01 Aug-01 Nov-01 Mar-02
Figure 2-5
Electricity Price Inflation in California
A broad look at California electricity prices dramatically highlights the 12- month period of price
inflation. By 2002, prices, though still volatile on a daily basis, had backed off to pre-2000 levels.
Causative factors for this included increased conservation measures, new gas-fired capacity instate, and additional out-of-state power availability.
Spark Spreads and Plant Value

Plant assets are being increasingly traded as generating companies seek to optimize their
portfolios. The value placed on a generating unit depends on the profitability the owner might
expect in a competitive climate for the sale of electric energy. This is not a straightforward
calculation in an uncertain future market, and where the units themselves may or may not be
available for generation at any specific time. Even if the unit is available for generation, its profit
margin will fluctuate with the prices for fuel and electricity.
One measure that is followed closely in the electric energy business is that of spark spreads,
and these are posted daily for specific trading regions. A Spark Spread for a generating unit is the
difference between the price for its electricity and the cost (including transportation cost) for its
fuel, taking the unit heat rate into account. In order for the unit to be profitable this Spark Spread
must also cover internal plant expenses such as capital, and non-fuel maintenance costs. A
negative Spark Spread during some time period, though not profitable, might still cover the
operational costs and pay off some of the fixed costs, though integrated over the year an owner
would expect each unit to show a profit.
2-5

When plants are evaluated for sale or purchase, the Spark Spread is an important parameter that
has an option value into the future. Any company investing in a power plant must place a value
on this option. This implies that future electricity prices and future fuel prices must be estimated
for the plant. With this information, risk assessment experts have developed complex methods to
calculate spark spread option values. The values of generating companies, for example, have
been categorized by their spark spread values, and found to range broadly (Figure 2-6). Those
companies with high option values are generally coal-based utilities, their values being roughly
the cost of coal plant construction in the 1990s (Ref. 2-2).
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10
02
20 00
03
30 00
04
40 00
05
50 00
06
60 00
07
70 00
08
80 00
090 900
0
10 -10
00 00
11 11
00 00
12 12
00 00
13 13
00 00
14 14
00 00
15 15
00 00
16 16
00 00
17 17
00 00
-1
80
0
Number of generating
companies in the band
Spark Spead Option Values for 82 Generating

Companies
Option Value $/kW
Figure 2-6
Spark Spread
Option values for generating companies are based on the profits expected from the installed
assets. These profits depend on fuel costs, electricity prices, O&M costs, and unit thermal
efficiencies.
RELIABILITY AND CAPACITY RESERVES

The reserve capacity margins in most regions of the United States were on their way down in the
late 1990s and overall reserve margin was below 15% in 1999, according to North American
Reliability Council (NERC) figures. A resurgence in plant construction in the new millennium
has raised the expectation that the reserve margin will grow to over 20% by the year 2003. Latest
NERC data though (Table 2-1) show that the margins are quite varied across North America,
putting an emphasis on the ability to move power easily from regions of over supply to those of
strong demand. This ability remains a concern for growth areas such as California.
2-6

Table 2-1
Demand and Capacity as Reported by the NERC Regions, Summer 2001 (NERC: The
Reliability of Bulk Electric Systems in North America, October 16, 2001)
Capacity
Margins (%)
(MW)
Capacity
Resources
(MW)
ECAR
102,161
115,379
14.5
FRCC
38,478
43,083
17.2
MAAC
52,977
60,679
15.4
MAIN
55,368
64,170
19.2
MAPP-U.S.
29,814
34,236
18.2
MAPP-Canada
5,450
7,888
32.9
NPCC-U.S.
54,351
63,376
14.4
NPCC-Canada
45,452
66,684
33.8
169,760
10.7
46,109
15.3
141,640
17.5
Region
SERC
SPP
WSCC-U.S.
Internal
Demand
159,930
40,522
118,887
WSCC-Canada
14,592
22,477
37.4
WSCC-Mexico
1,707
2,152
20.7
56,759
69,622
22.9
885,704
15.8
ERCOT
NERC TOTAL
776,448
NERC reports that even though aggregate capacity margins appear adequate, there are some
areas that have a higher risk of experiencing outages due to local conditions. Transmission
congestion is expected to grow and in the near term only 7,276 miles of new transmission,
operated at 230 kV and above, will be added. Alleviating this congestion will depend on the
location and timing of new capacity additions, and in turn this will be impacted by appropriate
market signals and regulatory decisions. Decisions such as wholesale price caps (in the Western
U.S.), and state mandated moratoriums on construction, clearly will have an impact on a plants
value and the need for its energy.
2-7

Figure 2-7
North American Electricity Reliability Council (NERC) Regions.
Economic Life is the Issue

The issue today is one of production cost minimization, of economic life optimization and of
prudent investment in fossil plant assets. In a technologically advanced society, solutions arise to
fill needs. So it was with the power industry in the 1980s. First demand-side management
emerged, then niche opportunities for new generation were filled by the growing independent
power industry.
As for the 400-plus GW of installed fossil-steam generation in the US, the vast majority of these
units will continue to operate for many years, though less economic units will have lower
capacity factors. The focus has shifted to the selection of the correct plant investment strategy for
these older plants. This strategy can range from increased maintenance to full re-powering of the
unit. With unit profitability as the issue, fossil plants have become business assets to be carefully
invested in for maximum return. And as with all business decisions, questions of risk became
important. More precisely, owners seek to understand the consequences of operating aging
turbine generators and boilers under new operating scenarios such as daily on-off, or load
cycling. The good news is that the latest life estimation technology can ensure safe, reliable
operation for older plants, relying on systematic approaches to component inspections and
analyses, and deeper understanding of the behavior of power plant materials under operating
pressures, temperatures and load cycles
2-8

The Environmental Challenge

Of all the hurdles facing owners of generating plants, perhaps none is greater than preparing
units for meeting environmental limits at minimum cost. Both SO2 and NOx have been
decreasing overall nationally since, mid 1980s, despite increasing electricity production and the
trend is likely to continue. In fact SO2 emissions are down nearly 40% and NOx has decreased
20% since 1980, while electricity use increased 35% over the same period. In the US about 150
SO2 scrubbers have been installed on more than 70,000 MW, valuable additions that will permit
plants to operate in compliance for many more years. Typically a 450 MW coal-fired plant will
emit 75 tons of SO2 per day without a scrubber and perhaps 8 tons per day with a 90% FGD
system in place, a difference that can be measured in terms of the market for SO2 credits, now
well over $100/ton. And for NOx, where most current control activities are focused (Figure 2-8),
the same plant might emit 10-35 tons per day. NOx control options range from burner
optimization to the use of selective catalytic reduction. As for carbon dioxide, the above plant
emits about 9000 tons/day at a plant efficiency of 38% of which translates to 2452 tons of
carbon. Such emissions are certainly of concern when potential future carbon taxes are factored
in. A combined cycle gas plant, for comparison, emits about half of this amount, per MWh, due
to the higher plant efficiency and lower carbon content of natural gas. Increasingly, as will be
seen in Chapter 6, the removal of mercury from fossil generating plant flue gas, will be a key
environmental issue for fossil plant operators.
There seems little doubt that carbon-lean fuels such as natural gas will continue to substitute for
those high in carbon but in the meantime the bulk of US generation will come from the installed
fossil-steam capacity (largely coal-fired). The maintenance and upgrade of these units remains
the number one concern of the US generation business.
Current Regulatory Proposals
The debate in the United States on how best to control air pollution from power plants and limit
human effects on climate change is currently focused on the 3P Clear Skies Initiative of the
Bush administration (new standards for SO2, NOx, and Hg with voluntary reductions of CO2),
and the 4P approach of, for example, the Jeffords Bill (S.556 which includes specific targets
for CO2 emissions). Despite significant differences (Table 2-2), these two regulatory initiatives
reflect the emerging consensus that a properly designed multi-pollutant approach, combined with
market-based incentives, can in principle achieve significant air pollution reductions while
streamlining the regulatory process.
2-9

Table 2-2
Multi-Emission Control Proposals
Annual
Emissions
NOx
(million tons)
Year
Projection
Current
from Current
(per Bush
Administration, Regulations
2/14/02)
5.0
3.7
3.7
Current
2007
2008
2018
SO2
Current
11.0
2007
9.5
(million tons)
2008
9.0
2018
Mercury
Current
48
(tons)
2007
48
2008
47
2018
* S556 also calls for reducing CO2 emissions to roughly 1990 levels in 2007
** Reductions achieved through co-benefits from NOx and SO2 controls
*** Reductions achieved through unconstrained cap and trade program
S.556*
(Jeffords Bill)
Bush
Administration
Proposal,
2/24/02
-1.5
2.1
1.7
-2.2
4.5
3.0
-5
26**
15***
Figure 2-8
Legislation for NOx Aims to Reduce U.S. Emission Levels to 4 Million Tons/Year by 2005
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, and the proposed ozone transport rulemaking, continue to
focus the generating companies on cost-effective NOx reduction control measures.
2-10

The Present Performance of Fossil Plants

Over the last ten years availability has been generally increasing in spite of aging units that now
have an average age of 33 years and more demanding duty. Plant thermal efficiency however has
suffered due to worsening coals, additional environmental control equipment and the natural
effects of aging. But this will change, as opportunities to improve fuel utilization, such as repowering, will be seized by power producers seeking a competitive edge (Ref. 2-4). Figure 2-9
looks at the Availability Factors for a group of large competing coal-fired units, and the
contribution to loss of availability caused by scheduled and forced outages.
Competitive coal-fired units in one geographic region. One

year's ranking by % availability losses
Scheduled
Forced
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
37
35
33
31
29
27
25
23
21
19
17
15
13
11
0.00
1
Availability losses %
Total Loss
Rank of 37 competitive coal-fired units
Figure 2-9
Competitive Coal Plant Availability Factors
Coal-fired units most often compete for markets within fixed geographical regions. For large units,
such as those shown, a 1- percentage point availability improvement can easily improve the
bottom line by $1 Million/year. So attention must be placed on the scheduled and forced outage
figures. As this chart shows the total outage time can exceed 20% for some of these large coal
units.
The availability statistics for specific plant major equipment and for non-equipment issues are
listed in Table 2-3 in rank order. By far the largest contributor to loss in availability is the boiler.
It is followed in importance by the steam turbine, balance of plant and generator. The other
systems and issues listed in the Table 2-3 have a significantly smaller impact.
2-11

Table 2-3
Plant System Availability Rankings
NERC GADS 1995-1999 Fossil Steam Plant Data
All Unit Sizes, All Fuels, Average Size ~300 MW (Ref. 2-3)
Plant System and Other
Causes of Outages
Forced
Outages
Forced
Deratings
Average
hours/un
it-year
Average
Equivalent
Hours/UnitYear
Forced and
Scheduled Outages
and Deratings
Average Equivalent
Hours/Unit-Year
Boiler
158.44
38.89
633.20
Steam Turbine
42.73
7.88
244.04
Balance of Plant
41.37
34.23
153.79
Generator
39.28
1.70
83.95
Pollution Control
3.94
6.00
34.20
External Impacts
8.11
7.42
27.11
Regulatory, Safety, and

Environmental Issues
4.14
10.01
22.28
Personnel Errors
4.80
0.23
5.40
Performance Shutdowns
0.01
0.37
1.90
Unit downtime due to the boiler is from planned outages (scheduled well in advance),
maintenance outages (deferred beyond the next weekend but required before the next planned
outage), and forced outages (unit must be removed before the next weekend). A look at 40 large,
competitive coal-fired units in one region of the country (Figure 2-10), shows that total outages
can range up to 600 hours/year or more. The avoidance of unexpected outages, through careful
on-line inspections and diagnostics, is one way to reduce the financial impact of these outages.
Clearly boiler reliability can be a deciding factor in profitability of the unit, and is often decisive
in ensuring continued operation at high capacity factors.
2-12

Boiler Outages for 40 Competitive Coal Fired

Units.Data is totaled for 5 years.
Forced Outage
Planned Outage
Maintenance Outage
Total
Total hours of boiler

outages over 5 years
3500.00
3000.00
2500.00
2000.00
1500.00
1000.00
500.00
0.00
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Coal-Fired Units Ranked by Total Boiler Outages

Figure 2-10
Boiler Outages for 40 Competitive Coal fired Units
The three elements of boiler downtime: forced, planned, and maintenance outages, are often
determining factors in unit profitability and continued operation. Increasing the planned outage
time can often uncover potential problems later, but shorter planned outages are desirable during
certain market situations. The addition of more on-line diagnostic monitoring can often provide
the most economically attractive approach to this key reliability issue.
Subsystem Outages
The availability impacts of 25 plant subsystems and components are listed in Table 2-4 in rank
order. By far the most significant are the availability losses for boiler and turbine overhaul,
which occur on average every 2.5 and 5 years respectively. These typically require outages of
about one month to complete. (Figure 2-11)
2-13

Figure 2-11
Steam Turbine Disassembly
Turbine disassembly for maintenance requires a planned maintenance schedule that includes
careful inspection of rotors, casings, blades, bearings and valves, including dimensional
measurements and more detailed NDE data. Lay-down space is useful but often limited in older
stations.
Tables 2-3 and 2-4 suggest that major opportunities exist to improve the availabilities of many
plants through reductions in the frequency and duration of scheduled downtime. Additional
opportunities exist in the area of extending the operational life of components and reducing the
frequency of replacement. Even a 1% improvement in availability, resulting in 3-4 days each
year of additional power generation, for a large unit could yield more than $1 million annual
profit for the owner and many units have scope for much greater improvement than this.
IMPROVING ASSET MANAGEMENT

Asset management is essentially the practice of using resources to create maximum corporate
value, which is the essence of a business managers job. Each business manager must make
decisions on how to use company resources. These decisions should be guided by the goals of
the business and of the key stakeholders.
In this burgeoning competitive market for electricity, generating companies are reviewing the
value of their fossil plants, seeking opportunities and making decisions to improve corporate
value. Such decisions must be made in a business climate where revenues, fuel costs,
environmental needs, competitive challenges and equipment life are not entirely predictable, and
indeed could be changing on time scales ranging from hours to weeks or months. Reasoned
judgments need to be made about the retention or purchase of power plants, strategic realignment of the fleet and tactical deployment of
2-14

Table 2-4
Sub-System/Component Availability Rankings

All Unit Sizes, All Fuels, 1534 Units, Average Size 300 MW (Ref. 2-3)
Average
Unavailable
MWH per
Unit-Year
52555
Average MWH
per Outage
155,556
Number of
Outages
per UnitYear
0.34
2. Major Turbine Overhaul
30,407
175,962
0.17
3. Boiler Inspections
21,719
95,502
0.23
4.Furnace Wall Leaks
18,617
14,961
1.24
5. Boiler, Miscellaneous
8,877
13,811
0.64
6. First Reheater Leaks
6,651
17,950
0.37
7. Second Superheater Leaks
5,177
17,101
0.30
8. Feedwater Pump
4,055
63,329
0.64
9. First Superheater Leaks
4,024
11,977
0.34
10. Generator Rotor Windings
3,810
206,903
0.02
11. Turbine Inspection
3,644
98,456
0.04
12. Economizer Leaks
3,625
10,430
0.35
13. Opacity - Fossil Steam Units
3,535
1,191
2.97
14. Main Transformer
3,108
16,599
0.19
15. Air Heater (Regenerative)
3,079
11,118
0.28
16. Electrostatic Precipitator Problems
2,951
3761
0.80
17. Turbine Control Valves
2948
9,683
0.30
18. Other Boiler Tube Leaks
2,844
14,913
0.19
19. Burners
2,577
10,628
0.24
20. High Pressure Heater Tube Leaks
2,536
5,142
0.49
21. Other Miscellaneous Steam Turbine

Problems
2,414
7246
0.33
22. Major Generator Overhaul
2,407
156,156
0.02
23. Pulverizer Mills
2,323
1,415
1.99
24. Stator Windings, Bushings and

Terminals
2,294
83,717
0.03
25. Boiler Water Condition (not feedwater

water quality)
2,181
1,415
1.54
Buckets or Blades (1992-1996 Statistics)
3,121
120,925
0.03
Vibration 1992-1996 Statistics)
2,554
8,906
0.29
Plant Modifications to Comply with

Regulations (1992-1996 Statistics)
2,453
64,646
0.04
Sub-System/ Component
1. Boiler Overhaul
2-15

capital and O&M resources. And pervasive in this environment is the drive to improve plant
asset value, so that the generating units provide a steady and reliable cash flow for the owner.
(Figure 2-12)
Figure 2-12
Moss Landing Power Plant
This gas-fired station is one of several that have changed hands in the fast moving California
market. An important plant for Northern California, the new owners have made strategic decisions
regarding capital and O&M investments to increase profitability.
A legacy of high fixed costs will almost certainly not be a stumbling block to plant profitability.
A typical fossil plant is now more than thirty years old and cost perhaps $400/kW to build in the
mid-1960s. Fixed charges on this plant may be about 0.45 c/kWh, compared with a production
(O&M) expense of perhaps 2.40 c/kWh. It may though take significant efforts to make these
plants competitive including upgrade/repowering investment, re-negotiated fuel contracts, a
streamlined operating staff and a guaranteed market for the electricity.
The fact of the matter is that some of the more than 2000 fossil-fired units in the United States
are better equipped than others to make it in a deregulated free market. The 300 GW of coal-fired
plants, for example, have much higher capacity factors - 68% on average in 1999 - than the 140
GW of oil/gas-fired plants that operate on average at 30% capacity factor. This implies more
usage of coal-fired units and thus more profits to the owner. (Ref. 2-4)
The main reason for this is the base cost of generation. Currently, according to FERC data, the
ten lowest-production cost fossil plants in the United States are all coal-fired. In a competitive
group of plants, Figure 2-13, the MWh production cost of the plant is a key parameter in any
assessment of worth and one that is continually monitored by the generation operator.
2-16

Production cost, fuel cost $/MWh,

capacity factor loss %, heat rate
Btu/Wh
The 20 lowest production cost coal-fired plants in one US

geographical region in 2001
50
Total Production Cost $/MWh
Fuel Cost $/MWh
Capacity Factor Loss(100%-CF)
Heat Rate Btu/Wh
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 2-13
Competitive Plant Data
These 20 coal-fired plants compete geographically in one region of the United States. The
production cost of electricity (includes fuel cost and O&M cost) is an important benchmark of
value when evaluating a generation asset. These plants compete at the margin and the ability to
realize a profit, and to achieve a high capacity factor, often depends on incremental price
advantages in the spot market (RDI data from FERC submissions).
Marks of Excellence for Fossil Power Plants

In assessing what it takes to be successful in todays generation business, it is useful to look at
some marks of excellence for fossil power plants. Availability is certainly one of these. Quite
surprisingly, at a time when fossil plants now average 30 years in age, the average equivalent
availability factor of U.S. fossil plants is close to a ten-year high of over 84%. And since roughly
77% of the industrys entire fossil fleet was built before the year 1975, these older units are
increasingly burdened with newly installed pollution control equipment and have baseload heat
rates often 20-30% higher than plants of more modern vintage.
2-17

Figure 2-14
Typical Boiler Tube Failure
Thousands of tube failures still occur in fossil plants each year. Resultant unit unavailability on
average is more than 2%, which translates to more than a billion dollars of lost revenue. Such
failures as this well-known fishmouth high temperature creep blowout usually stem from
progressively accumulating internal deposits and loss of wall thickness, leading to high wall
temperatures and stresses. But more than 30 failure mechanisms exist. (Ref. 2-5)
In looking at availability, it is hard to ignore the impact of the most pervasive of all fossil plant
problems - boiler tube failures. In the last five years, the equivalent availability related to boiler
tube failures has leveled out at about 2.2%, due to increased knowledge of tube failure
mechanisms and increased management attention to tube failure reduction programs. Even so,
the industry as a whole still suffers losses of more than $1.5 billion a year from boiler tube
failures. The prime causes of failures remain the same: corrosion fatigue, fly ash erosion,
hydrogen damage and overheating, Figure 2-14. But ways to detect, monitor, repair, and
ultimately avoid the problem are definitively known and could be followed by all generation
companies. Guidelines on these and more than 30 other tube failure mechanisms are now
available. This issue is discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
A second mark of excellence is plant operating cost. Of the top twenty units in this category,
most are coal-fired, mine-mouth plants in the upper Midwest, although, in the southwestern US,
gas-fired plants have the lowest non-fuel O&M costs, less than 0.20 c/kWh, a figure that few, if
any, coal-fired plants are likely to match.
Third, plant capacity factor, is another indicator of success --- a measure of how valuable a plant
is compared to other competing plants in the regional market. Increased utilization of plants
minimizes wear and tear due to cycling and improves heat rate. Capacity factor is an important
parameter to maximize if a generating company is to earn a return on its investment and stay
profitable. (Ref. 2-4)
The Impact of Fuel Selection and Fuel Cost
In the regulated environment, cost of fuel was often a pass-through charge to the customer, so
that there was little incentive from a profit standpoint to reduce those costs. In response to the
current competitive environment, new methodologies permit generating companies to focus on
the profitable operation of each plant, particularly heat rate/fuel cost effects. (Ref. 2-6)
2-18

The impact of the new competitive environment on fuel cost issues has resulted in the
following conclusions:
Fuel cost recovery and customer retention are no longer guaranteed
There should be a short-term tactical plan for fuels, as well as a long-term strategy
Poorly sited plants or plants inadequately designed for low-cost fuels, will likely be noncompetitive
Trade-offs will constantly take place between fuel costs and O&M costs
Low fuel cost in itself may not be enoughhaving the lowest regional fuel cost may be the
only winning strategy.
The Fuel Options

The U.S. electric power industry burns about $30 billion worth of fossil fuels each year,
accounting for 70-80% of the operating costs of fossil-fired plants. As a result, opportunities are
constantly being sought to modify or change fuels at marginally economic plants.
Figure 2-15
Coal is the Fuel Most Widely Used for Power Generation in the US
Coal is the most abundant of our fossil fuels, accounting for more than 50 % of total US electric
generation. A major switch has been occurring as low sulfur, western coals replace higher sulfur,
eastern coals at many stations. But such coals bring with them attendant concerns about boiler
availability and performance that must be dealt with.
New fuels or fuel mixes in use are:
A mix of eastern high-sulfur coal with low- sulfur, low-cost western coals, often from
Powder River Basin (PRB) deposits in Montana and Wyoming. Compared with eastern
bituminous coals, PRB coals have lower heating value, sulfur and ash, but higher moisture
content and finer size.
2-19

A mix of 10-20% gas with coal in a boiler designed for coal firing.
Orimulsion, a bitumen-in-water emulsion produced only from the Orinoco Basin in

Venezuela. This fuel is relatively high in sulfur and vanadium. Power plants that use this fuel
will need to add scrubbers. The fuel purchase contract guarantees that have been offered are
aimed at making Orimulsion cost competitive with oil and coal.
Petroleum coke, a byproduct of refining, whose cost is currently low but whose sulfur
content is high.
A key conclusion is that it is vital for a power plant to optimize fuel choices. In the future, it is
likely that there will be increasing volatility in spot prices and downward pressure on fuel prices
as competition heats up. It may become necessary for a plant to make fundamental fuel switches
to remain competitive in the battle to keep costs down and retain customers.
Powder River Basin Coals: Increased Use for the Western Low Sulfur Fuel
Powder River Basin (PRB) coals from Wyoming and Montana are increasingly being deployed
over the United States, often in regions east of the Mississippi, where the major centers for coalburning generation are located (Figure 2-16). The use of this low sulfur coal, often blended with
Eastern coals, has been found to be a low cost way of reducing SO2 emissions. Coals from the
Powder River Basin, lower in heating value than Eastern bituminous coals, can have moistures
from 15% to 30%, low ash typically 5-15%, and low sulfur, typically 0.3-1%.
PRB coals clearly have advantages in lower SO2 emissions, improved fly ash carbon burnout
and so improved marketability, and lower delivered fuel cost. However issues relative to
increased fuel flow, increased needs for sootblowing, precipitator ash removal efficiency, and
increased auxiliary power, have to be dealt with. Ref. 2-8 describes the measured impact of PRB
coals on plant performance. The cost to switch boilers that were originally designed for
bituminous coals to PRB coal has not been as great as originally anticipated (Ref. 2-9). Capacity
de-rates have been minimized, though there have been heat rate impairments. Offsetting this has
been a noticeable increase in capacity factors for the modified units, due to the reduced $/MWh
generation cost, and so an improved competitive position for the sale of the units electricity.
2-20

Figure 2-16
Powder River Basin Coal Use
(Courtesy RDI)
Powder River Basin coals are increasingly being used both East and West of the Mississippi,
where the low-sulfur and low cost advantages provide competitive advantages. More than onethird of all coal burned in generating plants is now mined in the Powder River Basin. Operational
concerns, caused by lowered heat content, increased moisture, and high alkaline ash, may require
boiler and fuel handling modifications.
THE IMPACTS OF CYCLING ON POWER PLANT PERFORMANCE

The increasingly competitive market for electricity means many units must now follow very
short-term market variations in addition to local load variation. Such cycling operation is divided
into three typesload following, low load operation down to 15% of Maximum Continuous
Rating (MCR), and on/off (two-shift) operation. Long-term cycling problems include excessive
wear and tear, equipment repair and replacement and decreased unit reliability/availability. The
short-term issues are higher heat rates and higher O&M expenses. The negative impacts of
cycling on the plant though must be measured against the potential increases in revenue that can
result from cycling operation, as tabulated below. (Ref. 2-10) The cost of a single stop/start cycle
could range between $15,000 and $500,000 and is a function of unit type, size, fuel, pressure,
and design features. (Ref. 2-11)
2-21

Increased Revenue Achieved From:

Reduced start-up time
Increased Costs May Include:

Increased maintenance
Rapid load change rate
Reduced plant life
More starts and stops
Reduced reliability
Cycling can be life-shortening

The impact on turbine and boiler materials of cyclic operation of the unit, particularly on those
components that operate in the creep regime, is profound. When fatigue duty is added to the
progressive degradation due to creep, component life shortens dramatically. This is dramatically
shown in the ASME Creep-Fatigue interaction chart (Ref. 2-12) shown in figure 2-17. To
interpret this chart, consider a component (say an HP turbine rotor) that has a creep life designed
for operation largely under baseload conditions. There will be a few start-stops of course,
perhaps 1000 over the projected life, so under such operation we might use achieve only 75% of
the creep life projected (perhaps 150,000 hours) before the impact of the start-stops essentially
curtails further useful life.
Figure 2-17
Creep Fatigue Interaction
The interaction of creep and fatigue effects dramatically shortens life in components such as
turbine forgings and other thick wall components. Future units are likely to see more cycling duty
2-22

to take advantage of volatile electricity markets, and this makes high-temperature units
particularly vulnerable.
However it is much worse if the same creep-regime rotor was subjected to, say, 10,000 cycles
under daily two-shift operation for 30 years. In this case the original creep life may be lowered to
only 20% before the creep-fatigue interaction effects shut the machine down. A more common
situation is where the machine runs for years at baseload before two-shift cycling is introduced.
The residual life, as shown in the figure, can then easily be reduced to 40-60% of original design
life.
Specific unit changes may be needed
Cycling changes that may be needed are specific to the plant involved. A survey of 48 utilities
that converted 215 units to cycling duty indicated that a wide variety of changes were
implemented or planned to avoid potential problems. This information is summarized for boilers,
steam turbines, and generators respectively, in Figures 2-18, 2-19, and 2-20. More frequent startups and shutdowns and the temperature changes that result, clearly stress components more than
baseload operation and modifications to equipment and operating procedures may be necessary.
More details of these cycling issues and specific changes that were made will be found in
Sections 3, 4, and 5. (Ref. 2-10)
Figure 2-18
The Major Problems in Cycling Fossil Boilers
Dealing with the stresses imposed on the system from changes in temperature levels and the rate
at which temperatures change is the greatest challenge in preparing a boiler for cycling service.
Changes in instrumentation, operating procedures, and corrosion protection are required to
assure high availability and performance. (See Chapter 3)
2-23

Figure 2-19
The Major Problems in Cycling Turbines
Increased stress on turbine components resulting from rapidly changes in temperatures is the
major issue in preparing for cycling service. Added attention must also be paid to corrosion
issues, water induction and the threat of increased SPE damage. (See Chapter 4)
Figure 2-20
The Major Problems in Cycling Generators
Cycling leads to mechanical issues resulting from centrifugal and thermal stresses developed
during frequent starts and stops. Resolution might require modification of the rotor windings,
wedges and retaining rings, removal of copper dusting in rotors and perhaps upgrading of
insulation. (See Chapter 5)
2-24

Brief Case Histories of Improved Cycling Operation

Many plant specific studies have been carried out by utilities to analyze one or more specific
issues. A few examples are documented in Table 2-5. For example, the conversion of cycling
units from constant pressure to variable-pressure operation (VPO) will save fuel and reduce the
stresses on the boiler and turbine, providing a life and availability improvement. VPO operation
also results in decreased start-up times and faster load ramp rates. In cooperation with Central
Hudson Gas and Electric Corporation, Duquesne Light Company, Pennsylvania Electric
Company and Wisconsin Power and Light Company, EPRI developed guidelines for the
conversion of units to VPO. The majority of the cycling units over 100 MW in the US now use
VPO. (Ref. 2-13, 2-14)
Cycling aggravates issues that are present even in base-loaded units. The following chapters in
this book will get into more detail about solutions to such problems.
Table 2-5
Cycling Case Studies
Technology
Variable pressure operation (VPO)
Utility/Unit
Duquesne Light, Cheswick
References
2-15, 2-16
Use of spiral wound furnace to retrofit

once through units for VPO
Jacksonville Electric
Ohio Edison
2-15
Superheater throttling valves modified

for VPO in supercritical (once
through) units
Numerous
2-15
Application of EPRI guidelines to

avoid economizer inlet header
cracking
Arizona Public Service Suguaro 1 and 2
2-17
Header-type feedwater heater

See Figure 2-21
Long Island Lighting Glenwood 5

San Diego G&E Encina 4
PG&E Pittsburg 6
LADWP Haynes 2
2-18
2-18
2-18
2-18
Importance of vacuum on shutdown

to minimize oxygen level
Florida P&L Port Everglades

TU Electric Tradinghouse 1 and 2
2-19
2-19
Demonstration of activated carbon for

catalyzing oxygen hydrazine reaction
TU Electric Tradinghouse 1
Duquesne Electric Elrama 4
2-19
2-19
2-25

Figure 2-21
A Header Feedwater Heater for a Cycling 400 MW Unit
Most feedwater heaters in the U.S. are constructed of tubes and tube plates. This often leads to
cracks developing because of the tremendous thermal stresses on very thick tube plates under
unit cycling duty. This header-type heater provides the great strength of the cylindrical headers to
minimize those stresses. The tube connections must be very carefully welded though, as these
locations are exposed to potential corrosion-erosion in service. (See Chapter 6)
IMPROVING MAINTENANCE APPROACHES

Better maintenance practices have become an essential part of the strategy for competitiveness.
Approaches such as maintenance process management, best-in-class benchmarking, streamlined
reliability-centered maintenance (SRCM) and root-cause failure analysis are often keys to
invigorating a plant's maintenance staff.
A useful model that describes the complete maintenance process is shown in Figure 2-22. It has
five elements that have been found helpful as a check-off list, ensuring that the selected
approach is complete for the plant in question. The elements are:
Maintenance Management: business goals, maintenance indicators, plant reliability &

performance management, organization & work culture and training & people skills.
Maintenance Bases: the rationale for why maintenance tasks are performed. This includes
Streamlined Reliability-Centered Maintenance (SRCM) analysis, a living program for
updating the bases, a predictive maintenance process, root cause analysis, and proactive
maintenance (PAM, equipment design changes that avoid maintenance work).
Work Identification: preventive maintenance (PM, time based tasks), predictive

maintenance (PDM, condition based tasks), proactive maintenance (PAM, design changes),
corrective maintenance (CM, fixing failed equipment) work order generation, and the
computerized maintenance management system (CMMS).
Work Control: planning (estimating resource requirements), scheduling (when to do

maintenance), materials management, outage management and CMMS.
Work Execution: the actual work execution, post maintenance testing, close out.
2-26

bbbbbbb
Figure 2-22
Maintenance Model
Five key elements make up an effective approach to plant maintenance management. Used
primarily as a checklist, the degree to which each sub-element is addressed greatly depends on
how the plant is to be deployed. For example, approaches to predictive maintenance can be
extensive (for a key plant), or non-existent for a seldom-used asset.
The results of a revamped maintenance program can be remarkable. Astonishing gains were
made at Salt River Project's Coronado plant through effective maintenance scheduling and better
communication: 10 days off a 42-day overhaul, and a possible $2 million reduction in O&M
were two visible paybacks. In another project at the San Juan plant of Public Service Co. of New
Mexico, benchmarking resulted in $400,000 saved through improved ash handling.
One element of SRCM is a reasoned procedure for scheduling predictive maintenance. Work at
EPRI's Monitoring & Diagnostic Center has shown that one utility achieved savings of more
than $2 million a year through deployment of such on-line devices as turbine blade and bearing
monitors, boiler tube and feedwater heater leak detectors, and condenser fouling monitors. New
enthusiasm is being kindled by the opportunity to detect damage using the latest sensor
2-27

technology. For example, infrared thermography offers rapid payback by uncovering electrical
connection degradation, boiler casing and ductwork leaks, and steam trap anomalies.
A useful first step in assessing plant maintenance is to judge how the current plant approach
ranks with the best-in-class. A spider-diagram of the type shown in Figure 2-23 provides some
guidance as to where to put the effort. But one element all successful programs appear to have in
common is a work culture where the plant staff are all pulling together to make process
excellence an imperative.
Figure 2-23
Best-In-Class Maintenance
An initial assessment of plant maintenance practices might include a spider diagram of this type
that makes a judgment as to how the current process stacks up against world class methods.
Though only a qualitative assessment, the spider diagram does provide a benchmark as a starting
point for improvement.
2-28

Predictive Maintenance
Industry maintenance practice has evolved sequentially through the stages of corrective
maintenance, preventive maintenance and currently to a mixture of corrective, preventive and
predictive maintenance. Achieving the lowest cost level of reliability, consistent with profitable
operation, suggests that the plant avoid dealing with problems on an emergency basis, leading to
an excess of spare equipment to cover chronic failures. (Ref. 2-20). The alternative of predictive
maintenance implies advanced condition monitoring technologies. Condition or diagnostic
monitoring is particularly effective when applied to failures that are uncommon, or that require
extensive downtime when they do occur. Clearly turbine rotor failures, header and steam line
damage, generator armature and core failures fall into this category. But other equipment such as
pumps, motors, and fans can benefit from periodic (as opposed to continuous) checking of
condition. (Figures 2-24 and 2-26).
Figure 2-24
Installing Draft Fan Sensors
Vibration of rotating equipment such as turbines, motors, pumps and draft fans is a frequent
cause of equipment outages. Though steam turbines typically have on-line vibration sensors,
other equipment seldom does. This large axial fan at Penelecs Homer City plant though benefited
from on-line acoustic emission sensors on its roller-bearings.
Clearly there is for each unit a balance between planned and forced outages that makes most
economic sense for that unit. The goal is to minimize the total outages consistent with the
operating needs of the unit. It makes little sense, for example, to be down for planned outages at
times of high demand and high electricity prices. Yet forced outages at peak demand times is to
be avoided, particularly for large units. How is an operator to juggle these competing issues? An
interesting picture is displayed in Figure 2-25 where the actual cumulative 5-year outage data is
plotted for 40 competitive coal-fired units in one region of the U.S. It seems clear that some of
these units are losing out to the competition because of high planned outage times, or high forced
outage times. A strategy of keeping within the majority group with lower total forced plus
planned would likely ensure a profitable operating strategy, and benchmarking a unit against the
2-29

best-in-class on this chart could be one way of setting operating goals for the plant staff.
Certainly the need to constantly tune operating strategies requires some guidelines on the
planned versus forced question.
Planned Outage Hours
Planned and Forced Outage Hours over 5 years for 40

Competitive Coal-Fired Units
2000.00
High Planned
Outages
High Forced and

Planned Outages
1000.00
High Forced
Outages
0.00
0.00
1000.00
2000.00
Forced Outage Hours

Figure 2-25
Outage Data Distribution For Competitive Power Plants
Outage data for 40 competitive coal-fired units shows the relative impacts of forced and planned
outages. Though minimizing the total outages might be a useful goal, it must be done in a way
that maximizes operating hours during times of high demand and high profitability. Generally
though, the goal is to drive the power plant down towards the lower left section of the chart.
Productivity Tools
Over the last decade, broad productivity enhancement computer codes have emerged, permitting
many companies to improve the operation of their plants and make investment decisions about
the equipment to be installed in those plants. The examples in Table 2-6 suggest that a plantwide approach to maintenance is gaining support, recognizing the interactions between plant
components.
2-30

Table 2-6
Productivity Enhancement Software Tools
Tool
LCCMS-Life Cycle Cost
Management
Utility User
ComEd
Function/Application
Assessment of all the costs
involved in a maintenance
decision such as transformer
disposition and biofouling control
Reference
2-21
PIMS-Plant Information
Management System
Carolina P&L
On-line equipment performance

testing for the Roxboro plant
2-22
PMOS-Plant Modification
Operating Savings
Wisconsin
P&L
Duke Power
Prioritization of discretionary
capital projects by computation of
system savings resulting from
implementation of each project
2-23
2-24
PMW-Plant Monitoring
Workstation
Centerior
PEPCO
On-line and interactive

performance calculations at the
Eastlake Unit and at PEPCOs
Morgantown unit 2
2-25
2-26
Operator Advisory System
Carolina P&L
Assists operators in resolving plant

disturbances such as condenser
plugging and sootblower problem
diagnosis
2-27
Life Assessment
Guidelines
Centerior
Reduction of outage duration and

costs through optimizing inspection
program for 12 units
2-28
Fossil Assets Management
San Diego
Gas and
Electric
Utilization of decision analysis, and

assessment of strategic value for
investment decisions
2-29
Figure 2-26
Periodic Surveillance of Small Plant Components
Data on components, such as small valves, motors and pumps, can be recorded periodically on a
portable data collector during a plant walkdown. Then the data can be downloaded to a computer
where comparisons and trends can be plotted. This is a very cost-effective way to proceed for
non-critical items that provides early warning of any anomalies.
2-31

Detailed Case History of Improved Maintenance Practices

1000 MW Merom Plant Reduces O&M Costs by Improving Maintenance Practices
20
Percent
Improvement
Relative to Base
1996 Values
15
10
5
Personnel
Inventory
O&M Cost
Heat Rate
Equivalent
Availability
Figure 2-27
PMO Program Results
Significant cost reduction was achieved at the Merom plant as a result of implementing the Plant
Maintenance Optimization program
Issues/Goal
In 1996, Hoosier Energy formulated a strategic plan that set aggressive improvements targets for
station availability, heat rate, and cost to produce electricity, to improve their competitive
position. After a formal assessment in October and November 1997, Hoosier management
decided to implement the PMO (Plant Maintenance Optimization) process, and started with the
work process improvement element of PMO through EPRI and its contractor Reliability
Management Group (RMG). The formal process began in February 1998. Changing the culture
at this plant, from reactive maintenance to formal planning and scheduling of maintenance,
required strong management support, an internal champion and an outside contractor to facilitate
the process. Other elements of PMO established under later engagements were heat rate
improvement, predictive maintenance, and maintenance basis development.
Key Conclusions
The following results of improved plant performance were achieved as a result of

implementation of the PMO process.
Comparison years:
1996 to 2000
Equivalent availability:
from 80.1 to 85.5%
Net heat rate:
from 10529 to 10488 Btu/kWh
O&M Cost:
from $4.45 to 3.96/MWh
2-32

Inventory:
from $11,050,000 to $10,150,000
Personnel:
from 255 to 221
Solutions and Problems
The cost of implementing this project was approximately $1 million, shared by Hoosier Energy,
EPRI (through its tailored Collaboration program), and the Cooperative Research Council of
NRECA.
The process of implementing PMO involved a number of steps including:
Establishment of a Foundation team consisting of 28 people equally divided between

management staff and union personnel
Development by the Foundation Team of Vision, Mission, and Value Statements
Elimination of conditions that did not support the Vision (reduced from 300 in 1998 to less
than 20 today)
Development of Written Maintenance Work Practices Manual which took about six months
of arduous effort by the team to complete
Long Range Scheduling (LRS)
The LRS system is at the center of the maintenance work practice process. It is a forward
three-week work schedule, loaded at 90% of available resources for week 1, 60% for week 2,
and 30% for week 3. It is reviewed and updated at the weekly LRS meeting.
Work for unscheduled outages is planned in advance so that there is usually 300 hours of
work to be performed during a 36 hour unscheduled outage. This list s reviewed at the
weekly LRS meeting
Power Plant Description
This 1000 MW station has two units that burn Indiana coal. The station has Riley boilers,
Westinghouse turbine generators, Riley ball tube mills, Buell precipitators, Mitsubishi co-current
FGD, and a solid waste landfill.
(Ref. 2-30)
Critical Assessment
The project at Merom was focused on both demonstrating a specific approach to implementing
the PMO process as well as on improving plant productivity. It was successful on both counts.
Other companies that were involved with EPRI in other early applications of PMO included
Mid-America and Nevada Power. Based on the experience gained in those projects and other
pertinent information that subsequently became available from other sources, new versions on
the product were developed by EPRI that were significantly improved in the areas of work
2-33

planning and scheduling. These have been utilized by a number of companies including Southern
Company and TVA.
The role of an outside organization in catalyzing the change process is very significant. It is a
neutral party that is able to point out the potential benefits to all the parties in the plant that must
be involved in the process of improving the overall productivity of plant maintenance efforts.
Changing the existing culture in a plant is difficult and the effort can be aided by outside parties.
EPRI plans to issue a report at the end of 2002 describing a Maintenance Excellence Matrix.
This Matrix can be used as part of a self-evaluation process to benchmark the performance of
individual plants relative to others. Its application should prove beneficial to those who feel that
there is room for improvement in maintenance practices at their plants.
Brief Case History of Improved Maintenance Practices
Nevada Power Institute a Plant Maintenance Optimization Program
Nevada Power has cut maintenance costs and downtime at its Clark/Sunrise/Harry Allen (CSH)
complex. The facility, which comprises 12 combustion turbine combined cycle units and 4 steam
units, recently completed a Plant Maintenance Optimization (PMO) project. The goal was
optimum maintenance that achieves the desired equipment reliability.
By benchmarking CSHs current practices against industry best practices (and graphing the
comparison on a spider chart), EPRI identified ways for the facility to raise its lube oil program
to a truly world-class level. The detailed tribology plan covers the whole gamut of lube-related
issues, including procurement practices, failure analysis, scheduling, sampling and analysis,
disposal procedures, data management, and continuous improvement.
The project has realized rapid payback. In just the first six months of implementation, the CSH
complex netted savings of $309,000. Annual savings are projected at $600,000 to $900,000.
(Ref. 2-31)
REFERENCES
2-1
Metcalfe, Ed; Rees, Chris; McIntyre, Paul; DeLain, Lynn; and Landy, Dan, Scheduling Outages
to Maximize Corporate and Customer Value, Proceedings: Managing Fossil Generating
Assets in the Emerging Competitive Marketplace: 1996. Editors: Armor, Anthony F; Blanco,
Michele A. and Broske, David R. EPRI Report TR-1078444, March 1997.
2-2
Considine, T.J., Efficient Scale and Asset Values in Steam Electric Power Generation, Center
for Economic and Environmental Risk Assessment, Pennsylvania State University, August 1999.
2-34

2-3
North American Reliability Council 1995-1999 Generation Availability Data System (GADS)
Report, July 2000.
2-4
Armor, Anthony F., Improving the Value of Aging Fossil Units by Investment in Technology
Improvements, International Business Communications Conference. October 1997, San
Francisco, CA.
2-5
The ASME Handbook on Water Technology for Thermal Power Systems. EPRI Report GS6303, 1989.
2-6
Corio, M. R.; Bellucci, J. W. and Boyd, G. A., Applying the Competitive Market Business
Equation to Power Generation Economics and Markets, Pages 5-1 to 5-13, Proceedings: 1996
Heat Rate Improvement Conference. EPRI Report TR-106529, May 1996.
2-7
EPRI Fossil Power Plant News. Editorial, Summer 1995.
2-8
Guidelines for Evaluating the Impact of Powder River Basin Coal Blends on Power Plant
Performance and Emissions, EPRI Report TR-106340, March 1996.
2-9
Impact of Powder River Basin Coal on Power and Fuel Markets, EPRI Report TR-109000,
July 1998.
2-10
Cycling of Fossil Fueled Power Plants. EPRI Report CS-7219, September 1993.
2-11
Lefton, S. A.; Besuner, B. M.; Grimsrud, G. P.; Schreiber, R. J.; Norman, L. G.; Vaughn, J. A.
and Crawford, A. C. , Using Fossil Power Plants in Cycling Mode: Real Costs and
Management Responses, Pages 17-1 to 18, Proceedings: Managing Fossil Generating Assets in
the Emerging Competitive Marketplace. 1996, EPRI Report TR-107844, Editors: Armor,
Anthony F.; Blanco, Michele A.; Broske, David R., March 1997.
2-12
Damage to Power Plants Due to Cycling, EPRI Report 1001507
2-13
Duquesne Light Company Retrofits Controls for Variable Pressure Operation. EPRI
Innovators IN-101486, December 1992.
2-14
Utilities Apply Results of EPRI Study on Variable-Pressure Operation Retrofits. EPRI Innovators
IN-102809, December 1993.
2-35

2-15
Poe, G., Designing New Units for Cycling Duty, Proceedings of the EPRI Conference on Fossil
Plant Cycling. December 45, 1990, EPRI Report TR-100253, February 1992.
2-16
Klatt, E.; Bartz, J.; Rubos, L. and Kemeny, P., Variable Pressure Operation Retrofit Experience
at the Cheswick Station No. 1 Unit, Proceedings of the EPRI Conference on Fossil Plant
Cycling. December 45, 1990, EPRI Report TR-100253, February 1992.
2-17
Broske, D. R. and Nass, D. E., Economizer Inlet Header and Tube Cracking in Fossil Boilers,
Proceedings of the EPRI Conference on Fossil Plant Cycling. December 45, 1990, EPRI Report
TR-100253, February 1992.
2-18
Diaz-Tous, I. A. et al, Header-Type Feedwater Heater Retrofits for Improved Cycling Fossil
Fuel Power Plants in the United States: EPRI Project Update, Proceedings of the EPRI
Conference on Fossil Plant Cycling. December 45, 1990, EPRI Report TR-100253, February
1992.
2-19
Pearl, W. L. et al, Deoxygenation in Cycling Fossil Plants, Proceedings of the EPRI Conference
on Fossil Plant Cycling. December 45, 1990, EPRI Report TR-100253, February 1992.
2-20
Predictive Maintenance Assessment Guidelines. EPRI Report TR-109241, November 1997.
2-21
Com Ed Uses Life-Cycle Cost Management to Reduce Costs, Increase Revenues, and Reduce
Chemical Usage. EPRI Innovators IN-106558, January 1997.
2-22
CP&L Improves On-Line Equipment Testing with PIMS. EPRI Innovators IN-104562,
December 1994.
2-23
EPRIs PMOS Helps WL&P Make Better Asset Management Decisions and Prioritize Fossil
Plant Investment Options. EPRI Innovators IN-101520
2-24
Duke Power Uses EPRI Software to Evaluate Proposed Plant Modifications. EPRI Report IN100023, September 1994.
2-25
Centerior Uses PMW to Improve Performance and Reduce Maintenance at Eastlake Plant.
EPRI Innovators IN-104515, December 1995.
2-36

2-26
PEPCO Uses EPRIs Real-Time Plant Monitoring Software to Improve Plant Performance
and Availability. EPRI Innovators IN-101526, May 1993.
2-27
Operator Advisory System Reduces Plant O&M Costs for CP&L. EPRI Innovators IN-105975,
December 1996.
2-28
Life Assessment Guidelines Reduce Centerior Energys Outage Inspection Costs. EPRI
2-29
SDG&E Uses Asset Management Methodology to Evaluate Control System Upgrades. EPRI
Innovators IN-103089, April 1994.
2-30
Dennis Watson, Overhauling the Plant Maintenance Process, 2001 EPRI International
Maintenance Conference, August 16, 2001 Houston, TX
2-31
Quick Payback for Nevada Power PMO, Fossil Technology Centers News, EPRI, Winter 19992000
Other Literature of Interest
Asset Management
Armor, Anthony F.; Blanco, Michele A. and Broske, David R., Proceedings: Managing Fossil
Generating Assets in the Emerging Competitive Marketplace Conference 1996. EPRI Report
TR-107844, March 1997.
Bozgo, R. H. and Maguire, B. A., Fossil Plant Self Assessment, Pages 3-1 to 3-9, Proceedings
of the 1996 EPRI Fossil Plant Maintenance Conference. EPRI Report TR-106753, July 1996.
Fogarty, J.; Miller, R. and Dong, C., Benchmarking: The Foundation for Performance
Improvement, Pages 2-1 to 2-13, Proceedings of the 1996 EPRI Fossil Plant Maintenance
Conference. EPRI Report TR-106753, July 1996.
Bond, T. H. and Mitchell, J. S., Beyond Reliability to Profitability, Pages 5-1 to 5-12,
Proceedings of the 1996 EPRI Fossil Plant Maintenance Conference. EPRI Report TR-106753,
July 1996.
Positioning for Competition: The Changing Role of Utility Fuels. EPRI Report TR-104550.
2-37

Maintenance
NDE Guidelines for Fossil Power Plants. EPRI Report TR-108450, September 1997.
Abbot, P.D.; Woyshner, W.S. and Colser, R.J., Pilot Application of Streamlined Reliability
Centered Maintenance at TU Electrics Fossil Power Plants, Pages 18-1 to 18-18. EPRI Report
TR-106503, February 1997.
Automated Predictive Maintenance Implementation, Proceedings of the EPRI Fossil Plant
Maintenance Conference 1996. EPRI Report TR-106753, July 1996.
Streamlined Reliability-Centered Maintenance at PG&Es Moss Landing Plant. EPRI Report
TR-105582, September 1995.
Maintenance Optimization. EPRI Journal. May/June 1995.
Productivity Improvement Tools
Life Cycle Cost Management, Workbooks and Software. EPRI Report AP-105443, January
1996.
HEATRT Heat Rate Improvement Advisor. EPRI Report RP2923-13, August 1995.
Reference Manual for On-Line Monitoring of Water Chemistry and Corrosion. EPRI Report
TR-104928, March 1995.
Roxboro Automation Project Interim Report. EPRI Report TR-102083, May 1994.
High Reliability Condenser Application Study. EPRI Report TR-102922, November 1993.
Power Plant Modification Evaluations Using the EPRI PMOS Model. EPRI Report TR101715, July 1993.
Utility Experience with the EPRI Plant Monitoring Workstation, Proceedings of the EPRI Heat
Rate Improvement Conference, 1992. EPRI Report TR-102098, March 1993.
Managing Life Cycle Costs. EPRI Report TR-102308, 1993.
Plant Monitoring Workstation. EPRI Report AP-101840, December 1992.
Database Integration Services, Volumes 1 and 2. EPRI Report TR-101706, December 1992.
PMOS-Plant Modification Operating SavingsCalculate the Benefits of Plant Modifications.
EPRI Report AP-101715, November 1992.
2-38

Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Monitoring, EPRI Heat Rate Improvement Conference 1991.
EPRI Report TR-100901, July 1992.
Armor, A. F.; Mueller, H. A. and Touchton, G. L., Managing Plant Assets for Profitability,
American Power Conference, Chicago, IL. April 29-May 1, 1991.
Life Optimization for Fossil Fuel Power Plants. EPRI Report GS-7064, November 1990.
Barrow, W. E. et al, PMOS: Decision Support Software for Evaluating Plant Modifications,
Presented at EPRI Utility Decision Support Methods Conference, Cambridge, MA, May 1990.
Condition Assessment Guidelines for Fossil Fuel Power Plant Components. EPRI Report GS6727, March 1990.
MARK 1 Performance Monitoring Products. EPRI Report GS/EL-5648, September 1989.
The DYNAMICS Model for Measuring Dynamic Operating Benefits. EPRI Report GS-6401,
June 1989
2-39
3
BOILERS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The fossil boiler, by means of controlled combustion of fuel in air, efficiently converts the
chemical energy contained in fuel to heat energy used to generate high pressure, high
temperature steam. The heat is absorbed through the surfaces of a series of tubes. In the
waterwall tubes water is vaporized into steam and that steam is superheated in the superheater
tubes. Expended high-pressure steam from the steam turbine is reheated in the reheater tubes
before it is re-injected into lower pressure sections of the turbine. Incoming water is preheated in
an economizer by extracting waste heat from flue gas before it exits the boiler system (Figure 31a). The objective of this extensive heat exchange process is to improve overall cycle efficiency.
(Ref. 3-1)
Courtesy CE
Figure 3-1a
Boiler Heat Flows
The overall efficiency of the boiler, typically around 90% benefits from heat recovery downstream
of the superheater. Thus the economizer recovers energy from boiler flue gas to heat the boiler
feedwater, and the air heater also recovers energy from flue gas to heat combustion air. Since the
boiler is at the high exergy end of the power plant cycle, it is critical to minimize wasted boiler
energy going up the stack.
3-1

Boilers
Boiler Design Process

The design of a boiler is a complex process involving economic tradeoffs among the competing
parameters of fuel characteristics and cost, initial capital investment, performance, maintenance
schedules and component life. Boilers designed in the 1940s and early 1950s, had capacities,
which were generally less than 300MW. These were designed with large fireboxes, so that
relatively low heat release rates could be utilized to prevent overheating of the boiler tubes. In
the late 1950s to mid 1960s, competitive pressures forced design approaches that resulted in
rapid increases in boiler capacities. These designs utilized higher heat release rates resulting in
output capacities in excess of 600MW. The designs for the period that followed often had to
accommodate the use of western subbituminous coals. These coals have low ash fusion
temperatures and contain alkali compounds that can cause plugging in the back end of the boiler
due to condensation. As a result, larger furnace volumes were necessary and heat release rates
decreased. Design details of typical 400MW pulverized coal boilers that are being designed
today are shown in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1
Typical Design Conditions for 400 MW Pulverized Coal Fired Boilers
Characteristics
Subcritical
Supercritical
Main steam temperature, F (C)
1,050 (566)
1,050 (566)
Main steam pressure, psia (bar)
2,400 (168)
3,500 (245)
Main steam flow, lbs/hour (kg/hr)
2,610,000 (1,184,000)
2,700,000 (1,224,000)
Reheat steam temperature, F(C)
1,050 (566)
1,050 (566)
Hot Reheat steam pressure, psia (bar)
590 (41.4)
630 (44.2)
2,320,000 (1,052,000)
2,240,000 (1,016,000)
315,000 (143,000)
308,000 (140,000)
3,211,000 (1,456,000)
3,146,000 (1,427,000)
Reheat steam flow, lbs/hour (kg/hr)

Coal Flow, lbs/hour (kg/hr)
Air Flow, lbs/hour (kg/hr)
(Ref. 3-2)
3-2

Boilers
Figure 3-1b
Typical Boiler Layout
This sketch of a modern fossil steam boiler positions the various heat exchanging elements.
In the boiler design process, heat release to all these heat exchangers depends on fuel heat
release rates and burner locations, so any change to the fuel mix will affect the proportion of
heat absorbed in the various tube banks. Coal boilers can be quite flexible in handling
different mixes but on occasion heat exchange tubing might need to be added or subtracted.
The Supercritical Steam Boiler

In the late 1950s the first units operating at supercritical pressures were introduced, initially in
the United States and Germany. American Electric Power put the Philo supercritical unit in
service in 1957 and Philadelphia Electric soon followed with Eddystone 1, a unit still in active
service. Today, worldwide, more than 500 supercritical units are operating with ratings from 200
MW to 1300 MW. Steam pressures for these units are typically 240Bar (3500psi), most of them
being single reheat design. Steam temperatures are usually limited to about 594C (1100F), in
order to utilize all-ferritic materials for thick wall components. A few (for example, Eddystone)
utilize higher steam temperatures. The increased pressures and temperatures provide significant
efficiency improvements over subcritical units, with attendant reductions in environmental
emissions: SOx, NOx, CO2, and particulates. (Ref. 3-3)
Supercriticals: United States
An EPRI survey on 159 supercritical units operating in the United States showed significant
efficiency advantages (up to 3%), compared to typical subcritical units, and outage rates
comparable to drum units after an initial learning period. Further studies were carried out by
EPRI in the early 1980s on the optimum steam pressures and temperatures for supercritical cycles,
3-3

Boilers
and on the materials of choice for boiler and turbine components. Standards have now been
adopted worldwide for new supercritical units and include the use of P91 (super 9 chrome) for
thick wall headers, steam lines, valves and turbine casings. The optimum design for a new
supercritical cycle was recommended by a follow-on study as a 700MW double-reheat unit with
steam conditions of 309Bar/594/594/594C (4500psi, 1100/1100/1100F). Such units have
been constructed or are in planning in Japan and Denmark. It is notable that the original Eddystone 1
unit, constructed in 1960, is still operating with the highest steam pressures and temperatures in
the world (322Bar, 610C), more than 40 years after commissioning. Double-reheat supercriticals in
the US are shown in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2
Double Reheat Supercriticals in the United States
Steam Conditions
MPa/C/C/C
Design
Capacity MW
34.3/649/565/565
325
Breed 1, AEP
24/565/565/565
450
Sporn 5, AEP
24/565/565/565
450
Eddystone 2, PECO
24/565/565/565
325
Tanners Creek 4, AEP
24/538/552/565
580
Muskingum River 5, AEP
24/538/552/565
590
Cardinal 1&2, AEP
24/538/552/565
600
Hudson 1, PSEG
24/538/552/565
400
Brayton Point 3, NEP
24/538/552/565
600
Hudson 2, PSEG
24/538/552/565
600
Big Sandy 2, AEP
24/538/552/565
760
Chalk Point 1&2, PEPCO
24/538/552/565
355
Haynes 5&6, LADWP
24/538/552/565
330
Mitchell 1&2, AEP
24/538/552/565
760
Amos 1&2
24/538/552/565
760
Unit Name and Company

Eddystone 1, PECO
Advanced supercritical cycles at US locations with double reheat. More than 150 supercriticals
operate in the US, though few have been installed in recent years.
AVAILABILITY
Fossil boilers in North America currently have an average availability of about 90%. As shown
in Table 3-3, about half the availability loss is related to planned inspections and major overhauls,
which occur infrequently, typically every two to three years, but require a lengthy outage. The
other half of the loss is associated with unexpected operating issues, notably tube leaks.
3-4

Boilers
Table 3-3
Forced and Scheduled Outages and Deratings of Boilers
NERC GADS Data 1995-1999

All Unit Sizes, All Fuels, 1534 Units, Average Size 300MW (Ref. 2-3)
Component
Average Equivalent Unavailable

Hours per Unit Year, 1995-1999
633.20
Average Number of Outages

per Unit Year, 1995-1999
12.90
Overhaul and Inspection
279.91
0.60
Tube Leaks
182.12
3.20
Air and Gas Supply
61.65
3.39
Miscellaneous
40.12
0.73
Control Systems
23.30
1.39
Miscellaneous Tube Problems
21.72
0.25
Slagging and Fouling
17.79
1.75
Water Conditions
5.84
1.54
Design Limitations
0.74
0.05
Boiler- Total
Unit forced outage hours is a particularly sensitive issue since it represents unavailable
generation assets and lack of MWh sales. This can be particularly unfortunate during times of
peak demand when electricity prices can soar to $1000/MWh or more, in a market for the sale of
electric power is increasingly competitive. A review of one geographical region, Figure 3-2,
reveals a wide disparity in boiler forced outages, suggesting the need, in some cases, for more
attention to incipient failures and boiler inspection and monitoring.
3-5

Boilers
Forced Outages,
hours
Boiler Forced Outages ( hrs ) for 1998, Covering 71 Competitive CoalFired Units
1600.00
1400.00
1200.00
1000.00
800.00
600.00
400.00
200.00
0.00
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
MW
Figure 3-2
Boiler Forced Outages
This chart compares boiler forced outages for a group of geographically competitive coal-fired
units. For the largest unit each 100-outage hours will typically cost in lost revenue about $2.5
million, or much more at times of energy scarcity. So minimizing outages due to unexpected
boiler problems, such as tube failures, helps ensure that the unit is available at times of high spot
prices for electricity. To some extent planned inspections can detect upcoming problems but the
optimum economic situation might occur when the sum of planned and forced outages is
minimum.
Cycling Problems in Boilers

Figure 3-3 consists of total of twelve charts. The first chart in this set, which was previously
presented in Chapter 2 as Figure 2-18, summarizes by major category the changes in the boiler
that were made by 48 utilities that converted 215 units to cycling service. The other eleven charts
provide a breakdown of the changes that were made in each of the eleven categories. The major
issue that must be dealt with is the additional stress on components that results from cycling
conditions. Temperatures and environment emissions change frequently. Instrumentation must
be installed to provide information to operators so that the system can be optimized. Procedures
have to be changed to ensure that allowable conditions are not exceeded and remaining life
consumption is economically justified. It is obvious in looking at these charts that there are many
concerns that must be dealt with promptly to allow the boiler to provide power reliably and
economically. (Ref. 3-4)
3-6

Boilers
3-7

Boilers
Figure 3-3
Cycling Issues With Boilers
Dealing with the stresses imposed on the system from changes in temperature levels and the rate
at which temperatures change is the greatest challenge in preparing a boiler for cycling service.
Changes in instrumentation, operating procedures and corrosion protection are required to
assure both high availability and performance.
3-8

Boilers
BOILER TUBES
General Discussion of Boiler Tube Failures
Boiler tube failures were responsible in 2000, on average, for about a 2.2% loss of availability in
US fossil-fired plants. The rate is somewhat higher for coal-fired plants. However as can be seen
from Figures 3-4a and 3-4b, this rate varies enormously and a good proportion of units (about
one-third) experience no failures in any given year.
The reduction in boiler tube failure losses, compared with rates more than 3% in the mid-1990s,
can be attributed to a greater understanding of failure mechanisms and strong plant management
commitment to reducing this most pervasive of all forced outage concerns.
Boiler Tube Failures:
Equivalent Unavailability
Factor %
Equivalent
Unavailability Factors (EUF) for 1275 Fossil (Coal,
Oil, and Gas) Units in 2000. Mean Value is 2.22%.
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
500
1000
1500
Cumulative Number of Units above the EUF
Figure 3-4a
Boiler Tube Outages in the Year 2000 in Coal, Oil, and Gas Fired Power Plants.
3-9

Boilers
Equivalent Unavailabity
Factor %
Boiler Tube Failures: Equivalent

Unavailability Factors (EUF) for 805
Coal Fired Units in 2000. Mean is
2.43%.
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Cumulative Number of Units above the EUF
Figure 3-4b
Boiler Tube Outages in the Year 2000 in Coal Fired Power Plants
Although the incidences of forced outages due to boiler tube failures have reduced over the last
few years, a significant number of coal-fired units still lose 5% equivalent availability points each
year. Outage causes and corrective actions are now definitively known. The average EUF for coal
fired units is higher than the average EUF for the entire fleet of fossil fuel (coal, oil, and gas) fired
units. (Ref. 3-5)
There are about 32 recognized failure mechanisms in six categories of which the most prevalent
are presented in Table 3-4 (Ref. 3-6, 3-7, 3-9). Significant causes, the first eight ranked, are listed
in bold type. Certainly, some causes appear often in the thousands of tube failures that still occur
each year in the US. Commonly seen are corrosion fatigue, fly ash erosion, hydrogen damage,
fireside corrosion, and creep. Many stem from poor water chemistry, some from poor quality
coals, some from non-optimum combustion. But all are considered preventable by careful design
and operation of the boiler system and attention to inspection and diagnostics.
3-10

Boilers
Table 3-4
Boiler Tube Failure Mechanisms
Fatigue
Erosion
Corrosion (1)
Fly ash (2)
Vibration, fretting and rubbing
Sootblower (6)
Thermal
Falling slag (8)
Coal particle
Water-Side Corrosion
Stress Rupture
Hydrogen damage (3)
High temperature creep (4)
Caustic corrosion
Acid phosphate corrosion
Short-term overheating in water and

steam tubes (5)
Pitting (local corrosion)
Low temperature creep
Stress corrosion cracking
Dissimilar metal welds
Graphitization
Fire-Side Corrosion
Lack of Quality Control
Waterwall (7)
Maintenance cleaning damage
Low temperature acid dewpoint
Chemical excursion damage
Coal ash
Material defects
Oil ash
Welding defects
Which Tubes Fail First?

Among waterwall, superheater, reheater, economizer and downcomer tubes, by far the largest
loss of availability is charged to waterwall tube failures. Superheater and reheater tube failures,
though less significant, are still important contributors to unavailability while failures of
economizer and reheater tubes are uncommon. Failure causes vary with function and location as
indicated in Table 3-5. Although these tubes are designed to Section 1 of the ASME Code,
problems can develop that are related to the operating environment and maintenance procedures.
High temperatures, cycling operation, and impacts of the ash contained in coal and oil fuels can
reduce tube operating life. Other causes may stem from improper chemical cleaning, poor
repairs, or sootblowing. (Ref. 3-7)
3-11

Boilers
Table 3-5
An Overview of Why Tubes Fail
Boiler Tube Type
/Material
Loss of
Availability
Function
Damage Mechanisms
Waterwall/
Carbon steel
Low alloy steel
With less than 5%
alloying elements.
2%
Surround combustion
zone
Convert water to steam
WastageNormally results from

surface oxidation but Low NOx
Burners can cause a marked
increase in wastage rates
Hydrogen DamageTypically
caused by solids deposition
Internal Corrosion from water
impurities
Corrosion Fatigue
External Corrosion from furnace
combustion gases
Superheater/
Low alloy steel
stainless steel
(18% Ni, 8% Cr
austenitic
stainless steel)
<1%
Increase high pressure

steam temperature
Creep resulting from long term

overheat
Blow-out resulting from short term
overheat
Liquid Ash Corrosion from coal
and oil firing
Carburization, particularly under
reducing conditions, dissolves
protective oxides
Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW)
failures
Intergranular Stress Corrosion
Cracking (IGSCC)
Flyash Erosion, Wear, Distortion
Reheater/
Low alloy steel
Stainless steel
<1%
Increase intermediate
and low pressure steam
temperature
All superheater causes

Attachment weld cracking
Increase feed water

temperature between
boiler feed pumps and
waterwalls
Internal Corrosion
Flyash Erosion
Thermal Mechanical-Fatigue
Thermal Fatigue at Header Joints
Transport water from

drum to lower waterwall
headers
Internal Corrosion
Corrosion Fatigue
Thermal Fatigue at Header Joints
Economizer /
Carbon steel
Very small
Downcomer/
Carbon steel
Rare
Tracking Down the Cause

Each of these tube failures occurs as a result of the processes and phenomena described below.
Many tube failures have characteristic appearances that help investigators identify root causes. In
addition to the photographs of characteristic failures shown in Figures 3-6 to 3-15, the
descriptions below will be helpful in identifying some of the common causes. (Ref. 2-5, 3-7, 3-8)
3-12

Boilers
Corrosion Fatigue - Mechanical restraints that prevent free movement of tubing result in uneven
temperature distributions due to additional paths for heat transfer. This leads to stresses on the
inside surface of the tube during cycling that result in crack initiation and growth. Reduced water
quality will worsen the problem. Overly aggressive or improper chemical cleaning can be a
contributing cause of corrosion fatigue damage. (Ref. 2-5)
Figure 3-5
Corrosion Fatigue Failure
These failures are usually the result of stresses induced by tube attachments or other constraints.
The resulting cracks are usually wide, oxide filled, with irregular profiles and evidence of
discontinuous growth. Failures on the inside surface can originate at multiple sites such as pits or
other discontinuities. Outside tube surface damage can appear as a pinhole, a thick edge crack
that is usually axial but may be circumferential, or a thick-edge section blow-out.
Fly Ash Erosion - High velocity fly ash particles are a leading source of erosion of tubes in
superheater and reheater pendants that have not been properly designed to avoid this issue. The
rate of attack is an exponential function of the local gas velocity in the affected region. Damage
occurs on tube surfaces in areas of non-uniform (high) gas flow rates and/or high ash loading
rates. The surface of the tube is smooth and polished without outside ash deposits.
3-13

Boilers
Figure 3-6
Oxide Scale On Internal Surface Of
Superheater Tube
Figure 3-7
Long-Term Overheating
Figure 3-8
Oxygen Pitting
Figure 3-9
Steam Blanketing, Caustic Corrosion
Figure 3-10
Caustic Deposits And Gouging
Figure 3-11
Acidic Attack
Photos Courtesy BETZ Laboratories Inc.
(Ref. 3-9)
Typical boiler tube damage mechanisms are clearly shown in these six photographs. More than 30
distinct mechanisms have been identified that can be characterized visually, chemically,
microscopically or by analytical procedures. Preventive measures have been developed to avoid
each failure mechanism.
3-14

Boilers
Hydrogen Damage - Deposits can accumulate on the inner surface of tubes for a variety of
reasons including disruption of flow patterns resulting in local hot spots, accumulation of
feedwater corrosion products, or misalignment of burners resulting in flame impingement or
local hotspots. Corrosion can occur under these deposits in accordance with the reaction:
3Fe + 4H2O = Fe3O4+ 8H
The molecular hydrogen product can diffuse into the steel and react with carbon to form
methane. Linkage of the voids where the bubbles have formed can then cause the blowout of a
section of the tube wall. (Ref. 2-5)
Figure 3-12
Hydrogen Damage Failure
Damage in the form of a pit or gouge usually occurs on the inside of the tube under a magnetite
deposit. The final failure will be thick-edged, and have an embrittled appearance. Decarburization,
initially around the pearlite and then spreading, and microfissuring leading to intergranular
cracking, are characteristic microstructural changes.
High Temperature Creep - Formation of an oxide layer, as well as other deposits that may form
on the inside surface of a tube, can reduce heat transfer. As a result, the outside tube surface
temperature opposite those deposits increases relative to other locations where heat transfer is
unimpeded. The higher temperature increases oxidation of the outer surface of the tube
increasing the rate of metal loss resulting in a thinner wall and higher stresses. Both processes
accelerate with time, eventually leading to a creep failure of the tube in the thinnest section.
Other pathways to creep damage involve overheating of tube surfaces because of departure from
nucleate boiling, steam blanketing, improper burner alignment and internal restrictions of steam
flow caused by the presence of debris inside the tube. (Figure 3-7)
Short Term Overheat - Limited periods of overheating can occur as a result of reductions in
steam flow through the tubes. The causes of these occurrences can include header blockages
associated with accumulation of debris in the tubes. Sources of debris can include loose scale,
attemperator liner failure, and weld splatter left in tubes following repairs. Other causes of
3-15

Boilers
reductions in flow can include plugging of orifices by feedwater corrosion products, denting of
tubes during outage, and attempts at slag removal.
Erosion Caused by Sootblowers - Operational problems with sootblowers are a significant cause
of tube erosion at locations directly impacted by a sootblower stream. The causes of damage
include incorrect setting of blowing temperature (insufficient superheat), condensate in blowing
media, improper operation of moisture traps, excessive sootblowing pressures, improper location
of sootblower, misalignment of sootblower, malfunction of sootblower or excessive sootblowing.
External Corrosion Fatigue - Circumferential cracks can result from a combination of the
actions of deposits on both the inside and outside of tubes and thermal expansion and contraction
cycling of the surface. Fireside corrosion can also result from poor combustion or from local low
oxygen activity. This can be associated with flame impingement and high sulfur fuels that results
in a local reducing environment. The damage is characterized by significant wall thinning of a
number of adjacent tubes with longitudinal cracking frequently in evidence. Fireside deposits are
typified by a hard sintered layer on the tube that is rich in unburned carbon, iron oxides and iron.
Figure 3-13
Boiler Fireside Corrosion
Waterwall tubes from an 800 MW supercritical boiler show evidence of severe fireside corrosion
and circumferential cracking. Such reduction of tube thickness generally requires replacement.
Frequently seen on waterwalls in the vicinity of the burners, the cause has been defined as
corrosion enhanced-thermal fatigue, possibly aggravated by a reducing atmosphere. (Ref. 3-10)
Falling Slag Erosion - Slag breaking away from tube surfaces often results in major damage to
tubes that it impacts.
Wastage - Oxidation of external tubing surfaces under normal operating conditions results in
nominal losses of wall thickness which are in the range of 0.002-0.005 inches (0.05-0.125mm)
3-16

Boilers
per year. This rate can markedly increase to levels of 0.12 inches (3 mm) per year where local
transient reducing conditions have been created by improper adjustment of low NOx burners.
Internal Corrosion from Pitting - Pitting results when the protective oxide scale breaks away
from the wall in limited areas. The bare metal that is exposed acts as an anode while the oxide
covered surface acts as the cathode. Loss of metal occurs at the bare metal surface. (Figure 3-8)
Internal Corrosion by Caustic Gouging - The concentration of NaOH in deposits results in caustic
corrosion that attacks the tube wall nonuniformly and perforates local areas. Continued reaction
can reduce wall thickness to the extent that wall failure occurs. (Figure 3-9, 3-10, and 3-14)
Figure 3-14
Micrograph Of Caustic Gouging Failure
Damage is related to the use of caustic in normal treatment or to correct pH in all-volatile
treatment. This micrograph is of a typical thin edge fracture caused by caustic gouging.
Internal Corrosion by Acid Attack (Acid Phosphate Corrosion) - In areas with low pH, such as
those that have undergone improper chemical cleaning, corrosion products can combine with
phosphates, and tubing can undergo acid attack. Damage is most likely as a result of phosphate
hideout problems in units where mono- or di-sodium phosphate additions are used. (Figure 3-11)
(Ref. 2-5)
Liquid Ash Corrosion - Low melting point ash deposited on tube surfaces as a result of coal or
heavy oil combustion, can form molten phase derived from vanadium compounds (residual-oil
ash) or from alkali trisulfates (coal ash), that destroys the protective oxide layer on the outside
surfaces of tubes. This can increase tube metal loss by an order of magnitude relative to depositfree operation.
3-17

Boilers
Fretting - The relative motion of two contacting surfaces and subsequent galling of the metal,
results in metal loss.
Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW) Failures - Stainless steels are often employed in the highest
temperature areas of superheater and reheater pendants. The remainder of the material is low
alloy steel. Because of the difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion of these materials,
stresses develop at the weld interface resulting in creep and fatigue cracking.
Figure 3-15
Dissimilar Metal Weld In Superheater Tubing
Welding of low alloy steels, (T22 in this photo, left) to austenitic tubing (316 stainless steel on
right) using here an Inconel weld filler metal produces high stresses at the weld because of
different thermal expansion coefficients. Failure is often at the ferritic weld interface and may be a
particular problem if the filler metal is stainless steel.
Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking (IGSCC) - Water left in horizontal sections or bends
of stainless steel tubing during downtime which is contaminated with impurities such as
chlorides will result in IGSCC.
Cracking at Attachment Welds - These occur at locations affected by DMWs, austenitic clips
and thin-walled reheater tubes.
Thermal-mechanical Fatigue - These occur at the weld joints to the headers, caused by startstop cycling and load changes, and by restraint of the tubing by the drum or lower waterwall
headers.
Weld Related Failures - improper welding is often the cause of many types of subsequent tube
problems.
Graphitization - Conversion of iron carbide in steel to almost pure carbon in the range of 8501000F (450-540C) can embrittle the steel.
3-18

Boilers
Supercritical Waterwall Cracking - Damage is most commonly found on the fireside of

waterwalls and membranes between tubes of coal-fired supercritical units in the highest heat flux
zones. The cracks are generally circumferential and parallel with a sulfur-containing central
spline and sulfur in the oxide. Such thermal fatigue cracks are often referred to as alligator
hide damage. (Figure 3-13)
Carburization - Carbon from unburned coal or carbon dioxide sensitizes the surface of
superheater and reheater tubing that has had its protective layer partially dissolved by coal ash
species. Wastage of the tubing occurs by a carburization reaction that reduces the chromium
content of the steel through formation of chromium carbides. This reduces the corrosion
resistance of the steel and increases the overall wastage rate. (Ref. 3-11)
Inspection of Boiler Tubes
Each of the techniques that is briefly described below can be used to detect one or more of the
possible boiler tube failure mechanisms or combination of mechanisms that has resulted in
damage. Understanding the mechanism associated with any failure or damaged component is a
crucial step before changing operating and maintenance procedures to avoid future damage.
Equally important is the adoption of the proper repair methodology so that the likelihood of
recurrence of the problem can be minimized.
Visual Testing (VT) - surface inspection using mirrors, magnifying glasses, microscopes, fiber
optic devices, borescopes, video image scopes and analog and digital cameras.
Ultrasonic inspection (UT) - used for flaw detection and thickness measurement. It is based on
the principles that 1) a sonic pulse should travel through a uniform material at a fixed velocity
and 2) the response from any flaw or discontinuity varies with the characteristics of the
transmitted beam, the material through which it propagates and the characteristics of the flaw.
Measurement of the time difference recorded between the emission of a sonar pulse and the
receipt of a reflection permits the calculation of the distance between the emitter and reflector. In
addition, characteristics of a flaw such as size can often be estimated.
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer System (EMATS) - a variation of ultrasonic testing. It
uses electromagnetic acoustic interaction for elastic wave generation. In this way it avoids a fluid
couplant that is required for conventional ultrasonic testing. It is used primarily for mapping
boiler tube thickness in areas subject to corrosion and/or erosion.
3-19

Boilers
Figure 3-16
EMAT Inspection Of Boiler Tubes
EMAT inspection of boiler water walls permits rapid scanning of tubing without the need for a
fluid couplant. Currently hand-held scanners are used, although research is underway to
investigate automation of the process so that the data can be recorded from a remote site.
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT) - used for the detection of discontinuities that are open to the
surface. Special dyes are drawn into these discontinuities by capillary forces. The presence of
liquids in these discontinuities can also be detected by means of a developer that has a highly
visible, contrasting appearance.
Magnetic Testing (MT) - used for detection of surface connected and near-surface connected
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. The flaws deflect magnetic lines of force and can be
then observed visually through the use of highly visible, magnetic particles which are scattered
on the surface.
Eddy Current Testing (ET) - used to inspect the surface and near surface of electrically
conducting materials. An applied magnetic field will induce an eddy current into the surface.
Any defect or crack will disturb the flow of eddy currents. This produces a back electro-motive
force that can be measured by the eddy current probe.
Infrared Thermography - used to detect temperature changes at viewable surfaces by the
resulting infrared radiation. It is very useful for remotely detecting abnormal operations that
result in heat flows that raise the surface temperatures of equipment. This technique can be used
in a transient mode. When steam is flashed through a cold tube with flaws, the tube heats up at
different rates through the material. A camera can pick up these transient differences.
Replication - Plastic replication is used principally for reproducing surface features such as
creep cavities, cracks and gross microstructural features. It involves placing a coating of a resin
on the surface to be examined, which after hardening is backed with a softened cellulose acetate.
The resulting film can then be stripped off and analyzed by scanning transmission electron
microscopy combined with energy-dispersive x-ray analysis. (Ref. 3-12)
3-20

Boilers
Corrective Actions for Boiler Tubes

Many boiler tube failures can be avoided by changes in operating practices, redesign of
mechanical systems, installation of protective systems and by careful attention to the anomalies
that are known to lead to failures. A first-level list of corrective actions is summarized in Table
3-6. (Ref. 3-13)
Table 3-6
Avoiding Boiler Tube Failures by Changing Operating and Maintenance Practices
Leading causes of damage
in rank order
Corrosion Fatigue
Fly Ash Erosion
Hydrogen Damage
High Temperature Creep
Short Term Overheating
Erosion caused by Soot Blowers

External (Fire-Side) Corrosion
Falling Slag Erosion
Other Causes of Damage

(not rank ordered)
Dissimilar Metal Weld Cracking
Caustic Corrosion
Pitting
Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking

(IGSCC)
Changing Operating and

Maintenance Practices
Redesign tube attachments
Restrict cyclic operation
Chemically clean
Install baffles/shields
Use coatings
Reduce velocity of ash by operating modifications
Chemically clean
Maintain correct water chemistry
Reduce internal scales, deposits
Upgrade material
Shield tube
Prevent tube blockages
Control drum water levels
Assure coolant circulation
Reduce excessive firing rate
Realign soot blowers
Change operating conditions
Adjust burner alignment
Increase coal fineness
Use corrosion resistant coatings or coextruded tubes
Install wear bars
Increase tube wall thickness
Change fuel to reduce slagging potential
Changing Operating and

Maintenance Practices
Control applied stress and temperature
Relocate weld to a lower temperature region
Use nickel base filler metal
Maintain hanger, supports, space
Control water chemistry
Minimize ingress of corrosion deposits
Remove corrosion deposits by cleaning
Eliminate weld backing rings
Use rifled or ribbed tube
Control oxygen level in feed water
Use proper lay-up procedures (nitrogen blanket, hydrazine,
ammonia)
Avoid corrosive chemicals by proper water chemistry control
Reduce tensile stresses by heat treatment
Use stabilized stainless steels
3-21

Boilers
Low Temperature Corrosion
Coal Ash Corrosion

(Figure 3-17)
Oil Ash Corrosion
Coal Particle Erosion

Vibration Fatigue
Thermal fatigue
Maintenance Cleaning Damage

Chemical Excursion Damage
Material Defects
Welding Defects
Raise temperature above acid dew point

Lower acid dew point temperature
Reduce S03 levels in flue gas
Shield tube, use thicker tubes or corrosion resisting coatings
Use higher grade alloy or coextruded tube
Reduce corrosive constituents in coal ash
Use higher grade alloy or coextruded tube
Lower melting temperature of ash deposit by additives
Control excess air at 0.8% oxygen
Replace wear resistant liners and refractory coatings
Change flow patterns in boilers
Install vibration restraints
Adjust water level controls and drains in ash hoppers and water
removal devices in sootblowers
Control feedwater temperature
Repair cracks and punctures
Improve QC procedures
Replace damaged sections
Improve QC procedures
Improve QC procedures at source
Improve QC procedures at welds
Common causes of failure are mapped to boiler tube locations in Table 3-7 and immediate
corrective actions for the affected tubes suggested. The operating and maintenance actions above
in Table 3-6 should also be pursued as necessary longer-range changes.
Figure 3-17
Shielding Superheater Tubes in a Lignite-Fired Boiler
Coal constituents can form ash deposits, particularly on the leading tubes of superheaters and
reheaters. Such deposits, besides affecting thermal performance, can lead to tube corrosion and
failure. One corrective measure is to deploy shields in areas of particular damage. Alternatively
use of corrosion-resistant coatings, or higher grade alloys, can be effective.
3-22

Boilers
Table 3-7
Inspection and Repair of the Most Likely Damage Locations
Tube Type
Damage Mechanism Inspection Location Inspection

Technique
Corrective Action
Waterwallespecially areas of
External corrosion
Deposits on tube
surface
VT
UT
Clean and coat

tubes, or replace if
wastage is severe
high heat input
Wastage
Tube Walls
EMAT
UT
Estimate remaining
wall thickness,
replace if necessary
Hydrogen Damage
Tube walls
UT
Estimate remaining
wall thickness,
replace if necessary
Corrosion Fatigue
Surfaces near
buckstays and
windboxes
UT
Grind and weld

repair
Pitting
Superheater and
reheater
Thermal Fatigue
At DMW
Replace or repair if
less than minimum
wall remains
Hottest portion of
superheater tubing
PT
Wastage
Economizer
Repair welds
Estimate remaining
life *
IGSCC
Horizontal
sections
UT
Replace if corrosion
exceeds 25-50 % of
wall thickness
Corrosion
Weld joint to inlet

and outlet headers
UT
Replace if wall
thickness is reduced
below minimum
Erosion
Tube surface
VT
* The determination of the remaining life of superheater tubes requires the use of analytical techniques that correlate wall
thickness, oxide thickness and operating parameters. Several approaches are available: EPRI, boiler manufacturers, NDE
specialists and consultants. For example, TUBELIFE is the EPRI software code for performing these analyses and the overall
accuracy of the code has been verified by comparing predictions with actual tube lives. Considering all of the variables that are
required to perform the calculations (heat flux, estimates of original wall, material properties, etc.), a one time analysis of
superheater tubing will provide remaining life estimates with a precision of 10 - 20%. Repeated testing every two to four years
will greatly improve the accuracy of the life predictions, and result in a an optimum balance between unit availability and the
number of tubes that must be replaced. (Ref. 3-14)
Tables 3-8 and 3-9 provide a set of general guidelines for the types of repairs noted in Table 3-7.
3-23

Boilers
Table 3-8
Some Specifics for Tube Repair
General Method
Applicability
Tube section replacement
The preferred repair method consists of replacing tube section

with one of the same material and dimensions
Save damaged sections for metallurgical analysis
Avoid getting debris from cutting operation into tubes that could
lead to blockage and subsequent boiler tube failures
Grind out the defect and reweld
Applicable for small defects such as pin-hole leaks

Vee-preparation and re-weld
Although quicker than tube replacement, there is a significant
chance of repeat failures
Pad welding
Should only be used in an emergency as repeat failures are

nearly always guaranteed. Should be replaced at next major
outage,
Involves mechanically cleaning the rupture to original contour,
veeing a weld groove and re-welding
Window welding
May be required if access all around the tube is limited. Should

be used only as a temporary measure with full replacement at
next major outage.
Boiler tube build-up
For restoring thinned tubes to original thickness.

Should not be used if the remaining wall thickness is less than
60% of design thickness or on tubes less than 1.59 mm (1/16)
thick.
(Ref. 3-15)
Table 3-9
General Guidelines on Tube Thickness
(Source B&W)
Location
Furnace support tubes and

economizer stringer support
tubes
Economizer, furnace wall, and

other water cooled tubes
Superheater, reheater, and

other steam cooled tubes
(Ref. 3-16)
3-24
Actual wall thickness

relative to percent specified
wall thickness, t
Course of Action
Tubes equal to or greater than

85% t
Monitor thickness
Tubes less than 85% t
Restore tube wall thickness

or replace tube
Monitor thickness

85% t
85% t

or replace tube
Monitor thickness
or replace tube

Boilers
Boiler Tube Monitoring and Diagnostic Techniques

Approaches to leak detection in boilers, summarized in Table 3-10, continue to become
increasingly sophisticated. Early methods, still useful in many cases, involve monitoring the
water makeup rate, observing furnace pressure fluctuations for unusual peaks, listening for
additional noise and observing the performance of the electrostatic precipitator since additional
water content in the flyash will cause the resistivity to change. Acoustic sensors are very useful
for detecting small leaks before they can develop further. A recent study indicated that about
60% of all boiler leaks could be detected acoustically.
Table 3-10
Approaches to Detecting Boiler Tube Leaks
Technique
Sensitivity
Continuity
Leak Size
Acoustic Monitoring
During operation
During hydrostatic testing
Continuous
Downtime
Small
Very small
Boiler water makeup rate
Intermittent
Moderate
Audible noise
Intermittent
Moderate
Precipitator power
Continuous
Moderate
Furnace pressure fluctuation
Continuous
Large
Hydrostatic testing
Downtime
Small
Figure 3-18
Acoustic Leak Detection
A typical boiler tube acoustic sensor uses a waveguide to monitor the high-temperature furnace
enclosure. The signal processing unit and data displays can be located in the plant control room.
The technique is simple. Any leak emits acoustic sound that is picked up by several of these
3-25

Boilers
sensors in different positions. The relative strength of the signals determines the location of the
leak. (Ref. 3-16)
Acoustic Monitoring- Using acoustic signals to detect problems, particularly leaks, in power
plant equipment is common and relatively simple with acoustic detectors that are portable, nonintrusive and that provide an immediate visual display of the leak. Acoustic monitoring has been
applied successfully in power plants to determine boiler tube leaks, mechanical problems,
pressure vessel integrity, internal and external valve leaks, vacuum leaks, the onset of cavitation
in pumps and valves, the presence of flow (or no flow) in piping and heat exchange equipment
and corona arcing of electrical equipment.
Figure 3-19
Acoustic Leak Trace
A progressively developing leak in a boiler tube is readily detectable from the signal transmitted
from an accelerometer. To avoid failures of adjacent tubing the leak should be fixed before the
water or steam-flow exceeds specific limits.
Acoustic signals are usually defined in two ranges, the sonic range and the ultrasonic range, and
their applications are:
Sonic Range frequencies used in mechanical vibration analysis and low frequency leak
detection (2Hz 20Hz).
Ultrasonic Range Ultrasonic frequencies (20kHz MHz) used in cavitation detection,

acoustic emission (AE), high frequency leak detection, corona and partial discharge
detection.
Both ranges make use of contact and non-contact sensors, such as microphones, accelerometers,
and high frequency resonant transducers. A tube leak acoustic trace is shown in Figure 3-19
illustrating that the filtered leak signal amplitude is clearly significantly higher than that of the
3-26

Boilers
background noise level and readily detectable. The ordinate scale in Figure 3-19 is in volts rms
and is directly related to gravity acceleration units (g). When translated, typical values for action are:
Less than 0.1g = Small or no leak
Greater than 0.1g and less than 3g = Medium leak (Scheduled Repair)
Greater than 3g = Large leak (Repair)
(Ref. 3-17)
Infrared Photography- Special adaptations of Infrared Thermography (IRT) techniques have
been developed for use in high temperature boiler environments. These require the use of high
temperature lens systems that incorporate special lenses, housings and cooling means. Such
approaches provide significant information related to conditions that can cause failure including:
Tube wall temperatures, flame impingement, tube leakage, slagging and bowed tubes.
Nozzle restrictions, flame size, shape and turbulence patterns and burner tilt, air control and
register alignment
Casing flame impingement or insulation degradation.
Two systems have been developed at the EPRI M&D Center that utilize lenses housed in Inconel
shafts that are highly polished on the inside. In one case, heat transferred through the wall of the
housing is dispersed by means of a passive cooling system while maintenance of a vacuum in the
shaft avoids heat transfer through molecular motion. In the other design, station air at 80psig
(6.5bar) is used for cooling. These systems, that can detect temperatures up to 2500F (1370C),
are inserted through access doors or observation ports, either temporarily or for extended
periods. (Ref. 3-18)
Surface Layer Activation - Metal loss from the surface of a tube, valve or rotating part can be
measured accurately at levels of 0.001 inches (0.025mm) by surface layer activation. This
technique uses an accelerator ion beam to activate (off-line) a thin layer of surface material of the
component so that it emits gamma radiation. A detector is used to measure the initial level of
emission. Since any reduction in the rate of emission is proportional to the remaining thickness
of the activated layer, loss of material can be accurately calculated. The technique has been
successfully deployed for turbine blades and valves, but might find its most valuable application
for boiler tubes. (Ref. 3-19)
Chordal Thermocouples - These have been used to measure in furnace tube metal temperature
directly and provide information about through-wall temperature gradients which are used for
heat flux calculations. The technique involves removing sections of a boiler tube and placing a
thermocouple junction within the tube walls by drilling into those walls to place the
thermocouple wires, which are then tack welded in place, and covered by peening-in weld metal.
After the instrumented tube section is reinstalled, a stainless steel shielding tube is used to
protect the lead wires. Heat flux can be inferred from measuring temperature differences among
a set of three chordal thermocouples that span the crown of the tube to the membrane. (Ref. 3-8)
3-27

Boilers
Creep-Fatigue Monitors Creep-fatigue can be measured on-line by the EPRI developed

Creep-Fatigue Pro. This personal computer based system monitors data from existing plant
instrumentation at 20-second intervals, and converts the data into stresses at critical locations.
From this information, creep-fatigue damage (remaining life fraction) and crack growth are
calculated. (Ref. 3-20)
Detailed Case Histories of Effective Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Programs
There have been a number of very successful examples of effective programs to reduce boiler
tube failure rates. Four of these programs, implemented at Omaha Public Power District, Loy
Yang Power Station in Victoria, Australia, ESKOMs Duvha Power Station in South Africa, and
the black-coal fired boiler fleet in New South Wales, Australia, are described in the following
pages. The major conclusion that can be reached by a review of these four case studies is that
BTF reductions can be achieved by a long-term commitment to any of the several formal
programs that are described.
EPRI, for example, has developed benchmarking tools that can be used by power plants owners
to assess the quality for both their Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program (CCIP) and their
Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Program (BTFRP). Through the middle of 2002, over 100
generating companies have used this approach to evaluate their cycle chemistry efforts and over
70 have used it to evaluate their boiler tube failure reduction programs.
Among the key parameters that benchmark a successful program are:
Current Availability Loss (%) due to BTF
Remaining life of superheater and reheater circuits
Existence of a long-term BTF forced outage plan
Existence of action plans to avoid repeat BTF
Definition of formal BTF goals/objectives
The four case studies below exemplify successful approaches to the on-going challenge of
lowering boiler unavailability due to tube failures.
3-28

Boilers
OPPD Reduces Availability Loss Due to Boiler Tube Failures From 6% in 1990 to less
than 1% in 2000
Figure 3-20
OPPD BTF Rates
Availability loss experienced at OPPD North Omaha and Nebraska City plants due to boiler tube
failures (weighted average through 8/31/01) was significantly reduced by a strong commitment to
the formal program that was instituted.
Issues/Goal
In response to concerns by Omaha Public Power District (OPPD) management about increasing
availability loss due to boiler tube failures in the late 1980s, a dedicated multidisciplinary
Failure Analysis and Corrective action Team (FACT) was organized in 1990. The primary
objectives of the FACT are to monitor, review, and analyze all boiler tube failures in a
systematic way and recommend corrective actions to address the root cause of the failure. One of
the initial actions of the team was to issue specific guidelines that were based on EPRI
recommendations for the treatment of all boiler tube failures.
Key Conclusions
Since 1990, the combination of the use of a dedicated multidisciplinary Failure Analysis and
Corrective action Team (FACT) and capital investments to eliminate identified problem
areas has resulted has resulted in a reduction in loss of availability resulting from Boiler Tube
Failures (BTF) in OPPD coal-fired plants from over 6% in 1990 to less than 1% in 2001.
The most frequent cause of BTF in these plants is soot-blower erosion. Failures are
minimized by monitoring and correction of tube shields, monitoring of tube thickness during
shutdowns, pad welding to repair damaged areas, and replacement of piping spools when
necessary
3-29

Boilers
The largest and newest unit in the fleet, the 632 MW unit, has a lower BTF rate than the five
smaller units that range in capacity from 79 to 224 MW.
About half of the benefits due to increased availability result from FACT activities and half
from the capital investments to eliminate problems
The FACT team is made up professionals from the groups listed below, that are each
responsible for the following specific functions. It meets once every other month.
Table 3-11
OPPD FACT Team Composition and Functions
Group
Function
Technical Services
Non-destructive examination of all station equipment and

chemical cleaning
Maintenance
Engineering
Monitoring of critical chemical indicators on a daily basis
Chemistry
Coordination of boiler repairs and inspection
Design Engineering
Boiler modifications
The process established by FACT includes a number of very specific actions:
FACT members are notified whenever there is a failure
R Stamp quality control inspectors document the failures and develop repair methods
Tube samples are taken for analysis when the failure is in an area of the boiler that has not
previously experienced failures or the cause of the failure cannot be readily determined
A sample data sheet is processed describing the location, orientation, tube material, and
description of the failure
An independent contractor performs the failure analysis of the sample
Typical BTF reports include a failure description, graphical depiction of failure location,
review of similar failures, a discussion section, conclusions and recommendations
FACT members review all BTF reports prior to issue.
FACT provides boiler cleaning recommendations using EPRI guidelines for assessment of
the need for chemical cleaning
FACT maintains a BTF database which is accessible to all employees on OPPDs Intranet
An Action Item List is maintained to insure that all recommendations are completed and all
commitments are fulfilled.
One example of a FACT recommendation was to temporarily reduce boiler operating pressure
until superheater tubes could be replaced as a means of temporarily dealing with increased tube
3-30

Boilers
failures due to creep. As a result of this recommendation, which reduced unit output, tube
failures in that area of the boiler were significantly reduced. FACT also noted a linkage between
boiler tube weld quality and tube failures in areas where weld access is difficult.
Power Plant Descriptions
OPPD operates six Powder River Basin coal-fired units with a total rated capacity of 1295 MW.
Details about the fleet are provided below.
Table 3-12
OPPD Power Plants
Station
Net
Year in Service
Boiler Manufacturer
Capacity, MW
North Omaha Unit #1
79
1954
CE
North Omaha Unit #2
111
1957
CE
North Omaha Unit #3
111
1959
CE
North Omaha Unit #4
138
1963
CE
North Omaha Unit #5
224
1968
FW
Nebraska City Unit #1
632
1979
FW
(Ref. 3-21)
Critical Assessment
OPPD has been an active participant in the EPRI Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Program
(BTFRP) since its inception in the early 1990s. The experience of their FACT team in reducing
availability losses is applicable to virtually all fossil plants, particularly (in the case of soot
blower erosion failures) to units operating on coal. Operation of the FACT team on a continuous
basis is integral to the long-term success in minimizing availability losses attributable to boiler
tube failures (BTF) experienced in the OPPD system. By including personnel from various
disciplines on the team and sharing information with others through the OPPD Intranet, there is
assurance that BTF problems are evaluated thoroughly and prospective solutions are assessed
and implemented to realize maximum value to OPPD.
Actions routinely taken by the FACT team are quite consistent with the EPRI approach to BTF.
The first step is to determine the responsible failure mechanism. (To the extent possible, the
FACT team places a high priority on removal of failed tubes for metallurgical examination and
failure analysis.) Then an assessment of possible root causes is made to determine which are
responsible for the damage and failures experienced. Finally, one or more corrective actions,
capable of mitigating the root cause factors that enabled the mechanism to become active, are
implemented. By periodically meeting, the FACT team is able to follow up on corrective actions
taken in response to previous BTF incidents and address new or potential future BTF problems.
3-31

Boilers
Managing the Pressure Parts Supply Chain Reduces the Number of Boiler Tube
Failures at the 4x500 MW Loy Yang Power Station in Australia
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
01
20
99
19
97
19
95
19
19
93
91
19
89
19
19
87
Total Loss of Availability

for the four Loy Yang
Units, %
Figure 3-21
Loy Yang Plant BTF Rates
Loy Yang Plant experience with boiler tube failures improved after implementation of a formal
program
Issues/Goal
The Loy Yang Power Plant in Victoria, Australia uses very low quality, low rank, high moisture,
Australian coal. Due to the fouling nature of this coal, the lance type sootblowers and
waterblowers operate continuously to maximize run length, but this approach increases tube
damage. A broad based approach, designated as the Pressure Parts Supply Chain has been
instituted to reduce Boiler Tube Failures. The Supply Chain consists of the following
components: Needs Analysis, Work Planning, Data Collection, Information Processing and
Whole-of-Life Planning.
Key Conclusions
As a result of this program, BTF have been reduced from approximately 10/year in 19911997 to 3/year from 1998-2000. The resulting savings are substantial in that the average tube
leak repair requires three days at an outage cost of $400,000/day.
Major contributing activities to the success of the program are:
Extensive preventative maintenance activities during scheduled outages
Improved skills and knowledge of inspection personnel
Standardized inspection techniques and reporting
Historical database to identify area of concern
It was estimated that the boiler tube failure rate would be 3 to 4 times higher without this
comprehensive program.
3-32

Boilers
The elements of the Supply Chain Components are described in some detail below:
Needs Analysis
o Identification of resources needed to address plant concerns, inspection methods
and solutions
o Inspection history file that is useful both in determining outage scope and tracking
and altering inspections
Work Planning and Outage Execution

o Confirming the availability of the needed resources
o Pre-outage work confirmed and in progress
o Division of the convection pass into three zones with appropriate scaffolding to
improve access
o Build momentum early in the outage for highest overall productivity
Data Collection
o
o
o
o
Improved training of all personnel for effective inspection

Use of prepared inspection sheets with instructions and decision criteria
Use of data-logging UT meters with bar-code wands for automated reports
Bar-coding of all boiler locations
Information processing
o Automated date processing allows Action sheets detailing work are usually issued
within the hour
o The use of data loggers and spreadsheets enables the use of probability theory to
predict future maintenance needs and determine optimum inspection periods.
Decision Criteria
o Criteria based on sound engineering principles have been developed for deciding
upon whether to do nothing, shield, over-lay weld or replace.
o Use of the criteria prevent overrunning the outage time and assuring that the
boiler will run reliably
o These criteria also empower inspectors to make decisions
Whole Life Planning

o The timing, method and degree of replacement are determined using economic
evaluations that give the net present value, payback, and cost/benefit ratio.
Approximately $500,000 was invested in building suspended work platforms for each boiler,
providing modifications to boiler access doors to enable the movement of these platforms into
the boilers during maintenance operations, and purchasing five UT data logger meters.
During 2001, in the first major outage since 1997, a total of approximately $1.6 million was
spent replacing all the dissimilar metal welds in the secondary reheater, 30% of the final
superheater tubes (last few meters of chrome moly tubing only), the secondary attemperator
3-33

Boilers
spray headers, and some life extending overlay of superheater bifurcations. This was the first
major capital outlay on boiler pressure parts since start-up.
Each boiler undergoes a major inspection outage every two years. The outage requires 6 days
from synchronization to synchronization allowing 3.5 days for boiler tube work. Typically 850
man-hours are used for inspection and 2500 man-hours for repairs. On alternate years, a boiler
clean outage is taken for minimal inspection/repair time, which may allow only 8 hours for boiler
tube work.
The Loy Yang Power Station has 4x500MW units that were commissioned between 1984 and
1988. The boilers were supplied by ICAL (Internal Combustion of Australia) and are a Sulzer
design. The steam conditions are 1004F (540C) at the superheater and reheater. The pressure at
the superheater outlet is 2400 psia (16.8 Mpa) and 667 psia (4.6Mpa) at the reheater outlet. The
coal that is used contains 61% moisture and has a heating value of 4300 Btu/lb (10 Mj/kg).
(Ref. 3-22)
Critical Assessment
The experience at Loy Yang offers valuable insights for other fossil plants with soot blower
erosion problems. The Pressure Parts Supply Chain Approach greatly reduces the forced outage
hours associated with BTF by this mechanism. Further, it helps ensure that necessary forced
outages are completed in the shortest practical time period. Despite the unique fuel
characteristics of the coal used at Loy Yang and the excessive (essentially continuous) soot
blowing requirements, the benefits attained should be of interest to other plants with BTF caused
by soot blower erosion damage. In many instances, conducting a value analysis for the plant unit
under consideration is likely to reveal incentives to change present operating and maintenance
practices.
3-34

Boilers
ESKOM Reduces Losses of Availability Due to Boiler Tube Failure Outages to 0.68% in
2000
Unplanned Capability Loss Factor Resulting From Boiler Tube Failures,
%
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Figure 3-22
ESKOM BTF Rates
A formal BTF rate reduction program at ESKOM has yielded continuous improvement.
Issues/Goal
ESKOM introduced a Boiler Tube Leak Failure Reduction Program (BTFRP) in 1994 as part of
a major drive to improve plant performance. A target of 0.5% was assigned for Unplanned
Capability Loss Factor (UCLF) resulting from Boiler Tube Failures (BTF), which represented a
major reduction from the level of 1.78% experienced in 1994.
Key Conclusions
The major reductions in UCLF from 1.78% in 1994 to 0.68% in 2000 can be attributed to:
Power station staff efforts to critically examine boiler cooling procedures
Methods of gaining quick access to repair areas
Improved availability of equipment and repair methods to reduce down time
Much of the success that has been achieved has resulted from implementation of a formal
program that systematically records all tube failures and analyzes those failures for root causes.
Inspection plans require ongoing visual inspection for tube metal wastage and detachment of
tubes, wall thickness measurements, steam oxide thickness measurements and removal of tubes
for further metallurgical tests.
3-35

Boilers
The four leading causes of failure listed in decreasing order of frequency in 2000 were:
Fly ash erosion (35.1%)
Overheating -- Short term and creep related (26%)
Quality (11.7%)
Sootblower Erosion (9%)
Erosion
Methods to reduce fly ash erosion include screening to correct flow distribution and velocities
and the fitting of protection shields. Increases in this type of failure over the last several years are
attributed in large part to deterioration in coal quality and moisture. Saw tooth erosion in
economizer resulting from recirculation and high local velocities in the gill zone was markedly
reduced by installation of screens reduced the peak economizer inlet velocity from 2.9 to 1.1 m/s.
Sootblower erosion problems have decreased due to concentrated efforts on improved
maintenance, correct drainage slopes on pipework systems and optimized sootblower cycles.
Optimal period for sootblowing have been established that reduce steam utilization for
sootblowing.
Overheating
A comprehensive inspection program to establish remaining life in tubes through oxide

measurement has allowed systematic replacement of tubes before failure. Long term overheating,
as evidenced by very high oxide thickness, indicates that creep exhaustion of the final
superheater elements after 120,000 service hours. Highly stressed components such as bends and
transition welds are beginning to fail. Partial replacement is already taking place.
Graphitization of the 15MO3 material has occurred at the bifurcation pieces and the solid
spacers. These spacers, which were supposed to be removed after original boiler erection,
prevented axial movement resulting in cracks. To eliminate these problems the bifurcation piece
material has been changed to 13CrMo44 and all solid spacers were replaced with slip spacers
that allow the tubes to slide in the direction of expansion.
To prevent cyclic creep fatigue, protective shells that had been welded onto the sides of the tubes
were replaced with strap-on shields, because the differential expansion of the tube and shield
causes stresses that concentrate at the weld root and cause cracking.
Quality
Quality related issues have declined as partnering efforts with the boiler maintenance contractor
has allowed the contractor to retain coded welders.
3-36

Boilers
The Duvha Power Station in South Africa consists of six turbo-generators each with a capacity
of 600 MW. The boilers are L&C Steinmuller once-through tower type with a split furnace and
opposing burners. The first unit was commissioned in February 1980 and the last in November
1983.
(Ref. 3-23)
Comprehensive BTF Management Program Used at Black Coal Boilers in New South
Wales, Australia Keeps Availability Loss to About 1 %
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
20
0
0
20
0
9
19
9
8
19
9
19
9
Mean Availability Loss,

%, 650 MW
%, 350 & 550 MW
%, All
Figure 3-23
New South Wales BTF Reduction Program Results
The loss of availability has remained relatively constant and close to target levels after
reorganization of the NSW power industry in 1996
Issues/Goal
Boiler tube failures in the black-coal fired boilers in New South Wales, Australia were reduced
from over sixty to just eight per year in the period from 1988 to 1996 as the result of a formal
program, under the management of a single organization, aimed at reducing the loss of
availability to less than 2%. In 1996, the industry was restructured and three competing
companies were created from the pre-existing single company. Despite much fewer resources
allocated to this effort, poorer coal quality, more cycling operation, and a reduction in
maintenance periods, the failure rate has remained essentially constant during 1997 to 2001,
although a slight increase was experienced in 2001.
3-37

Boilers
Key Conclusions
Effective management of damage minimizes leaks
Weld defects are the most common cause of failure
Thermal fatigue is the dominant mechanism. The most susceptible areas are tie lugs, lead
tube butt welds, and header stubs
Tube leaks caused by hydrogen damage has been virtually eliminated by water chemistry
control coupled with sampling and ultrasonic testing of susceptible areas during outages
Although external stress corrosion cracking occurs, leakage is prevented by cutting out
affected tubes during an outage
Vigilance is needed to eliminate the presence of foreign objects in pressure parts to avoid
orifice plate blockage type failures
Effective shielding and comprehensive inspection during outages minimizes fly ash and
sootblower erosion
Forums for exchange of information on BTF keeps responsible parties informed
The types of failures of this boiler fleet and their frequency are listed in the Table below along
with a rank order of US boiler failures.
Table 3-13
Causes of New South Wales Boiler Leaks
Rank Order of Most Common
Failures in NSW Boilers
Occurrences
1997-2001
Rank Order of Most Common

Failures in US Boilers
Thermal fatigue
17
Corrosion fatigue
Fly ash erosion
16
Fly ash erosion
Welding defects
Hydrogen damage
Short term overheating
Long term creep
Material defects
Short term overheating
Corrosion fatigue
Sootblower erosion
Sootblower erosion
Fire side corrosion
High temperature creep
Falling slag erosion
The competitive situation has curtailed the exchange of information about BTF to some extent.
There are areas of cooperation that contribute to the success of this effort. These include a
Technical Services Center in NSW that conducts periodic pressure equipment technology forums
for the NSW industry and sponsored research at the Cooperative Research Center for Welded
Structures, which contains within it a program devoted to power generation. The introduction of
self-regulation for pressure equipment in service inspections under AS/NZS 3799 requires
selection of a competent in-service inspector to ensure that the plant performs reliably under
expected operating conditions until the next planned inspection, provides an impetus for
3-38

Boilers
minimizing BTF. The standard mandates a three-staged approach to inspection consistent with
EPRI recommendations.
Approximately 11,500 MW of black coal fired boilers are in operation in New South Wales,
Australia. Information about these 20 units is shown in the Table 3-14 below.
Table 3-14
New South Wales Power Plants
Rating, MW
Number in Service
Circulation
Designer/Builder
660
10
Natural
FW/IHI
660
Forced
CE/ICAL
500
Forced
CE/ICAL
350 (rerated to 300)
Forced
SH Co/ICAL
(Ref. 3-24)
Residual Stress Resulting from the Manufacturing Process Led to Stress Corrosion
Cracking in Platen Superheating Tubing at the Navajo Generating Station
Figure 3-24
Steam Leakage Impingement Damage
Steam leakage from the U-bends of the 347H SS wrapper tubes gouged the vertical steam tube
Issues/Goal
The root cause of the failures of U-bend tubes in the 750 MW Unit 3 at the Navajo Generating
Station on 4/21/99 and 11/7/00 respectively that had been in service for only two years proved
difficult to identify. Failures of this type to date have occurred in only one of three identical
units. An extensive investigation was conducted that considered potential causes of the IGSCC
3-39

Boilers
that had been observed in the failed U-bends including the change in cycle chemistry from AVT
(All Volatile Treatment) to OT (Oxygenated Treatment), increased daily cycling of the unit, and
the U-bend metallurgical properties.
Key Conclusions
The root cause of the hairpin bend failures was ultimately identified as high residual stresses
that were present in the two U-bends that failed. Metallurgical inspection revealed the SCC
to be predominantly intergranular with some transgranular branching. It was concluded that
the solution annealing heat treatment during original manufacturing had been inadequate to
completely remove the tensile stress that originated in the bending process because the
treatment was either too short or at too low a temperature. Follow-up radiography of all the
currently installed U-bends show that no further cracking is currently in progress.
The simplest means of checking for this type of problem before installation of new U-bends
is hardness testing. However the shape of this particular piece makes testing difficult.
Problems resulting from flyash erosion in the economizer and sootblower erosion are much more
frequent in these units than problems with the superheater tubes. The rareness of the superheater
problem required a comprehensive examination. The change in converting the supercritical units
in 1995 and 1996 to OT resulted in the concentration of corrosion-causing ionic species such as
sodium and sulfate, being reduced by a factor of ten compared with operation with AVT.
Examination of the failed sample indicated a very thin layer containing sodium, magnesium,
sulfur, and calcium present on the ID of the U-bend. However the quantity of contaminants was
below the threshold required to initiate SCC. There is also the possibility that the concentration
of these contaminants could increase during an outage, which can be several weeks in duration,
could contribute to SCC. There was no conclusive evidence that the contaminants present in the
water played any role in the failure.
Examination of the failed sample indicated that cracking had initiated from the ID, The 347H SS
was sensitized, and the high hardness in the bend area indicates that the bends had not been fully
solution annealed after bending. These facts suggest that one plausible explanation for the
failures attribute the damage to IGSCC that occurred as a result of the sensitized condition of the
347H SS microstructure and the high residual stress left as a result of the bending operation.
The Navajo Generation Station consists of 3x750 MW Combustion Engineering (Alstom Power)
supercritical, combined circulation, radiant, reheat steam generators with a centerwall dividing
the furnace into two halves. The units went into operation in 1974, 1975, and 1976 respectively.
The coal is delivered to the site from the Black Mesa coal fields.
(Ref. 3-25)
3-40

Boilers
Critical Assessment
Boiler tube failures typically account for the largest percentage of lost availability in fossil power
plants. Further, EPRI research has documented that most tube failures are repeat failures in
which a particular damage mechanism is active in multiple boiler tubes. The situation reported
by SRP at the Navaho Generating Station illustrates this common tube failure scenario.
Importantly, the SRP staff carried the analysis beyond the identification of the damage
mechanism (i.e., stress corrosion cracking) to the identification of the root cause that activated
the damage mechanism. This identification of the root cause high residual stresses from the
manufacturing process provides the basis for corrective actions that can eliminate the
occurrence of future failures. For this example, SRP can request hardness testing results from the
manufacturer to gain assurance that the manufacturing process did not produce high residual
stresses that would activate the stress corrosion cracking mechanism. Note also that SRP did
consider the potential root cause contribution from cycle chemistry and identified prior actions
(conversion to OT) that had already reduced this factor as the key root cause.
Overall, the SRP response to the Navaho tube failures provides a good case study of the basic
process that should be used by utilities to eliminate repeat tube failures and achieve highest unit
availability. In recent years, EPRI has worked with many utilities to re-emphasize this tube
failure reduction process. Formal programmatic efforts are implemented at plant and corporate
levels to assure that critical analysis and response steps are carried out. This process provides the
best assurance of reducing boiler tube failure rates and their impact on unit availability.
Cyclone Boiler Tubes Repaired More Rapidly with Automated Welding System
Issues/Goal
In cyclone boilers, coal, molten slag and molten iron at high temperatures cause erosion and
corrosion of the boiler tubes. One approach to extending tube life is the application of sacrificial
metal to the eroded/corroded tubing. In these competitive times for power producers, outage
times are too short for manual re-welding. An automatic welding system, referred to as BAWS
(Boiler Automatic Welding System) was developed by the Dynegy staff at the Baldwin Station at
a cost of approximately $300,000 to meet the need for a faster lower cost approach to cyclone
boiler repair. Two cyclone burners in a 600 MW, 14-cyclone burner boiler at the Baldwin Plant
of Dynegy Midwest Generation were satisfactorily rebuilt in 1998. The first was accomplished
with a prototypical unit and the second with an upgraded model.
Key Conclusions
The typical life of a cyclone burner is on the order of 20 years after which it is replaced
rather than repaired. The repair system described here can extend the useful life of the
cyclone burner by 5-10 years by rebuilding tubes to original dimensions using either or a
combination of base metal and corrosion resistant overlay
Tubes with wall thicknesses of 0.050 and greater can be repaired with this system
3-41

Boilers
The repair can be accomplished within the limited time normally available for an outage.
After refractory removal by water-blasting is complete, stud removal, touchup grinding, grit
blasting and UT testing can be accomplished in six shifts. Machine setup, assembly, testing,
welding, and equipment removal can be accomplished in eight shifts. After these tasks are
complete, the cyclone burner is ready for restudding and refractory installation.
Cost of Modifications
This method is somewhat less costly than manual re-welding and more importantly can be
accomplished in the normal cyclone outage periods with more consistent quality of the weld
overlay. Manual re-welding is too slow to meet this important objective.
It has been estimated that the automated welding unit would cost $150,000 if produced in
commercial quantities.
The BAWS system is introduced into the cyclone boiler through the 34 inch access manhole. It
consists of a combination of sending technology, welding systems, and computer controlled
robotic system. Access to any part of the cyclone for automatic welding results from a four axis
positioner. The cylindrical coordinates of the horizontal cyclone represent three axes while the
fourth axis is the position along the axial axis. The welding is GMAW automatic using pulsating
arc as a transfer mode. A laser distance gauge is used to measure the distance to the area to be
welded. Using a computer mouse, keyboard and video input, the operator can start, stop and
change the process from outside the cyclone.
The Baldwin Plant of Dynegy Midwest Generation has three 600 MW B&W cyclone boilers.
These units were built in 1970, 1973, and 1975 respectively. Each boiler contains 14 cyclone
burners. The plant originally burned washed, local Illinois coal. Recently the fuel has been
switched to low sulfur western coal.
(Ref. 3-26)
Critical Assessment
There are a great number of cyclone boilers in existence throughout the US. With the high cost
of replacement power and the desire to shorten outages, a tool like this should provide good
value to the utility market. Technically, the equipment could be easily adapted to different size
burners.
The technology appears to be pretty close to meeting utility needs. A separate qualification or
demonstration by an independent third party would help to satisfy any normal utility concerns
associated with the use of any relatively new technology that had not previously achieved broad
commercial acceptance.
3-42

Boilers
Welding procedure qualification might present a problem in that utilities cannot share procedures
under ASME Section I construction. This means that the company performing the repair must
have its own qualified procedures and carry the appropriate ASME stamps. It is likely that an
R stamp is required for this type of repair.
Work performed on waterwall overlays by the EPRI Fossil Repair Applications Center (FRAC)
parallels this development only on a different application. FRAC has been working on overlay
techniques for flat panels. The problem is in manipulation of the torch. It appears that the
Dynegy system can do this. FRAC is also working with the code to allow for repairs of this type
without preheat and post weld heat treatment. Work is ongoing in the ASME Boiler Code to
allow this type of work to be performed. Currently work like this is performed under the
National Board Inspection Code under the jurisdiction of the National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessels Inspectors. This code is required by the laws of many jurisdictions to be
followed for repairs to all pressure vessels including boilers.
Brief Case Histories of Effective Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Programs
BTF Reduced by PECO, PSI and KCP&L
In a period of three years (1989-1991), Philadelphia Electric Company (PECO) reduced the rate
of boiler tube failures such that a permanent improvement in system availability of 5% occurred.
This was achieved by implementation of a formalized BTF reduction program in each plant, based
on EPRI failure correction, prevention and control technology. Teams of plant operation, maintenance,
engineering and management personnel were trained to determine individual failure mechanisms
and root causes, estimate remaining life of damaged tubing and employ best practice repair
procedures. (Ref. 3-27) With a similar program to that employed at PECO, Public Service Indiana
(now Cinergy) was able to increase their Gibson Station availability by 3%. (Ref. 3-28) Kansas
City Power and Light used the same approach to improve system availability by 1992 to 3%
above the level of 1983-1985. Typically, there were 75 failures per year prior to the program and
23 per year after the program was implemented. (Ref. 3-29)
ComEd Reduces Waterwall Corrosion Fatigue Failures by Controlling Dissolved
Oxygen Prior to Startup
ComEd achieved a 61.6% reduction in corrosion fatigue waterwall failures in a one-year period
as a result of a program of oxygen control in boiler startup water. The units involved in the
program were State Line 3, Crawford 7 and Crawford 8, which are in cycling service. A dissolved
oxygen limit in boiler feedwater of 200ppb has been set before boiler light-off is permitted.
Untreated boiler feedwater can have as much as 10,000ppb of dissolved oxygen. The major
conclusions were that dissolved oxygen in boiler water is harmful on startup, shutdown and offline and that oxygen ingress to the boiler from Oxygen Feedwater Treatment (OT) would not
have any impact on corrosion fatigue crack initiation or propagation. (Ref. 3-30)
3-43

Boilers
Corrosion Fatigue Causes Tube Failures in an Oil Fired Cycling GPU Unit
In August 1996, a sudden catastrophic failure of four waterwall tubes occurred in a 62 MW oilfired cycling boiler operated by GPU. The primary cause of failure of the carbon steel tubes was
corrosion fatigue resulting from the combination of cyclic loading in a corrosive environment.
This resulted from 45 years of operation, (cycling since 1976), past chemistry upsets and stresses
associated with the attachment welds. Although the failure appeared similar to past failures
attributed to hydrogen damage, further investigation revealed that it resulted from corrosion
fatigue. (Ref. 3-31)
Chromized Panels Reduce Boiler Tubes Failures in PEPCOs Supercritical Units
The use of chromized panels drastically reduced the number of failures of boiler tubes due to
circumferential cracking and fireside corrosion in PEPCOs supercritical units. Since the late
1980s, installation of these panels has been standard practice. They are expected to perform well
in terms of avoiding the significant tube wastage that has recently been noted in boilers
employing low NOx burners. (Ref. 3-32)
TVA Evaluates High Chrome Steel Reheat Assemblies
Cracks at lug welds located on the reheat front inlet platens and front outlet pendants have been a
long term problem at the Tennessee Valley Authority Gallatin units 1 and 2. After a fuel switch
in 1980 to a washed coal, liquid phase corrosion on the tubes was noted. New reheat assemblies
fabricated from HR3C (high strength 25% chromium steel) were installed to address these
problems. This installation was not successful because swages between the front pendant and
inlet platen elements failed by brittle fracture due to the cold swaging operation used in
fabrication. Cracks were discovered in the lug welds after two years, and tube corrosion
continued. It was concluded that the use of HR3C would not eliminate the corrosion problem. In
addition, it is a material that is very difficult to work with and requires very special procedures
for success, including solution annealing to eliminate bending strains that resulted from
fabrication and welding. (Ref. 3-33)
3-44

Boilers
New York Power Authority Uses Infrared Photography and Reduces Superheater
Temperatures
Figure 3-25
Poletti Station
The Charles Poletti Power Project was the site of an EPRI/NYPA project to reduce superheater
temperatures through the use of infrared cameras.
With increased flue gas recirculation at the NYPA Charles Poletti Power Project, the boiler
experienced a rise in platen superheater tube failures due to long term overheating. NYPA sought
a way to measure tube metal temperatures rapidly and accurately to help balance combustion
controls and minimize the temperatures. Two infrared cameras were placed on the outside of the
boiler to monitor interior metal temperatures during operation. This allowed operators to adjust
parameters so as to minimize long-term tube damage. Parameters adjusted included combustion
air, recirculated flue gas and overfire air. The high temperature lens, developed by EPRI for the
infrared camera, provided the basis to make changes in boiler operation. Overfire air was
reduced from 20% to 10%, decreasing tube metal temperatures by 100F (56C). Total estimated
savings over 10 years are predicted at $1.6 million. (Ref. 3- 34)
BOILER SLAGGING AND FOULING

The accumulation of ash deposits on the furnace and convection tubes of coal-fired boilers is a
pervasive and sometimes production limiting issue with many boilers. Routinely removed with
soot blowers, the deposits can be no more than a continuing on-line maintenance issue, and in
such cases seldom interfere with operation, or result in heat transfer concerns in the boiler. Loss
in performance only occurs when the deposits become thick enough to restrict heat flow to the
water/steam circuits and appropriate sensors can measure such deposits and schedule soot
blowers to attack the affected areas in sequence. In fact intelligent soot blowing is a fast
developing diagnostic science, relying on state-of the-art sensors and computer control of soot
blowing schedules.
3-45

Boilers
However some boilers, and these represent an increasing number as coals are switched and
furnaces required to handle slagging fuels, can accumulate tenacious and hard to remove
deposits that can resist the most determined soot blower attacks. Such deposits are governed by
combustion ash constituents and by operating combustion temperatures. Oxides of silicon,
aluminum, iron, calcium, and magnesium, account for more than 95% of the ash. Also of
importance are oxides of sodium and potassium that act to fuse the ash and provide tube
attachment. A key parameter is the ash softening temperature. If the ash particles are at a
temperature higher than the ash softening temperature, the molten ash will condense on the
cooler tubes, re-solidify, become bonded, and grow in size. Such slag deposits are often difficult
to remove. This issue is particularly a concern with ash from Western coals such as from lignites
and sub-bituminous deposits. These high alkali ashes are impacted by their tendency to include
sodium oxides that condense on the tubes and aid fouling and slagging, essentially preparing the
surface for ash deposition. Coals with more than 3% sodium are particularly susceptible.
A recent EPRI publication (Ref. 3-35) provides guidelines for identifying and controlling ash
deposition. Its road-mapping approach to tracking, identifying, and solving slagging and fouling
problems is an extremely useful contribution to the literature on this topic. See Table 3-15 for
deposits descriptions and locations.
Table 3-15
Descriptions of ash deposits in boilers and their locations
Boiler
Zone or
Region
3-46
Ash Deposit
Characteristics
Brief Description
Specific Location Within

Boiler Zone
Light reflective ash

deposits
Fine, light-colored reflective, weak

deposit, thin-layered,
finely sized
Waterwalls
Molten waterwall slag

deposits
Dense, highly sintered or molten slag

deposits covering patches or entire
waterwall areas, up to several
centimeters or 2 inches thick
Waterwalls, lower, middle

radiant boiler regions
Burner eyebrow
deposits
Sticky ash rimming or accumulating

on the waterwalls near burners
Rim around burners, called

eyebrows
Cyclone slag tap

freezing
Molten ash (cyclone slag tap freezing)
Barrel of the cyclone, barrel

walls, cyclone and furnace
slag taps
Inadequate cyclone
slag cover
Lack of captive slag or inadequate slag

cover on refractory surface of cyclone
barrel
Barrel of the cyclone and

barrel walls
metallic highly fused

molten slag
Highly-fused, metallic-looking and

often several centimeters or up to 2
inches thick
Lower furnace radiant zone

Boilers
Boiler
Zone or
Region
Ash Deposit
Characteristics
Brief Description

Boiler Zone
Porous or vesicular
slag on waterwalls
Highly-fused, very porous slag typically

with a bubbly appearance; termed
vesicular slag
Waterwalls directly or at 2
3 m (49 ft) above burners
Ash, slag, and sludge

buildup on slope
walls or in hoppers
Excessive accumulations or piles of

slag which may be sticky or plasticlike
Just above ash hoppers
Massive ash
deposition on
overhang
superheat pendents
Massive ash deposition as in several

inches or centimeters up to several
feet or a meter in thickness
Overhang superheat
pendents
Fine, light-colored,
seemingly reflective
ash on waterwalls
Fine, light-colored, reflective weak

deposit, thin-layered and finely sized
Waterwalls
Sandstonelike
feathered deposits
forming on backside
of tubes
Feathered deposits, light brown to gray

in color and up to several inches or
centimeters thick, sometimes bridging
to adjacent tubes
Backside of steam tubes
Massive and very

dense deposits on
leading edge and
bridging areas of
tubes
Massive, dense, nearly slaglike

deposits, dark green-gray color; may
also have running slag or dripping slag
appearance
Convective pass regions

beyond furnace exit; may
be localized, not
necessarily affecting entire
bank; may form on leading
edges of tubes and bridge
to backside of tubes
Alternating light and

dark bands of hard
sandstone- or
enamel-like deposits
Alternating light gray and brown or red Usually second or third bank
deposits that are fairly dense and
of the reheater or primary
smooth in appearance. Moderately
superheater
hard.
Residual ash layers

on steam tubes after
sootblowing
Residual layers may appear as a

thicker, oxidized scale or a
15 cm jagged and sintered ash
deposit with some bare tube spots
Steam tubes
Higher deposition
rates on one side of
convective pass
versus other
Asymmetric deposit rates on one side

versus the other
Convective pass
3-47

Boilers
Boiler
Zone or
Region
Ash Deposit
Characteristics
Brief Description

Boiler Zone
Densely sintered
enamel-like sulfaterich deposits
Often white to reddish-brown; can

range from thin (13 mm) enamel-like
layers on upstream side of tubes to
dense deposits (18 mm thick)
growing on either side of the tube.
Deposits often conform to round tube
shape and are, therefore, hard to spot.
Lower-temperature primary
superheater or economizer
regions.
Light graylight
brown deposits
covering a major
portion of convective
surface
Very light (13 mm), even thickness

typically covering 50% or more of the
convective surface. Can quickly
change from fluffy, loosely bound to
sintered.
Convective surface
Piles of light brown to

red-gray deposits on
top of economizer
Calcium sulfate-rich deposits, light

brown to gray in color will fall off
primary superheater tubes and support
structures and accumulate on top of
the economizer
Front or on top of the

economizer
Air heater ash

deposits or corrosion
Very fine, light brown or gray ash will

accumulate in the air heater primarily
as a condensate
Air heater, SCR, ID fan,

and regions beyond
High porous
popcornlike deposits
accumulating on air
heaters/economizers
Also described as low-density or

porous egg-shell-like ash particles

and regions beyond
SCR blinding
Very fine, light gray or brown calcium

sulfate- or phosphate-rich particulate
or dust on SCR catalyst surfaces

and regions beyond
This report also discusses remedial measures, and identifies likely causes. For example high
furnace exit gas temperatures (FEGT) can often be a contributing cause and can be periodically
monitored (Figure 3-26). Deposition rates can be determined on-line if slagging is seen to be a
serious issue. Diagnostics of slagging or fouling problems are listed in Table 3-16.
Figure 3-26
Slag formation on the superheater tubes of a lignite-fired boiler
3-48

Boilers
Table 3-16
Observed Slagging and Fouling Conditions and Suggested Potential Causes.
Boiler
Zone or
Region
Boiler-Specific Condition or
Observation
Boiler Type
Potential Problem/Cause
Furnace tilts frequently

showing an independence
from load
Tangentially
fired boilers
only
Excessive wall deposition or slagging and

higher-than-normal FEGT, resulting in
convective pass fouling.
Pierced or dented lower slope

tubes or floors
All boilers
with
overhang
pendents
Results in leaking tubes; symptom of large

ash deposits on overhang pendents which fall
onto lower slopes.
Poor burner performance
PC-fired
boilers
Carryover of sparklers that impact the surface

of convective deposits, fusing ash particles.
High furnace exit gas

temperature
All boilers
Radiant boiler slagging; sticky or molten

deposits leading to fouling of superheat
pendents or high-temperature convective
pass.
Significantly diminished main

steam temperature readings
All boilers
Indication of ash fouling or slagging on

convective pass heat-transfer surfaces.
Increased attemperation
sprays in superheaters
All boilers
Could be a sign of increased wall slagging.
Changes in heat absorption

rate in various sections of the
boiler
All boilers
Increased wall slagging or convective pass

fouling.
Sparklers entering the

convective pass
All boilers
Sparklers impact the surface of convective

deposits, burn, and fuse surrounding ash
particles.
High differential pressure

across tube bundles
All boilers
May be the result of ash deposition; however,

by the time this pressure drop is noticed, ash
deposition is usually very severe.
Uncleaned surface between

retractable blower paths
All boilers
Residual ash layers, up to an inch or 23 cm

thick, remain after sootblowing.
(above design)
3-49

Boilers
Boiler
Zone or
Region
Boiler-Specific Condition or
Observation
Boiler Type
Potential Problem/Cause
Higher-than-design
temperatures in
convective pass (from
performance monitor or
temperature monitor)
All boilers
Radiant boiler slagging; sticky or molten

deposits leading to fouling of superheat
pendants or high-temperature convective
pass.
Changes in location of
problematic deposition
All boilers
If locations of heavy ash deposition change

rapidly such as from waterwalls to the
reheater, then fuel quality or obvious boiler
operation may be suspected.
Higher deposition rates on

one side of convective pass
versus other
All boilers
Uneven, asymmetrical deposits. If consistent

ash deposition occurs asymmetrically in one
particular location of the boiler, then there
may be burner, pluggage, or air distribution
problems.
High differential pressure

across economizer tube
bundles
All boilers
Ash deposition or ash buildup on economizer

surfaces.
High amperage draw on

induced-draft fan
All boilers
Ash deposition in convective pass heattransfer tube sections.
Low O2 readings
All boilers
Potentially severe slagging and possibly

fouling caused by localized reducing
condition.
Increased stack temperature
High carbon content in fly ash
All boilers
All boilers
Sign of slagging or fouling causing inefficient

heat absorption.
Detrimental to the disposal
or resale of the ash and potential indicator of
wall slagging from carbon particle impact.
As a brief review of the process of combustion, ash formation, and slagging and fouling
depositions, Figure 3-27 is a useful overview summary.
3-50

Boilers
Figure 3-27
Coal Combustion Process
A visual review of the process of coal combustion describes the likely locations of ash oxide
deposits. (From Coal Science and Technology, Elsevier Science, 1993, p. 329)
EPRIs VISTA Product for Slagging and Fouling Predictions

VISTA is a Windows-based computer tool used to perform fuel-related performance and
economic analyses. VISTA has been used to model over 40,000 MW of generating capacity
worldwide. VISTAs primary application is to provide users with total fuel-related costs for
alternative coals on a system-by-system basis via a summary of projected performance. Because
of the comprehensiveness of the performance and economic evaluation provided by VISTA, it
can be applied for fuel-related evaluations, ranging from straightforward fuel comparisons to
providing critical input in determining long-term, strategic fuel procurement approaches.
VISTAs treatment of furnace deposition is generally focused on the overall plant impacts and
costs. VISTA allows users considerable flexibility in predicting coal slagging or fouling by
letting the user select any of 16 different slagging correlations and 11 different fouling
correlations. The user can select multiple correlations and is also allowed to apply weightings to
the selection of the correlations. The slagging and fouling correlations are all based upon ASTM
coal properties, especially ash chemistry. Additionally, some of the relationships use generating
unit performance information, such as steam flow, heat input per plan area (HIPA), FEGT, and
boiler dimensions.
3-51

Boilers
The slagging correlations are used to determine a ranking, from very low to very severe.
This ranking, in turn, is used in comparing a design HIPA to a coal-specific HIPA. The
comparison results in either a margin or a slagging-based derate. Similarly, the fouling
correlations are used to determine a ranking (from very low to very severe). The fouling
correlations are employed to compare a design vertical plane FEGT to a coal-specific FEGT,
which is then used to provide either derate or margin information. VISTA also provides the user
information on the predicted number of sootblowing cycles. (Ref. 3-36)
Detailed Case Histories of Slag Control Systems
Injection of Chemical Compounds Reduce Slag Build-up at Pacificorps 480 MW Hunter
Unit #3
Figure 3-28
Pacificorp Hunter Unit #3
Issues/Goal
The coal used at Pacificorps Hunter and Huntington plants in southern Utah has an ash
softening temperature of about 2100F. The design/actual boiler temperature at the inlet to the
superheaters is 2200-2300F. The resulting melted ash solidifies on the cooler boiler surfaces
resulting in large clinkers, plugging, fouling and damage. In response to the problems with these
deposits, unit output is often reduced. At one point during 2000, output at the 480 MW Hunter
Unit #3 had to be reduced by 100 MW.
After investigating several approaches to solving these operating problems, Pacificorp decided to
work with Fuel Tech on a trial of their FUEL CHEM Targeted In-Furnace Injection (TIFI)
system.
Key Conclusions
3-52
Pacificorp installed Fuel Techs FUEL CHEM Targeted In-Furnace Injection (TIFI)
technology on Hunter Unit #3 during an outage in March 2001. This was the first
installation of the system in a large-scale utility boiler firing western coal. Other TIFI
systems have been installed by Fuel Tech in small paper-mill boilers that fire eastern
coal.

Boilers
Since the Unit #3 restart, Pacificorp reports that:

o Boiler pluggage, slag-related derates, and slag-related clean-up incidents are no
longer occurring on the unit
o There has been a 50% reduction in the need for sootblowing
Cost and Value of Modifications
Pacificorp and Fuel Tech negotiated an arrangement whereby Pacificorp pays Fuel Tech a fee for
each ton of coal burned in the unit. This fee covers all capital and operating expenses for the
system. Fuel Tech claims that the annual benefit to users of this system is equivalent to a Return
On Investment (ROI) of 100% to 700% based on the total amount of the fee paid.
The chemical reactants are injected as a water-slurry through an array of multiple injection
nozzles. A proprietary CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamic) model of the boiler was utilized to
optimize the specific nozzle locations, injection times and amount of chemical injected. The
objective of the modeling is to ensure that the injected chemicals are optimally dispersed into the
hot combustion gases where they contact and react with the slag-forming materials before they
solidify and attach to the boiler surfaces as dense deposits. The chemicals are selected so that
they interfere with the normal crystallization of the slag such that the ash deposits are much more
porous and friable. In this form they tend to separate from the boiler surface as a result of their
own weight or by sootblowing.
The results of the operation of Hunter #3 have validated the predictions originally made by the
model. There was some fine-tuning of the system as a result of early experience. No dead spots
where slag build-up has occurred have been found.
A second unit, #2 with a capacity of 440 MW at the Hunter station, was scheduled to begin
operating Fuel Tech system after its next scheduled outage early in 2002. A test of the system on
a 500 MW boiler firing Powder River Basin coal at another location for another company was
scheduled to begin in January 2002.
The 480 MW Hunter #3 Unit has a cross-fire B&W boiler that was started up in 1983. The other
two units at the station are CE tangentially fired boilers, each with capacities of 440 MW, that
began operation in 1978 and 1980 respectively. The station uses a blended of Utah coal with a
nominal heating value of 11,600 Btu/lb.
(Ref. 3-37)
3-53

Boilers
Critical Assessment
While this TIFI technology appears to work quite well at the Hunter station by weakening the
ash deposit, several questions come to mind for applicability at other sites.
First, the Utah coal cited is not widely used as a primary fuel, accounting for less than 10% of
US coal supply. Additionally, the mineralogy of the Utah coal is quite different from other
domestic bituminous coals and consequently the resulting slag character is different as well. The
future test of PRB coal would provide valuable information on the issue of other coals.
Second, the TIFI technology has many similarities to Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR)
technology used for NOx emission control, in that both involve using lances and nozzles to inject
chemicals into targeted zones. While ash deposition is less sensitive to temperature variations
than NOx chemistry, its not clear that this technology would be applicable for non-base loaded
units. Another concern with technologies that target specific zones is their ability to maintain
their effectiveness over time. Coal fired units tend to drift over time in terms of air and fuel
flow, which can impact the location of deposits.
Finally, additives for deposit control have a checkered historysometimes they work, but many
times they dont. Ref. 3-35 discusses additives and utility experience with them to deal with ash
deposition in utility boilers.
Water Cannons In The Three Lignite-Fired 750 MW TXU Martin Lake Units Reduce
Slag Problems, Improve Efficiency, and Reduce NO
x
Figure 3-29
Water Cannon Spray Patterns
3-54

Boilers
Issues/Goal
Slag control has been a major challenge since initial operation of the Martin Lake boilers, which
are base loaded and operate near full load. Excessive waterwall slag shedding overloaded the
bottom ash removal capacity leading to boiler clinker bridge formation at the bottom throat
opening. Large clinkers, formed in the superheater pendant and platen sections, fell causing
significant damage upon impact to the lower furnace slope tubes and bottom ash area. Two
water cannons were initially installed in a limited area in 1998 to determine whether they would
alleviate the problem. That initial work was successful. Each boiler is now equipped with a set of
eight water cannons, a set of heat-flux sensors to detect the thickness of the slag layer, and a
control systems for automatic operation of each water cannon as needed. The water cannons
improve slag control on the waterwalls, which lowers furnace exit gas temperature (FEGT),
which in turn lowers the temperatures in the superheater pendant and platen areas, which reduces
slag buildup in those areas.
Key Conclusions
The water cannons have achieved the desired results in improving waterwall slag
management and reducing superheater clinker formation
Boiler efficiency improved 1% due to lower furnace exit gas temperature
NOx was reduced by about 0.1 lbs/MMBtu
Experience indicated that mechanical and software upgrades of the original water cannon
system were required to improve its reliability
Minor metallurgy modifications were required in the hot corners to cope with thermal
fatigue-related failures resulting from sudden increases in tube temperature after deslagging.
The applicability of water cannons is very plant specific. The Martin Lake application
represents the most successful use of water cannons in any of the four TXU lignite-fired
plants. Not all of the four plants have them.
The initial installation of two water cannons (Clyde Bergemann Model WLB 90) in Unit 3 were
located on the front walls of the A and B furnaces respectively, just below the burners. This
installation reduced FEGT by 80F from 2650F, which eliminated the problem of overloading
of the bottom ash and the formation of refined iron clinkers in the superheater. Installation of an
additional cannon on each of the rear walls of the A and B furnaces respectively, lowered FEGT
by an additional 150F. Four additional cannons were added subsequently to the boiler, two on
the front wall and two on the back wall above the burners in each furnace. All three units now
utilize the eight cannon arrangement.
Some of the improvements to the original installation include:
An upsized motor with variable speed drive (VFD)
A dynamic brake to slow the cannon as it approaches the desired position
3-55

Boilers
Electrical feed filters to provide voltage spike protection to the VFD
Stainless swivel joint with air hose connection for cooling
Chain tensioning device
Integrated water cannon operator interface into the plant DCS
A 6-bladed star wheel and proximity probes to allow finer positioning
A number of these improvements have been added to the standard package available from the
supplier.
Each of the lower cannons sprays eight zones and each upper cannon sprays six zones at a rate of
105 gpm. The average spray time for a zone is 20-30 seconds. The goal of the water cannon
spraying is to maintain FEGT below 2500F for at least four hours per day. Reducing the
temperature for this period is sufficient to avoid slagging in the superheater.
Some failures of the tubes located in the hot corners were observed. These were attributed to
an external circumferential corrosion cracking process involving hot corrosion fatigue cracking.
In that area, the increase in temperature after deslagging causes thermal stresses that rupture the
protective oxide layer. In order to slow the corrosion rate of the hot corner waterwall tubes, the
tube header orifice size was increased to provide additional water flow to cool the tubes. In
anticipation of installation of burner system modifications to further reduce NOx, significant
amounts of hot corner tubing are being replaced with Inconel 622 clad tubing that will be more
resistant to the increased reducing atmosphere.
The Martin Lake Plant has three 750 MW supercritical units with CE boilers and Westinghouse
turbines that were put into service in 1977, 1978, and 1979 respectively. The boilers have a
centerwall and are the pulverized coal, dry bottom design. Each unit has 10 pulverizers, each
supplying a burner level that consists of eight tangential burner corners. The fuel is primarily
locally-mined lignite of low and variable quality, which is supplemented by Powder River Basin
coal.
(Ref. 3-38)
Critical Assessment
This report on the water cannons at the supercritical, lignite-fired units of TXUs Martin Lake
plant is an important contribution on the topic of slag removal in boilers that burn lignites or
Powder River Basin sub-bituminous fuels. Operators will find the approach of value where
waterwall slagging is seen, though it is notable that the cannons have not been found as
successful in all the TXU lignite-fired plants.
The accumulation of ash deposits on the furnace and convection tubes of coal-fired boilers is a
pervasive and sometimes production-limiting issue with many boilers. Loss in performance can
3-56

Boilers
occur when the deposits become thick enough to restrict heat flow to the water/steam circuits.
Often, as at Martin Lake, heat flux sensors can measure the depth of such deposits and schedule
soot blowers to attack the affected areas in sequence. In fact intelligent soot blowing is a fast
developing diagnostic science, relying on state-of the-art sensors and computer control of soot
blowing schedules.
However some boilers, and these represent an increasing number as coals are switched and
furnaces required to handle slagging fuels, can accumulate tenacious and hard to remove
deposits that can resist the most determined soot blower attacks. Such deposits are governed by
combustion ash constituents and by operating combustion temperatures. Oxides of silicon,
aluminum, iron, calcium, and magnesium, account for more than 95% of the ash. Also of
importance are oxides of sodium and potassium that act to fuse the ash and provide tube
attachment. A key parameter is the ash softening temperature. If the ash particles are at a
temperature higher than ash softening temperature, the molten ash will condense on the cooler
tubes, re-solidify, become bonded, and grow in size. Such slag deposits are often difficult to
remove. This issue is particularly a concern with ash from Western coals such as from lignites
and sub-bituminous deposits. These high alkali ashes are impacted by their tendency to include
sodium oxides that condense on the tubes and aid fouling and slagging, essentially preparing the
surface for ash deposition. Coals with more than 3% sodium are particularly susceptible.
A recent EPRI publication (Ref. 3-35) provides guidelines for identifying and controlling ash
deposition. Its road-mapping approach to tracking, identifying, and solving slagging and fouling
problems is an extremely useful contribution to the literature on this topic. This report also
discusses remedial measures, and identifies likely causes. For example high furnace exit gas
temperature (FEGT), as noted in this case study, can often be a contributing cause and should be
periodically monitored. It is interesting that at Martin Lake maintaining FEGT below 2500F for
four hours per day appears sufficient to avoid superheater slagging. It is likely that this rule of
thumb will be very unit specific depending on fuel and boiler design.
The other issue to note is the appearance of external corrosion fatigue on some of the boiler
tubes. This is particularly noticed in supercritical units where circumferential cracks can result
from a combination of the actions of deposits on both the inside and outside of tubes, and
thermal expansion and contraction cycling of the surface. Waterwall tubes from a number of
supercritical boilers have shown evidence of both severe fireside corrosion and circumferential
cracking. Frequently seen on waterwalls in the vicinity of the burners, the cause has been defined
as corrosion enhanced-thermal fatigue, possibly aggravated by a reducing atmosphere
Of interest to fuel purchasers as well as operators, is the EPRI-developed VISTA Windowsbased computer tool. This is used to perform fuel-related performance and economic analyses. It
can be applied for fuel-related evaluations, ranging from straightforward fuel comparisons to
providing critical input in determining long-term, strategic fuel procurement approaches.
VISTAs treatment of furnace deposition is generally focused on the overall plant impacts and
costs. VISTA allows users considerable flexibility in predicting coal slagging or fouling by
letting the user select any of 16 different slagging correlations and 11 different fouling
correlations. The slagging and fouling correlations are all based upon ASTM coal properties,
and include generating unit performance information, such as steam flow, heat input per plan
area (HIPA), FEGT, and boiler dimensions.
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Boilers
Intelligent Sootblowing System Demonstration at 500 MW Hammond Unit 4 of Georgia

Power Indicates Potential For Reducing Sootblowing Frequency
Figure 3-30
The Use of Seven Groups of Sootblowers is Optimized by A Fuzzy Logic System
Issues/Goal
Normally the sootblowers at Georgia Power Companys Hammond Unit 4 were used once per
shift if conditions allow, but not at loads lower than 150 MW. Decisions about whether or not to
sootblow were triggered by low superheat temperature, low reheat temperature, or high reheat
temperatures. Optimizing sootblowing requires information about the cleanliness of the various
parts of the boiler including the reheater surface, which cannot be observed directly. To address
the difficulties of assessing when to sootblow, Southern developed a software package to provide
guidance to the operator. The decision criteria for sootblowing decisions include reheat
cleanliness factor, upper and lower spray flows, backpass damper position, reheat temperature,
and elapsed time since the last sootblow.
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Boilers
Key Conclusions
The Intelligent Sootblowing System (ISB) system provides an on-line display of the
cleanliness of different parts of the boilers. Initial analysis indicated that following ISB
system advice would reduce sootblower steam requirements by 50% without adverse effects.
During early testing, the advice was accepted by the operators as a useful indicator that
should lead to reduced sootblowing in the future
The system is relatively low cost, not complex and is easily adaptable to other plants
Value of the Improvement
Preliminary estimates indicate an approximately one-year payback.

Fuzzy logic is used to provide advice based a combination of cleanliness factors with other
factors. Pendant superheater cleanliness factor is determined from the spray level. Reheat
cleanliness factor is determined from the damper position for a given level of superheater spray.
Convection superheater cleanliness factor is determined from the spray for a given position of
the damper.
Figure 3-31
Fuzzy Logic Diagram for Intelligent Sootblowing Application
Only preliminary testing of the ISB has been conducted to date. Comprehensive testing of the
system will consider performance metrics such as sootblower steam requirements, main steam
and reheat steam temperature deviations, boiler steaming capability, the desire to maximize the
influence of sootblowing on superheat sprays and backpass damper position, NOx emissions, and
boiler efficiency.
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Boilers
Georgia Power Companys Hammond Unit 4 has a 500 MW Foster Wheeler opposed wall-fired
boiler equipped with 24 low NOx burners and overfire air (OFA). Steam conditions are 2500
psig/1000F/1000F. The unit is equipped with reheat/superheat by-pass dampers, as well as
upper and lower superheat sprays.
(Ref. 3-39)
Critical Assessment
In general the installation of a conventional ISB system is often difficult to justify on the basis of
the cumulative fuel savings alone. Almost all currently installed systems employ intrusive heat
flux monitors and are relatively expensive. Non-intrusive systems such as this one are being
developed by a number of vendors and should be more attractive to the utility industry.
The Power Technologies (PowerGen) model employed at Hammond Unit 4 was built using
information that is currently available from the existing DCS system, such as the position of the
dampers that has been roughly correlated with the relative cleanliness of the heat transfer
surfaces. Based in part on the previous work by Power Technologies, Southern Company
developed a set of fuzzy logic rules to control sootblowing frequency and intensity. The initial
response of the operators to the system has been excellent.
The specific furnace design at Hammond permitted this relatively low cost ISB system to be
installed there. It is difficult to assess the economic viability of this technology in serving the
utility market without knowing how many other plants of the same design are available for
potential installation of this system.
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Boilers
Installation of an Intelligent Sootblowing System at Reliants 600 MW Parish Units 7 and

8 Has Significantly Reduced Sootblowing Costs
Figure 3-32
Thermal Fatigue Cracks in a Parish Unit 8 Waterwall Tube Resulting from a Prior 2.5 Year
Period of Unrestricted Use of Waterlances for Tube Cleaning
Issues/Goal
Parish Units 8 and 7 underwent a major upgrade program in the fall of 2001. Several of the
objectives of the program that were focused on the sootblower system performance are:
Reduce forced outage rate due to tube leaks caused by sootblower erosion, quench cracking,
and falling slag damage
Reduce demineralizer usage and wasted sootblower steam
Reduce sootblower system maintenance costs
Key Conclusions
All sootblower operations are controlled automatically and the number of sootblowing events
has been minimized relative to past experience
Since the modifications have been operational for a relatively short time, a full evaluation of
the benefits of this five-year program has not been completed
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Boilers
During the major 2001 outage a number of modifications were made including a new DCS
system, overfire air/low NOx burners, additional economizer surface and low temperature
superheater surface to increase heat transfer capabilities, and new lower slopes to replace those
damaged by falling slag. A total of 19 new sootblower retracts were installed to cover additional
areas and avoid slag build-up on tube surfaces. Some of the existing sootblower retracts were
moved to do a better job in keeping surfaces clean. A SCR unit was also being installed.
A closed loop control system is now used to control the degree of cleanliness in each individual
section of the boiler using:
Wallblowers/waterlances or water cannons in the furnace
Retractable sootblowers in the backpass
Air heater steamblowers for the air heaters
Sonic horns in the economizer
The ISB systems include the following:
Closed loop furnace, backpass, and air heater sootblower controls
30 heat flux sensors
One Furnace Exit Gas Temperature (FEGT) measurement system installed in Unit 8 and two
in Unit 7
Four water cannons, one on each wall, with water supplied by a dedicated pump skid
Eight sonic horns installed on each side of the economizer
Several start-up and installation problems were experienced with the water cannon components
including the pressure controller (both the main controller and the recirculation controller),
accuracy of the flow indicator, leaking shutoff valves, flow switches, and excessive water cannon
hunting because of the targeting system inadequacies. These problems were resolved.
Additional localized slagging above the water cannons and over the FEGT ports has been
experienced in Unit 8 as a result of its capacity upgrade that requires firing the unit harder than
Unit 7. The FEGT ports require rodding out every two-three weeks to keep them clear. Some
modifications in the start-up process have eliminated some of the deposition that occurs above
the water cannons in the shape of eyebrows. Both of these localized slagging problems are ongoing issues that have not been fully resolved as yet.
Parish Unit 8 is a 590 MW T-Fired boiler that fires Powder River Basin coal. It was placed in
service in 1982. The rating of this unit was increased from 590 MW to 650 MW as a result of
modifying the internals of the HP/IP steam turbine rotor during this outage.
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Boilers
The same changes, with the exception of the steam turbine upgrade, that were made to Unit 8
were also made subsequently Unit 7, which has an original in-service date of 1980.
(Ref 3-40, 3-41, and 3-42)
Critical Assessment
One of the major problems associated with various techniques to remove deposits from heat
transfer tubes is the damage to the tube materials that can occur if the technique is misapplied.
As shown in the illustration above, the use of waterlances for tube cleaning at Parish 8 led to
thermal fatigue cracks in the waterwall tubing.
The activity that is described is part of a long-term, integrated demonstration project to develop
the cleaning components and control systems required to make sure that sootblowing to clean
tube surfaces is done intelligently. A key objective is to direct the sootblowing to fouled tubes
that require cleaning, rather than to all tubes. Sponsorship for this Tailored Collaboration project
is provided by EPRI and Reliant with the support of a number of other utilities. The overall
program scope is five years with a funding requirement of about $7 million. Units 5, 6, 7, and 8
at Parish are being used for the testing and evaluation of several technologies.
One of the major tasks of the project is to monitor the long-term impacts of sootblower
operations on materials and to develop operating procedures that minimize the number of
sootblower events as well as the intensity and duration of those events. The fuel savings achieved
by soot blowing have to be evaluated in the context of reduced material life and the additional
investment required to compensate for that reduced life. Degradation rate of materials is an
important parameter that will be monitored over the five-year duration of the program.
Units that fire Powder River Basin coal, such as Parish, are more prone to fouling than units that
fire other coals. Sootblowing is required to maintain appropriate heat transfer coefficients, but
the goal is to minimize the number of sootblowing events. Heat flux sensors can be utilized to
provide important diagnostic information, but they are expensive to install and are intrusive. One
of the goals of the Intelligent Sootblowing program is to identify and test lower cost nonintrusive approaches to providing this needed diagnostic information.
3-63

Boilers
Fouling Monitor Helps Operators Avoid Convective Section Plugging at the Sundance 1
and 2 and Wabamun 3 Units of TransAlta Utilities
Figure 3-33
Warnings Provided by Fouling Index Monitors Allows Operators to Prevent Shutdowns
As shown in the graph above, specific actions were taken in response to increases in the
indicated Fouling Index. At 15:37 PM, sootblowing was initiated to reduce the Fouling Index,
which was successful. At 18:37 PM, load was reduced to 250 MW and cleaning initiated. At 1:47
AM, the Index indicated the South side, as indicated by the Fouling Index, was not cleaning well.
Issues/Goal
TransAlta has installed specialized software package designated as FEMA (Fouling Episode
Monitor Alarm) to monitor boiler fouling on their Sundance 1 and 2 and Wabamun 3 units.
These units had a history of plugging in the convective section. The 300 MW Unit at Wabamun
averaged two outage events/year, averaging 2.5 days in duration and costing $400,000
(Canadian). The objective of monitoring is to provide advanced warning to operators of fouling,
arrest the fouling and prevent forced outages. Advanced warning in the form of a high Fouling
Index allows the operators to avoid a shutdown by employing one of the following approaches:
Aggressive sootblowing
Increasing excess air (if NOx and opacity limits are not exceeded)
Rapid load reduction
Drop in burner tilt position
Removing one or more mills from service
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Boilers
Key Conclusions
The FEMA system is useful to the operators in providing advanced warning of fouling
problems that are occurring and providing them with sufficient time to implement corrective
actions.
The software was upgraded in the beta system installed at Sundance Unit 1 in April 2001.
The new version uses Visual Basic 6.0 and a Windows NT platform in place of the original
Windows 95 system. There have been no system crashes since the new system was installed
in April 2001.
The operators requested that the FEMA output be one of their normal screens.
Value
There have been no fouling events at the Sundance 1 and 2 plants since the system was
commissioned in early 2002. An average of one event per year would have been anticipated
based on prior experience. One of the most important advantages of the new system is that real
time diagnostic information is available to everyone on the corporate LAN.
The software uses a unique combination of combustion diagnostic techniques and heat
adsorption analyses to identify boiler conditions when ash deposition is likely to be high and
conducive to triggering a fouling episode. Each FEMA system is custom configured and tuned
for a specific unit based on its unique design, fouling history and data acquisition system but
does not contain any coal property data. The initial version of the software was installed on a
dedicated PC at the Wabamun unit. It was observed that each unit has a typical signature for
fouling episodes. The software was used analyzed the range and relationship of boiler operating
parameters that cause high fouling rates not just changes in heat adsorption. Acceptable ranges
and alarm tolerances were established. The second-generation system installed at Sundance has
an added capability that allows engineers and supervisors to view boiler operator screens over
the corporate LAN. In the current version, input data is provided directly from unit rather than
from plant historian.
One of the potential applications of this technology may be in older units, originally designed
for bituminous coals, that now operate on Powder River Basin coals with a low- NOx firing
system. This combination can result in increased slagging and fouling, load derates and forced
outages. Low NOx firing under deeply staged conditions can lead to increased ash deposition in
fuel rich regions in the burner zone. The problems can be aggravated by uneven coal distribution
leading to burning in the convection zone. Build-up can also occur in reheat section especially in
those units with narrow spacing that were originally designed for bituminous coal.
The reflective nature of PRB ash can lead to substantial increases in Furnace Exit Gas
Temperature and accelerated ash deposition. These problems can be resolved by a combination
of one or more of the following: more frequent sootblowing, the installation of additional
sootblowers, better sootblower maintenance, and better control of burner zone combustion.
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Boilers
Each of the three boilers mentioned is a nominal 300 MW T-Fired unit. The Sundance 1 and 2
units were installed in 1970 and 1973 respectively. The Sundance plant has six units with a total
rated capacity of 2029 MW. The Wabamun plant has a total of four units with a total rated
capacity of 569 MW.
(Ref.3-43)
Critical Assessment
Fouling problems are very specific to individual boilers and the properties of the coals used as
fuels. In general, fouling problems are more frequently encountered with subbituminous coal of
the type used in these TransAlta units. Power River Basin coal, which has been observed to
increase the frequency of fouling in other power plants has properties that are very similar to this
coal.
The diagnostic tool described here, the fouling monitor, looks at heat absorption and other
parameters that are occurring in the different sections of the boiler, normalizes the results, and
looks for changes to determine where problems are developing. In principle, it is analogous to
other cleanliness monitors that are available. These monitors have the potential to be a useful
tool in other plants where fouling is a major operating problem.
One of the advantages of the site discussed is that the units have the operating flexibility to react
to an alert based on the fouling index. The combination of a diagnostic system to indicate
increased fouling and means to eliminate the fouling allows fouling-related shutdowns to
significantly reduced.
It should be noted that while timely detection of deposition issues is an important step in
mitigation, detection alone does not "control" the problem. Control of deposition still must be
accomplished by the elimination techniques noted above, but these may not be completely
effective. It is clear that earlier action on deposits is generally more effective in their removal, so
in that sense this monitor and others like it, can probably help reduce deposition-based
generating upsets.
HEADERS AND DRUMS

General Discussion of Header and Drum Failures
Low alloy steels, typically 1Cr-1/2Mo (P11) or 2Cr -lMo (P22), are used to construct the
high temperature headers contained in most US boilers. Although minor problems occur
periodically with headers and drums, major problems are infrequent. However, because of the
large sizes of these components, repairs are time consuming and require long outages. A
generalized sketch of a high temperature boiler header is presented in Figure 3-34 indicating
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Boilers
those locations, where specific attention should be provided by maintenance and inspection
personnel. (Ref. 3-4)
Figure 3-34
Susceptible Areas in a High Temperature Header
High temperature headers, subject to creep and thermal fatigue, are of particular concern in areas
of tube penetration. Recently a stronger material, P91, has been used for thick wall components
such as headers, and particularly for new units. For older plants, careful inspection, grinding and
re-welding of cracks are needed.
Damage, in the form of cracking, can be the result of creep, fatigue, creep-fatigue and
microstructural changes (thermal degradation) perhaps coupled with steamside oxidation.
Typical locations and damage mechanisms are shown in Table 3-17. (Ref. 3-4)
Table 3-17
Header Damage Mechanisms
Position
Branch Connection Saddle
Damage Mechanism
Creep Cavitation
Header Body Swelling
Thermal Softening
Longitudinal Seam Weld and Heat Affected Zone

(HAZ) Cracking
Creep Cavitation
Girth Butt Weld and HAZ Cracking
Creep Cavitation
Stub Tube HAZ Cracking
Creep Cavitation
Bore Hole Circumferential Ligament Cracking
Thermal Fatigue and Oxide Initiation
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Boilers
Superheater Headers
Chrome moly superheater headers can be particularly susceptible to creep degradation,
compounded by thermal fatigue. This is manifested by ligament cracking between the stub tube
bore holes and stub tube-to-header weld cracking, Figure 3-35. (Ref. 3-44)
Figure 3-35
Typical Superheater Header Cracks
Cracks in superheater headers, at the ligaments between tube holes, are increasingly seen in
older boilers. Though not the only potential crack sites, they are the most common and under very
severe conditions can lead to steam leaks. A header rupture is rare, but clearly catastrophic in
nature.
Economizer Headers
Economizers are critical to efficient boiler operation and have not typically been high
maintenance items. Actual failures of economizer inlet headers are rare and the consequences are
not as severe as repairing or replacing a steam drum or primary superheater header, since welds
can be fully stress-relieved outside the boiler. In the past ten years, a problem has occurred with
economizer headers in cycling units that are bottled up at night for quick starting the next
morning. As the temperature inside the boiler decays, water must be introduced to maintain drum
level. As the water supplied to the economizer is substantially cooler than the header, a
thermal/corrosion fatigue mechanism can be created and cracking has been found in many units.
There are several solutions to the problem including treating the root cause by limiting the
severity and number of thermal/corrosion fatigue cycles. A typical example of cracking in an
economizer header is shown below in Figure 3-37. (Ref. 3-8)
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Boilers
Figure 3-36
Typical Economizer Header Cracking Location
These cracks often occur at the vessel inlet at the point where flow enters. The root cause is due
to the introduction of periodic slugs of cold water to a hot header. This is a problem that can be
tracked periodically, and severe flaws can usually be avoided in time before leaking.
Inspection of Headers and Drums

Although the loss of availability due to problems with headers and drums is not large, there is
concern that if any major repairs are required, a lengthy outage will be necessary. Therefore it is
important to inspect these components routinely to avoid the emergence of problems, which
could become a major issue. There are certain areas that require inspection more frequently than
others based on industry experience. These are listed in Table 3-18. NDE techniques for
inspection of superheater and reheater headers and drums are shown in Table 3-19. The
importance of regular inspections cannot be overstated, and the rupture of high-energy headers
(Figure 3-37) is clearly a serious and expensive failure.
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Boilers
Figure 3-37
Header Rupture
Though complete ruptures of headers are uncommon, a failure such as this underlines a broad
concern about the integrity of the many units with indications of ligament cracking. Thermal
fatigue, creep or a combination of both, are failure mechanisms that can be tracked by appropriate
inspection techniques, and are particularly of concern for low-alloyed materials with many hours
of thermal cycling duty.
Table 3-18
Rank Order of The Nine Most Inspected Areas of a Header
1. Ligament Regions
2
Girth Welds, Saddle Welds
3. Seam Welds
4. Stub Tubes, Stub Tube Welds
5. Body Spool Pieces
6. Tee Body
7. Supports
8. Drain Line Penetrations
9. RT Plug and Thermowell Welds
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Boilers
Table 3-19
Inspection Techniques for Superheater and Reheat Headers and Drums
Equipment
Secondary
Superheater
Inspection
Location
Primary
Superheater
Header
Inspection Technique
Body Spool
Pieces
Creep Swelling
Temper Embrittlement
Dimensional
Replication
Tee Body
Thermal Softening
External Creep Cracking
Internal Thermal Fatigue Cracking
Hardness Testing
UT
Video-probe Radiography
Ligament Regions
Thermal Fatigue Cracking in bore

holes and at corners
Girth Welds
External Creep Damage

Internal Thermal Fatigue Cracking
at Counterbores
Seam and Saddle

Welds
Creep Cracking
Stub Tubes
Creep Swelling
Thermal Softening
Wall Wastage from oxide
exfoliation Internal thermal Fatigue
Cracking
Weld Root Creep Cracking
Dimensional Video-probe
PT, UT
Eddy Current Testing
UT, PT, MT
Radiography
Replication
Hardness Testing
Chemical Analysis
MT, PT, UT Radiography
Replication
Hardness Testing Chemical
Analysis
VT, UT Dimensional
Replication
Header
Waterwall
Headers
Inlet and Outlet
Reheater Headers
Damage Mechanism
Secondary
Superheater
Header
Stub Tube Welds
Waterwall
Headers
Drain Line
Penetrations
Inlet and Outlet

Reheater Headers
RT Plug and
Thermowell Welds
Primary
Superheater
Header
Primary
Superheater
Headers
Lower Waterwall
Header
Supports
Creep Cracking
Thermal Softening
Discontinuities
Thermal Fatigue
OD surface
Waterwall tube to
header welds
Stub tube
penetrations
Welded
Connections
Drum Internals
Attachments
Drum Internals
Creep Fatigue
VT, PT, MT, UT

Replication
Thermal Fatigue
VT, MP, PT, UT
Corrosion from acid washing

Thermal fatigue from cycling
Corrosion from acid washing
VT, PT, MT, UT
Economizer Inlet
Header-After 1015 years of
service
Steam drum
Mud drum
Internal Thermal Fatigue and

Shock Cracking
External Creep-Fatigue Cracking
Creep Cracking
With Bimetallic Welds-Creep
Cracking
PT, MT, UT Radiography

Replication
Hardness Testing
Chemical Analysis
Video-probe
UT
Radiography
MT, PT
Radiography
Replication
Chemical Analysis
VT, PT, MT
Replication
Chemical Analysis
VT, PT, MT, UT
VT, MT, PT, UT
(Ref. 3-8)
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Boilers
Corrective Actions for Headers and Drums

Headers and drums rarely need replacing and generally can be repaired by careful grinding and
welding. However, deep flaws require very careful metallurgical analysis to assure suitability for
service. In such cases, replacement, perhaps with an improved material such as P91 steel may be
the appropriate solution. (Figure 3-38). Table 3-20 lists general approaches. As for welding
(Figure 3-38), there have been some dramatic improvements that can greatly shorten the time
and reduce the cost of large components, such as temperbead repair.
Figure 3-38
Weld Repair Of Reheat Header
This weld repair (about seven feet 2.2m long) of a reheat header is illustrative of a possible
solution to major cracking. In fact a new temperbead weld repair (see below) can avoid the
need for a separate heat treatment. Alternatively, consideration might be given to replacing a
damaged header with a stronger material, depending on the anticipated duty and length of future
service.
Temperbead Weld Repair

Traditionally, the National Board Inspection Code and the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, that govern repairs, mandated postweld heat treatment (PWHT) after a weld. PWHT
softens, or tempers, the hardened material after a weld is performed and relieves residual
stresses. It also allows diffusion of hydrogen, which is introduced into the metal during welding
but can cause cracking. But PWHT is time-consuming and expensive, especially when
components are large or when many treatments are necessary.
Temperbead welding performs the same function as PWHT, and the results match or exceed
those of conventional arc welding with PWHT. Temperbead repair deposits welding beads in
precisely controlled patterns, and each successive weld bead provides the needed heat tempering
for the layer directly below it. The technique can be applied without PWHT to low-alloy steels to
generate specific mechanical properties. It is an especially valuable technique for in situ repair of
large components, including pressure vessels, turbine casings, and headers, which have
traditionally needed to be removed for repair off-site (Ref. 3-45).
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Boilers
Table 3-20
Corrective Actions for Headers and Drums
Equipment
Secondary superheater
header
Waterwall headers
Inlet and outlet reheater
headers
Primary superheater
header (Figure 3-35)
Economizer inlet header
Damage
Corrective Action
Ligament cracks
Stub tube cracks
Seam, girth and saddle
Reweld stub tubes

Grind out
Grind out unless minimum thickness is
violated
Attachment cracks
Header body creep
swelling
Fatigue/corrosion in
cycling units
Grind out small; reweld large

Monitor dimensions periodically
Small flaws are assessed via a leak
before break analysis to assess potential
for growth prior to next analysis. Severe
flaws require that the vessel be replaced.
Photo Courtesy Mannesmann
Figure 3-39
Superheater Outlet Headers For Dayton Power and Light
These headers are made of Super 9-Chrome ferritic steel. The superior strength of this U.Sdeveloped (P91) steel relative to conventional alloys like P22 provides great creep-damage
protection at high steam temperatures. Headers of lesser strength steel require careful
inspections for cracking, particularly where the penetrations are made for boiler tubes.
Boiler Materials for Supercritical Plants

Stronger materials for boiler components have been necessary as steam conditions increased. In
the case of superheater/reheater tubes, headers, and steam piping, creep strength and rupture
strength are the foremost considerations in the selection of materials. In addition, for tubes,
added fireside corrosion resistance and steam-side oxidation resistance are necessary.
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Boilers
For thick-section components, such as headers and pipes, fabricability, weldability, fracture
toughness, and resistance to thermal fatigue are needed. For metal temperatures in the range 540
to 565C, the 1-1/4Cr-1/2Mo and 2-1/4Cr-1Mo class of steels have been in wide use, but for
higher metal temperatures, stronger alloys are needed.
Remarkable progress has been made during the last decade in developing steels containing 9 to
12%Cr which are superior to low-alloy ferritic steels in the range 540 to 600C (1004 to
1112F). Improvements in the 9 to 12%Cr steels have been mainly in the area of optimization of
composition with respect to solid-solution strengtheners such as molybdenum, tungsten, and
carbon and with respect to precipitation strengtheners such as vanadium, niobium, and titanium.
This alloy optimization has resulted in steels with superior creep strength.
In terms of creep strength and steam-side scale exfoliation resistance, 9-12%Cr containing steels,
such as T91, appears most cost effective for tubing applications in the range of metal temperature
of 565-600C in the absence of fireside corrosion. If fireside corrosion is a problem, alloys
HR3C and chromized 347 stainless steel may be needed.
For heavy section applications such as headers/pipes, the alloy P91 clearly enjoys a niche
advantage in the range of metal temperatures of 565-600C in terms of its superior thermal
fatigue resistance compared to other lower alloy ferritic steels as well as higher alloyed austenitic
steels.
It should be noted that these materials can be used at lower temperatures and pressures also, the
impact being seen in increased life of the component. For example, T91, used as a waterwall
tubing material, greatly increases the creep life for subcritical units, essentially eliminating
creep-rupture as a failure mechanism.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Headers and Drums
Arizona Public Service Extends Superheater Outlet Header Life
Arizona Public Service (APS) used the Boiler Life Evaluation and Simulation System (BLESS)
code to predict the remaining life of the superheater outlet header made of P11 (1-1/4Cr-1/2Mo)
alloy at their Four Corners Station Unit 3 after detecting ligament cracking damage. The BLESS
code addresses ligament cracking in boiler headers as well as other damage mechanisms in
headers and pipes. It accomplishes this by calculating initiation and growth of creep damage and
fatigue cracks for a variety of crack geometries using off-line materials testing data. Then it
utilizes the results to predict component remaining life. APS staff determined that they could
safely defer replacement of the header from 1994, when a minor overhaul was scheduled, until
1998 when the next major overhaul was scheduled. In addition, they concluded that it was safe to
increase the operating temperature back to 1000F (538C) rather than the 965F (518C) that
they were then running in an attempt to minimize further damage. However, tube temperature
limitations precluded raising the operating temperature. APS subsequently used the BLESS code
to evaluate two other superheaters and five reheaters at the Four Corners Station. (Ref. 3-46)
3-74

Boilers
Lower Colorado River Authority Installs a P91 Header

In 1991, Lower Colorado River Authority (LCRA) replaced a P11 secondary superheater outlet
header that had shown evidence of swelling, with a header made of P91 steel. This unit was in
cycling service which industry experience has shown often results in ligament cracking in P11
headers. P91 has a higher creep strength that permits substantially longer creep life. In addition,
the higher strength allowed the use of thinner header wall sections that will reduce fatigue
problems, (such as ligament cracking,) during cycling operation. (Ref. 3-47)
PG&E Reduces Inspections With Creep-Fatigue Pro
Pacific Gas and Electric staff were interested in determining realistic intervals to inspect for
creep damage in superheater tubes, reheater tubes, headers and pipes that operate at elevated
temperatures, in cyclic service and under load transient conditions. They concluded from the
results of a program to evaluate the Creep-FatiguePro Monitor at their Contra Costa plant in
1991, that they could safely reduce the number of inspections by 50% compared to historical
practice. This monitor utilizes a personal computer to process data from existing plant
instrumentation and calculate creep-fatigue damage (fraction of remaining life and crack
growth). Important information uncovered in this study showed that the equipment operates
below maximum temperature and pressure much of the time, and that damage was accumulating
at a slower rate. (Ref. 3-20)
Kansas City Power and Light Uses Creep-Fatigue Pro For Run/Replace Decisions
Kansas City Power and Light worked with EPRI in 1995 to modify the Creep-FatiguePro
Monitor for analysis of boiler headers, turbine rotors, and turbine casings. Software
enhancements were added by KCP&L to monitor main steam and reheat piping as well as header
body and ligament locations for the primary, secondary and hot reheat outlet headers on unit 2 at
Montrose station. The information collected now supports run/repair/replace strategies. (Ref. 3-48)
Arizona Public Service Economizer Replacements
It has been established that the root cause of economizer inlet header cracking is the introduction
of relatively cold feedwater into the hot inlet header during transient conditions such as startup,
shutdown and off-line steam drum top-up. Arizona Public Service implemented EPRI guidelines
developed to reduce thermal fatigue damage in economizer inlet headers and tubes and to
improve the design of headers and tube stubs. Specifically they now routinely inspect headers
and tubes for damage, utilized design improvements in a crack-resistant replacement header for
Suguaro unit 1, installed economizer recirculation lines at Octillo units 1 and 2 and implemented
operating changes on all cycling units. (Ref. 3-49)
Electricit de France (EdF) Detects Cracks in Headers and Drums
EdF in a broad inspection program found that 10% of outlet superheater headers were cracked.
No inlet headers were cracked. These cracks were due to thermal fatigue accelerated by
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Boilers
oxidation at 1049F (565C). Measurements of header deformation showed that the headers had
been subjected to severe thermal shocking. But since analysis showed that the header would leak
without a dramatic break, the headers were kept in service.
Fatigue cracks in drums appeared in 1988 to 1990 located at several locations on the inner
surface. These cracks were caused by thermal fatigue due to the effect of injection of cold water
on the inner surface, normally at 662F (350C). One drum was repaired without stress relief
heat treatment but with shot peening to introduce compressive stresses. Propagation of the cracks
is being followed by observing surface loading and drum thickness. (Ref. 3-50)
Consolidated Edison Uses Temperbead Repair on a Reheat Manifold
Nondestructive examination of a reheat manifold at Consolidated Edisons Ravenswood 30 unit
revealed flaws with depths up to 1 inch (2.5 cm). Weld repairs with post weld heat treatment (PWHT)
were costly in plant downtime, so ConEd implemented temperbead repairs at the cracked locations.
This process enabled in-situ weld repair without PWHT, as the heat for the PWHT is supplied by
the welding process itself. Each weld area is heat treated by the next layer of weld beads applied
to the material. The difference between the actual repair cost and the conventional repair cost with
PWHT was about $400,000. Additional value was gained through the avoided cost of
replacement power. (Ref. 3-51)
HIGH ENERGY PIPING

High-energy piping systems link the boiler and the turbine (Figure 3-40). These systems include
the main steam piping, hot reheat piping, cold reheat piping and associated high-energy valves. They
have been the subject of very careful monitoring over the last decade. (Figure 3-41). Lines containing
longitudinal seam welds have developed through-wall leaks and in a few cases, catastrophic failures.
There have been at least ten serious cracks and more than 30 additional flaws identified in 30,000
feet (9240 m) of inspected piping. Beginning in the early-1980s, inspections of main steam piping
systems became part of many life extension programs. These assessments revealed numerous instances
of fabrication and service-induced damage, including creep, fatigue, creep-fatigue interactions, incorrect
material and improperly designed support systems. In addition, in recent years feedwater piping
has begun to receive additional attention because of the phenomenon of flow accelerated corrosion.
Tables 3-21 and 3-22 provide a brief summary of the damage mechanisms, inspection techniques and
possible corrective approaches. Guidelines for steam line inspections are documented in Ref. 3-52
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Photo Courtesy Mannesmann
Figure 3-40
Seamless Steam Piping For A 500 MW Unit
A serious issue in fossil plants is the potential rupture of a main or reheat steam line. Such steam
lines are under great pressure, and exist in the creep regime. There is also the added possibility of
bending stresses imposed by the steam line hangers. Cracks in steam lines have been detected at
welds, both longitudinal and circumferential, and at penetrations and connections. Careful
inspections, by ultrasonic, x-ray, acoustic emissions, or deep eddy current techniques, should be
a periodic feature of a maintenance program. Longitudinally welded lines are of particular
concern.
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Table 3-21
Summary of Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques and Possible Corrective
Actions for Main Steam, Hot Reheat Piping, and High Energy Valves
Equipment Item
Damage Mechanisms
Inspection Techniques
Corrective Actions
(detailed analysis
required before any
repair)
Spool Pieces
Creep Swelling
Temper Embrittlement
Thermal Softening
Dimensional
Replication
Hardness testing
Assess potential
growth rates of cracks
to determine if repair is
necessary.
Wye and Tee

Body

External Thermal Fatigue
Cracking
Internal Thermal Fatigue
Cracking
Video-probe
Replication, MT, UT
Radiography
Small surface cracks

can be removed by
grinding, if underlying
material is not
degraded and
minimum wall
thickness is
maintained.
Girth Welds
External Creep Damage

Cracking at Counterbores
PT, MT, UT, ET,

Radiography,
Hardness Replication
Hardness Testing
Chemical Analysis
Seam Welds
Creep Cracking
Same as above
Saddle Welds
Creep Cracking
Same as above
RT Plug and
Thermowell
Welds
Drain Line and
Pressure Tap
Penetrations
Creep Cracking
Bimetallic Welds - Creep
Cracking
Cracking
Internal Thermal Shock
Cracking
Same as above plus

video probe
Supports
Creep Cracking
Overload
Thermal Softening
VT, PT, MT,

Chemical Replication
Analysis
(Ref. 3-8)
3-78
Small creep cracks

with all associated
microdamage can be
removed by
excavation;
excavations are weld
repaired

Boilers
Table 3-22
Summary of Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques and Corrective Actions for Cold
Reheat Piping (Ref. 3-8)
Equipment Item
Damage Mechanisms
Inspection
Techniques
Corrective Actions
(detailed analysis
required before any
repair)
Assess potential
growth rates of cracks
to determine if repair is
necessary. Small
surface cracks can be
removed by grinding if
underlying material is
not degraded and
minimum wall
thickness is
maintained.
Girth Welds
External Cracking
Cracking at Counterbores
PT, MT, UT,

Radiography
Chemical analysis
RT Plug and
Thermowell
Welds
Drain Line and
Pressure Tap
Penetrations
Creep Cracking
Bimetallic Welds - Creep
Cracking
Cracking
Internal Thermal Shock
Cracking
Same as above plus

video probe
Supports
Overload
VT, PT, MT, Chemical

analysis
Damage Mechanisms in Main Steam and Hot Reheat Piping

Main steam and hot reheat piping system design is governed by ANSI B31.1. The majority of
these systems are fabricated from extruded (seamless) low alloy steels, but longitudinally seam
welded piping and elbows have been used in some stations. Austenitic stainless steels are used in
the highest temperature units particularly those with temperatures of 1100F (593C) and above.
The primary damage mechanisms experienced in main steam piping systems are creep, thermalfatigue, creep-fatigue, and microstructural changes (thermal degradation). Damage resulting
from these mechanisms is manifested by distress in various forms, (cracking, swelling,
embrittlement, or softening) depending on location, composition, metallurgical structure, and
operating environment. Often the piping stresses are exacerbated by bending stresses imposed by
the hangers. This suggests specific locations for inspections. (Figure 3-41)
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Figure 3-41
Inspections Of Hot Steam Lines
Although welds, particularly longitudinal seams, are prime locations for steam line crack
initiation, the geometry of the piping might suggest additional sites. Hangers can impose bending
stresses. Bends might be areas for erosion/corrosion. One technique, having much current
success, is to periodically monitor acoustic emissions at locations along the steam line. At times
of start-up, load changes or shutdown of the unit, bursts of energy can be detected due to
microstructural damage at highly stressed sites. (Ref. 3-53)
The following list is in the order of the most to least inspected components:
1. Girth Welds, Seam Welds
2. Saddle Welds
3. Support and Support Attachment Welds
4. Tee and Wye Bodies
5. Spool Pieces
6. RT Plug and Thermowell Welds
7. Pressure Tap and Drain Line Penetrations (Ref. 3-7)
Seam Welded Piping Failures
Seam welded piping is primarily used in power plants as hot reheat piping, carrying steam at about
1000F (538C) and 400-700psig (28-49 bar). Other applications include main steam header link
pipes, outlet bends, and reducers. Catastrophic weld failures at Southern California Edisons Mojave
plant in 1985 (Figure 3-42) and Detroit Edisons Monroe plant in 1986 focused industry attention
on the need for a program to ensure the integrity of this piping. Guidelines to deal with this issue
were published in 1987 by EPRI. While cracks and ruptures occur almost exclusively along the
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Boilers
welded seam, the precise failure causes and crack mechanisms are not fully understood.
Contributing causes are thought to include stress, temperature, heat treatment, fabrication defects and
inclusions, weld geometry, creep strength mismatch between weld and base metals, pipe curvature,
and combinations of several of these factors. (Ref. 3-52) More recently in 1996, a rupture occurred at
the 570 MW Virginia Power Mt. Storm unit in a length of longitudinally welded, extended-lead main
steam piping, 20 inches (508mm) in diameter and 3-3/8 inches (86mm) thick. In August 1998, at the
Hawthorne plant of Kansas City G&E, a failure occurred on a vertical link pipe from the superheater
outlet header to the main steam piping run. The spool piece, about 15 feet long, had 18 inch OD and
2.75 inch minimum wall. It was seam welded P22 material and the rupture ran about 12 feet, occurring in
the weld metal.
Table 3-23 summarizes information that has been collected concerning seventeen failure incidents of
seam welded piping used in high temperature service. These incidents included three ruptures,
five leaks and nine major cracking incidents. (Ref. 3-52)
Figure 3-42
Seam Welded Pipe Failure
The failure of seam-welded piping, such as here in a reheat line at Mojave, is a situation with
several contributing causes. Longitudinal welds in steam piping could develop cracks that
progress, it is thought, over several years of creep-fatigue duty. Detecting such cracks, by X-ray,
ultrasonic, or other means is an integral part of a prudent inspection program. A possible
contributing factor is the bending stress that might be imposed by the steam pipe hangers,
suggesting another area for vigilance.
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Table 3-23
Summary of Seam Welded Pipe Cracking and Failure Experience
Component
Failure
Unit
Rating
OD/
Wall
inches
Service
Period
Service
Hours
Oper.
Temp.
F (C)
Oper.
Pressure
Psig (bars)
HRH bend
Rupture
220
20/
0.74
1962-74
120,000
1000
(538)
488
(34)
HRH bend
Leak
220
20/
0.74
1962-92
212,000
1000
(538)
488
(34)
HRH pipe
Rupture
760
32/
1.505
1971-86
97,000
1000
(538)
730
(51)
HRH pipe
Rupture
750
30/
1.313
1971-85
88,000
1000
(538)
597
(41)
HRH pipe
Major
cracking
326
17.75/
0.81
1960-85
NR
1000
(538)
484
(33)
HRH clamshell
elbow
Major
cracking
745
30/
1.4
1970-86
101,000
1000
(538)
600
(41)
HRH pipe
Major
cracking
200
18/
0.75
1957-85
184,000
1050
(566)
360
(25)
HRH pipe
Major
cracking
250
27.5/
1.125
1957-85
184,000
1050
(566)
390
(27)
HRH pipe
Major
cracking
1120
36/
2.25
1975-87
80,000
1000
(538)
720
(50)
HRH pipe
Major
cracking
163
NR
1963-86
NR
1015
(545)
525
(36)
HRH pipe
Major
cracking
200
NR
1965-86
NR
1010
(543)
465
(32)
HRH pipe
Major
cracking
NR
27.64/
1.44
1965-93
150,000
1050
(566)
515
(35.5)
Main steam
line header
link piping
Major
cracking
570
16/
2.75
1965-90
152,000
1000
(538)
2640
(182)
ditto
Leak
570
16/
2.75
1965-92
168,000
1000
(538)
2640
(182)
Main Steam
outlet header
outlet lead
Major
cracking
570
20/
3.375
1965-93
172,000
1000
(538)
2640
(182)
ditto
Leak
880
18/
3.625
1974-93
156,000
1000
(538)
3600
(248)
Main steam
line reducer
Leak
220
NR
1967-86
NR
1000
(538)
1800
(124)
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Boilers
Figure 3-43
Circumferential Crack In Hot Reheat Line
This well-established crack along the girth weld of a hot reheat line is illustrative of the issue.
More common in the thinner reheat lines than in main steam lines, several contributing causes for
these failures exist. Inspection of such locations at regular intervals is an important task for all
fossil plant operators, particularly where the unit has experienced considerable operating hours.
At this time, a gradual failure scenario has been confirmed for thin wall, seam-welded hot reheat
piping. (Figure 3-43) Damage appears to begin in a heterogeneous fashion and progresses in a
time-dependent evolutionary manner. Usually there is a wide distribution of crack sizes in a
damage zone at the time of failure indicating that cracking is progressive rather than
instantaneous. Present day ultrasonic detection systems can detect and size cracks and creepmicrocrack damage zones that have through wall depths of 0.05 inch (1.2 mm) or less. Being
able to detect cracks of this size provides a period of several years before those cracks would
grow to a through-wall crack. The findings for steam header pipe links or thicker sections are not
as well understood. (Ref. 3-52)
Cold Reheat Piping
Cold reheat piping system designs are also governed by ANSI B31.1 and are generally fabricated
from the same materials as the higher temperature piping systems. Although creep problems are
avoided, inspections have revealed numerous instances of fabrication and service-induced
damage. This includes fatigue, corrosion, erosion, foreign object damage, water hammer, and
inappropriate material and improperly designed support systems. Service-induced cracking has
also been experienced at welds and attachments from water hammer events and in pipe spools
from thermal shock. Pipe spools have also experienced foreign object impact damage and wall
wastage from erosion and/or corrosion.
The primary damage mechanisms experienced in cold reheat piping systems are thermal fatigue,
erosion, corrosion, and tensile overload. Damage resulting from these mechanisms is manifested
by distress in various forms (cracking, deformation, and wall thinning) depending on location,
composition, metallurgical structure and operating environment. (Ref. 3-8)
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Boilers
High Energy Valves

The design basis for high-energy valves is also ANSI B31.1. Service-induced cracking has been
widely experienced in girth welds of valves. This damage has been thermal fatigue-induced
resulting in ID cracking at weld counterbores and geometric discontinuities and external creep
cracking of welds and associated heat-affected zones. Numerous penetration welds have cracked
from creep and thermal-fatigue damage, resulting in pressure tap, thermowell, and valve bypass
line leaks.
Distress has also been detected in the base metal of valves including ID and OD cracking. Base
metal damage has often been associated with thermal fatigue cracking in the interior of the valve
at locations of geometric discontinuities. Cracking has been documented to occur as a result of
material degradation (graphitization).
The primary damage mechanisms experienced in high-energy valves are therefore creep,
thermal-fatigue, creep-fatigue and microstructural changes (graphitization). Damage resulting
from these mechanisms is manifested by distress in various forms (cracking, deformation or
embrittlement) depending on location, composition, metallurgical structure and operating
environment.
The following list is generally in the order of most to least inspected locations of valves.
1. Girth Welds
2. Valve Seats (including inserts)
3. Internal Radii and Fillets
4. Drain and Bypass Line Penetrations
Brief Case Histories of Observed Damage in High Energy Piping
South Carolina Electric and Gas Repairs Steam Line Cracks
SCE&G utilized improved ultrasonic transducers and EPRI welding guidelines to detect and
repair cracks in the A376 Type 316N stainless steel main steam line welds at their Williams
supercritical coal fired steam station. Advanced ultrasonic procedures were utilized because
conventional ultrasonic and liquid penetrant examinations had failed to detect the cracks.
Metallurgical replication had revealed the presence of the cracks. (Ref. 3-54)
San Diego Gas and Electric Installs Creep Resistant Wye Fittings
San Diego Gas and Electric Company (SDG&E) had continually experienced cracking at their
Encina units 4 and 5 in the circumferential-weld heat affected zone on F11 wye fittings, which
connected two inlets into a seamless main steam line leading to a high-pressure turbine. Based
upon discussions with EPRI, SDG&E decided to utilize creep resistant F91 (forged 9Cr-1Mo)
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Boilers
steel in this service. Two new F91/wye fittings were installed in 1993 and 1994 respectively.
(Ref. 3-55)
Flow Accelerated Corrosion
Flow accelerated corrosion results when the normally protective oxide layer, on carbon or low
alloy steel, dissolves into a stream of flowing water or a water-steam mixture. (Figure 3-44) The
oxide layer becomes thinner and less protective and the corrosion rate increases. Eventually a
steady state is reached where the corrosion and dissolution rates are equal and stable corrosion
rates are maintained. In some areas, the oxide layer may be so thin as to expose an apparently
bare metal surface. More commonly however, the corroded surface exhibits a black color typical
of magnetite.
Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) usually causes a general reduction of wall thickness in a
limited area of a piping fitting due to local high areas of turbulence. FAC occurs under both
single and two-phase flow conditions. Because water is necessary in order to remove the oxide
layer, FAC does not occur in lines transporting dry or superheated steam. The damage typically
occurs within several feet of the fitting and experience has shown that if damage is observed in
one fitting, it is likely that other fittings in the system will also be damaged. A thinned
component will typically fail due to over stress from operating pressure, or from abrupt changes
in conditions such as water hammer, start-up loading, etc. Large fittings may rupture suddenly
rather than provide warning of their degraded condition by first leaking.
The surface appearance is often different for single-phase and two-phase conditions. In single
phase-flow, damage has a scalloped, wavy or orange peel appearance. In two-phase conditions, a
condition called tiger striping is often observed where the black part of the surface is covered
with a very thin oxide film and the blue to red part of the surface is covered with a thick oxide
film.
Serious failures have occurred in fossil plants. On February 12, 1995, an instantaneous double
ended pipe break occurred in Unit 1 at the Pleasant Prairie Power Plant in a two unit, 1260MW
fossil station located near Kenosha Wisconsin. The break occurred in a 12 inch (~320mm)
diameter seamless carbon steel feedwater line as the plant was returning to power after a
shutdown. The failed location was downstream of a valve station and upstream of the
economizer and boiler. (Ref. 3-56). More recently on July 23, 2002, at Constellation Energy,
Wagner 3, a feedwater heater drain line ruptured perhaps due in part to flow accelerated
corrosion.
There are several general approaches that have been used to avoid FAC. These include
upgrading materials or changing plant water chemistry. Replacement of carbon steel with either
low alloy CrMo steels or stainless steels will usually prevent the problem from reoccurring in the
same location. Employing oxygenated treatment (OT) of boiler feedwater may be effective in
that it results in the formation of protective layers that contain hematite, which is less porous
than magnetite. However, chemistries that are based on all-volatile treatment (AVT) can be
managed to reduce the risk of FAC. Elimination of reducing agents such as hydrazine is a key
step. (Ref. 3-57). In general FAC rates are sensitive to material chromium content, fluid
velocity, fluid temperature, and fluid chemistry, particularly oxygen and pH levels.
3-85

Boilers
Figure 3-44
Schematic Representation Of The Flow Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) Process
FAC is characterized by dissolution of iron by reaction with water (1) that reaches the iron surface
through the porous magnetite layer. The dissolved iron and hydrogen that are formed by this
reaction are transported through the porous magnetite layer to the flowing water stream (2).
Magnetite formation, at the iron interface, and magnetite dissolution, at the interface with flowing
water, reach equilibrium (3).
Figure 3-45
Searching Out Flow Accelerated Corrosion
3-86

Boilers
Inspection for Flow Accelerated Corrosion

Both ultrasound (Fig. 3-45) and radiography have been successfully used to measure remaining
wall thickness, with ultrasound typically being more accurate (Ref. 3-58). Two new techniques
are very promising. First a pulsed, eddy current method has performed well at test sites in the US
and Spain including the Hayden plant in Colorado, the San Juan plant in New Mexico, and the
Cofrentes nuclear plant in Spain. This method is able to assess a water or steam line plant
without having to remove the insulation, an extremely attractive feature. First used in Holland to
detect outside wall thinning due to acid corrosion under insulation, the sensor has now been
adapted by EPRI for power plants so as to reach the inner diameter of the pipe (Ref. 3-59). The
second method uses a magnetostrictive sensor to send a signal down the length of the pipe, again
without removing the insulation. This latter method has been field tested at the JT Deeley and
WB Tuttle plants of San Antonio City Public Service. (Ref. 3- 60)
Detailed Case History of Flow Accelerated Corrosion
Predictive Approach Confirmed by Field Observation of Flow Accelerated Corrosion and
Other Wear Mechanisms
Figure 3-46
Susceptible locations for Flow Accelerated Corrosion
A typical risk location at a main steam piping wye (Y) connection is often susceptible to FAC
damage.
Issues/Goal
The scope of programs to identify high energy piping locations at high risk for high-speed
erosion, erosion/corrosion, creep, and Type IV weld-cracking can be enhanced by application of
predictive maintenance methods.
3-87

Boilers
Key Conclusions
The plant locations at highest risk can be identified analytically:
Risk-ranking predictive methods have been developed that combine information from field
walkdowns, piping geometries and materials information via engineering calculations of
stress and corrosion rates where uncertainties are explicitly considered.
Simple spreadsheet tools are used to predict FAC wear damage and ranking of highly
stressed locations.
Measurements from field inspections confirm that more severe damage occurs in locations
with high-risk rankings.
By identifying the locations at highest risk the number of locations to be inspected can be
typically reduced by one third to one half
The comparison of predicted and observed material loss are in a satisfactory range

Table 3-24
Sequential Steps in the Pipe Inspection Process
Step
Primary Action
Complementary Action
Piping mechanical info - Drawings, Line lists and

schedules, Terminal point loads
Field walkdowns - Confirmation of configuration,

Observation of hot and cold hanger settings,
Collection of operating data, Review of prior
piping damage and repair
Spreadsheet tools and commercial software for

piping analysis used to calculate stresses,
damage for operating history, current
configuration
Benchmarked engineering models for

damage - Single and two-phase FAC
Wear, Erosive wear; Uncertainties in
key variables
List of inspection locations ranked by probability

of exceeding code allowable wall thickness or
stress level
Outage constraints- Area accessible,

schedule for scaffolding, Insulation
removal and replacement
Field inspection-Standard UT wall thickness for

FAC, UT, WMFT, and Replica for creep damage
Post inspection Engineering evaluation of

thinned components or locations in higher stages
of creep damage
Studies of this approach at three power plants (not specifically identified) indicate that this
approach meets its goals of correctly predicting the locations at highest risk to damage, thus
identifying priority locations for inspection. Three examples provided are summarized below. At
Unit A the approach was used to analyze three situations:
3-88

Boilers
A 14 stage extraction line that was subjected to a severe water hammer event. Adjustment of
spring loads was recommended to reduce the excessive upward load that was displacing
piping upward and causing excessive equipment nozzle loads.
FAC evaluation of all susceptible components in the low-pressure condensate and highpressure feedwater system. Two tees were identified for monitoring because of thinning.
Main steam piping to identify Type 4 creep cracks. None were found.
th
Unit B used this approach for a FAC evaluation of all susceptible components in the lowpressure condensate and high-pressure feedwater system. Unit C used this approach to confirm
that, with one exception, all high energy piping still has margin above the nominal wall thickness
required.
The limited sample of inspection results in Table 3-25 below tend to confirm the range of wear
predicted, although newer plants sometime experience more damage than older plants based on
fired hours. New plants are characterized by higher velocities, smaller actual wall thickness, and
are often cycled daily. Older units typically were operated as baseload units for much of their
lives.
Table 3-25
Selected Results of FAC Inspections by UT
Unit
Location
Measured Wear
(UT), mils
Predicted
Wear (UT),
mils
BFP discharge to 11th stage heater inlet 8spool 00

piece downstream of BFP 1-2 Discharge
177
11th stage outlet to 8th stage inlet 180 bend
160
8 stage outlet to economizer inlet--10x10x10 tee 5
102
BFP discharge--5x6 expanding pipe ell (L)
69
197.7
HTR #4 8 LR elbow Inlet and bypass
24
197.7
Economizer inlet 8x6 reducer at inlet
111.2
Economizer inlet 90 Elbow upstream of inlet
36
230
th
Unit A. Unnamed 145 MW Tangentially Fired Radiant Coal Fired Boiler in daily cycling
service. The unit was built in 1960 and is located in the Northeastern US
Unit B. Unnamed 205 MW Tangentially Fired Radiant PRB Coal Fired Boiler in base load
service. The unit was built in 1966 and is located in the Midwest US.
Unit C. Unnamed 225 MW CFB Coal Fired Cogeneration Unit. The unit was built in 1994 and
is located in the Mid-Atlantic US
(Ref. 3-61)
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Critical Assessment
Current life management practices for high energy piping systems are generally based upon
periodic inspection for damage and assessment of remaining life. The process identified above is
consistent with general engineering practice and can be useful in focusing inspection efforts and
reducing overall inspection costs. The process has potentially broad application to all fossil-fired
power plants and contains elements, such as evaluating piping system stresses and screening
geometry and flow velocity for flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) damage, that are included in
EPRI guideline reports. EPRI products like the CHECUP software for FAC screening would
likely complement the process.
Although the process does assist the plant operator in focusing inspection efforts and resources,
some caution must be exercised in relying fully on the process, as defined, to prevent all failures.
The defined activities do not fully address very localized conditions in the piping and its welds
that can lead to accelerated damage. Of particular concern for FAC, these localized factors may
include the use of field modified and poorly documented fittings, the use of backing rings for
welds, and the variation in actual alloy content of the steel used in manufacturing the pipe
sections. For creep and fatigue damage in steam piping, these local factors may involve issues of
actual weld quality and geometry, the presence of repair welds made during pipe manufacture or
installation, and the roof angle of the weld in the case of a longitudinal, seam weld. Especially
for the case where seam-welded piping is used for the hot reheat line, EPRI recommends that a
baseline be established that covers 100% of the seam welds.
Finally, the process would be strengthened by formally including damage root cause analysis and
consideration of corrective actions to eliminate or mitigate damage. For example, EPRI research
has identified the value of cycle water chemistry optimization in significantly reducing the risks
of developing FAC damage in fossil plant feedwater systems.
OTHER BOILER EQUIPMENT

General Discussion of Damage Mechanisms, Inspections, and Corrective Actions
for Other Boiler Equipment
There are a number of other items of equipment, in addition to tubes, headers, piping and drums
that can be troublesome. These include attemperators (Figures 3-47 and 48), ash hoppers,
windboxes, burners and sootblowers. Problems with these items are normally a function of longterm wear and tear and are rarely a reliability concern. Damage mechanisms, inspection
techniques and corrective actions are listed in Table 3-26.
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Table 3-26
Damage Mechanisms, Inspections, and Corrective Actions for Other Boiler Equipment
Equipment
Item/Function
Damage Mechanisms
Inspection
Techniques
Corrective
Actions
Attemperator/ Inject water

or steam between primary
superheater outlet and
secondary superheater
outlet header to lower
inlet steam temperature
Thermal fatigue of
main welds and spray
heads
Cracking and failure of
internal thermal sleeve
MT
Remove cracks
by grinding and
rewelding as
required
Ash Hopper /
Boiler tubes, headers and
structural steel in a
structure to carry ash
from the lower boiler to
the ash conveyor
Thermal fatigue at
tube to header welds
MT
Windbox/ Distribute inlet

air to boiler
Thermal distortion
Thermal fatigue at
attachment welds
Uneven air distribution
leading to hotspots
Casings/
Enclose furnace and
tubing
Leakage resulting
from Corrosion
Weld Fatigue
Infrared
Burners/
Distribute fuel and air into
furnace
Burner tip erosion
VT
Rebuild
Sootblowers/
Remove deposits from
boiler heat transfer
surface
Misalignment of
sootblowers can
cause tube erosion
VT
Correct
alignment
PT
VT
PT
VT
VT
MT
VT
Grind out
cracks.
Cracks less
than 0.1 inches
(2.5 mm) are
not usually
removed
Grind out cracks
and reweld to
meet minimum
wall thickness
requirements
Reweld
(Ref. 3-8)
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Figure 3-47
Typical Attemperator Design
Thermal sleeve and spray nozzles often deteriorate over time as a result of wear. Fragments of the
thermal sleeve can find their way downstream where they can interrupt the flow of steam and lead
to tube failures.
Figure 3-48
Attemperator Spray Head After 23 Years Service
Erosion of the spray head is clearly seen in this photograph. Though not a problem that often
leads to plant downtime, or service interruption, such wear and tear issues lower performance
and increase operating costs. Periodic inspections at convenient times are necessary for
assessing erosion/corrosion of elements affected by water, steam, or gas flow. Erosion/corrosion
of main feedwater lines or steam pipes is, of course, a much more serious issue.
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Detailed Case History of High Pressure Control Valve Upgrade

KCP&L Increases Capacity and Profitability at 342 MW Once-through Supercritical La
Cygne Unit #1 by Retrofitting Replacement Control Valves
Figure 3-49
Improved High Pressure Valves
The C-seal design selected employs multiple metal-to-metal sealing arrangements with a balanced
valve plug to prevent leakage during shutoff.
Issues/Goal
Older control valve designs used in the Once-through Supercritical LaCygne Unit 1 required
constant maintenance, and their performance was generally poor. These valves must withstand
cavitation, flashing and superheated steam because they are used both for controlling pressure
during start-up and as shutoff valves during normal operation. Leakage through the previously
installed three primary superheater bypass valves and the one secondary superheater bypass
valve reduced unit output by 10-12 MW. Specifications were developed by plant staff members
for replacement valves that could perform both a control function during start-up and a shutoff
functions with no leakage during long periods of normal boiler operation.
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Key Conclusions
Replacement of these four valves, beginning in 1998, with new designs valves incorporating
both tight shutoff and cavitation resistant trim resulted in:
Eliminated leakage to the flash tank reducing its operating pressure from 600 psig to 150
psig. Further reduction is anticipated when another leaking valve is replaced
Reduced feedwater pumping energy by 10%, saving $275,000 annually (assuming an

electricity cost of 2/kWh)
Increased capacity by 15-20 MW
Combined with several other improvements, the overall heat rate of the unit has been reduced
by 4%, saving $4 million dollars annually
Cost of modifications
The cost of the four replacement valves, excluding the costs of installation, was about $400,000.
These bypass valves are used during the process of bringing the boiler from zero to 25% load by
throttling flows to achieve desired pressures in the primary and secondary superheaters. At 25%
load, the four valves shut. They remain closed during normal operation, acting only as relief
valves to dump steam to the flash tank if the operating pressure exceeds 4,250 psig.
Prior to the installation of the new valves, the plant had used valves with pilot balanced trim with
internal plugs. During operation these plugs can become unbalanced and cause the plug to slam
shut. As a result, performance, maintenance, and leaking of the valves were continual problems.
The replacement valves that were selected (8 inch ANSI 2500 Fischer globe valves with C-seal
tight shutoff trim installed in combination with Cavitrol trim) provide ANSI Class V leakage
protection. The C-seal trim design employs multiple metal-to-metal sealing arrangements with a
balanced valve plug. This in together combination with the pressure assisted upper seal and valve
plug seat design provides the level of shut-off typically seen with pilot balanced trim.
The key differences between the previously used valves and the new valves are that the previous
valves invariably failed to provide long-term shutoff and the body and trim components leaked
requiring continual maintenance. Cavitation damage resulting from the high pressure-drops
across the previous valves during start-up, indicated that a cavitation resistant design would be
beneficial in eliminating long-term leakage. The new valves contain a cage-style trim, which
controls cavitation by staging the pressure drop as the steam passes through the cage wall. This
approach avoids flashing damage to the valve and its components.
The C-seal trim employs multiple metal to metal sealing arrangements with a balanced valve
plug to provide the needed levels of shutoff instead of the previously used valves that employed
pilot balanced trim with internal plugs. The pressure assisted upper seal, is positioned
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immediately above the top flow passages and cage wall. This eliminates the flow between the
upper cage and the valve plug. Once the seal makes contact with the upper seat in the cage, the
actuator continues to stroke until contact is made between the valve plug and seat ring.
La Cygne Unit #1 has a 342 MW B&W coal-fired once-through supercritical boiler, built in
1973.
(Ref. 3-62)
Critical Assessment
This specific leakage issue is only applicable to supercritical units. Using the same valve for
significantly high-pressure drop throttling and high-pressure shut-off is a very difficult job. The
new design appears to be an improvement. Time will tell if this solution works.
Another engineering solution would have been to install a single isolation valve upstream of the
202 valves. This would likely be more expensive. The CE start-up scheme uses a different
design employing the boiler throttling bypass (BTB) valves for throttling and the boiler
extraction (BE) valve for the separator tank isolation. There are other differences but these are
the key ones for this comparison. In theory, one valve can do both throttling and isolation in
high-pressure duty.
The benefits quoted are significant. It was noted that the elimination of the leakage "combined
with several other improvements" resulted in heat rate improvements that were now saving the
plant $4 million per year.
NOx CONTROL
General Discussion
The Clean Air Act Amendment (CAAA) of 1990 authorizes the Environmental Pollution Agency
(EPA) to establish standards for several forms of atmospheric emissions, including oxides of
nitrogen (NOx). These amendments establish performance standards and are updated every five
years. Most of the NOx produced by combustion is either thermal NOx, caused by nitrogen in the
combustion air reacting with oxygen, or fuel NOx, where the nitrogen is chemically bound in the
coal prior to oxidation. For coal-fired units about 25% is thermal NOx and 75% is fuel NOx,
except for very high combustion temperatures (such as in cyclones) where these percentages can
reverse. In general a reduction of flame temperature, and a time delay in the mixing of fuel and
air, minimizes NOx formation.
New information on ways to control nitrogen oxides in fossil-fired plants is receiving scrutiny by
generating companies seeking the most cost-effective treatment options. Compliance with
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upcoming standards is the key driver. Hundreds of units are now equipped with low NOx burners
(Figure 3-50), a proven approach to NOx control that can lead to reductions up to 70% when
combined with over-fire air. Evidence is growing though that NOx control is remarkably unitspecific and the best method may be truly strategic and include a combination of options. For
example, with estimates of future NOx credits at $1000 to $1500 per ton, over-compliance might
make financial sense, and on large units generate a substantial revenue stream. (Ref. 3-63)
Figure 3-50
Typical Low NOx Burner
These burners are carefully designed to control and direct the proportions of air and coal that
enter the combustion zones in the vicinity of the burner front. Low NOx burners that typically
produce a reducing atmosphere, have the undesirable trait of sometimes increasing unburned carbon,
thereby impacting ash sales and worsening heat rate. This has encouraged the use of combustion
optimizers to balance out combustion parameters.
Control Options
The broad span of options for control may be categorized into combustion and post-combustion
methods. Though currently deployed most often, low NOx burners (especially when combined
with overfire air) are not without attendant concerns, sometimes increasing boiler tube wastage
rates, particularly when firing eastern bituminous coals. This is likely caused by the more
reducing atmosphere that inhibits the formation of tube protective oxide scales. Material-based
solutions to this problem, such as spray coatings, may ultimately prove to be the approach that
deals best with this issue, although further flow and heat transfer analysis is underway.
Additionally, one research team has noted increased failures of burner tips and flow nozzles with
low NOx burners. Changing coals with low NOx burners can lead to operational problems, one
unit struggling to handle 36 different coal mixtures. (Ref. 3-64) In an encouraging development,
it appears that combustion optimization techniques may offer a low cost alternative to hardware
options, particularly where modest reductions up to 30% are needed. Many units are now
operating with some form of optimization of air and fuel flows, perhaps utilizing advanced flame
diagnostics or software based on neural networks to do the optimizing.
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One further combustion option, that of reburning, where natural gas is added to the combustion
zone, may have the capability of up to 60% NOx reduction. In an optimum configuration a
combination burner might inject coal, gas, and air to better direct gas to the right location.
However, the gas can more easily be injected later in the combustion process, though it takes
more time to mix and react and the net NOx reduction is less.
Post Combustion Options
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is used widely in Europe (especially Germany where it is
installed on more than 30,000 MW of coal fired boilers) and in Japan, but more sparingly todate in the US. In an SCR, ammonia is injected into the boiler exhaust gases ahead of the catalyst
bank (at about 550-750F). NOx and NH3 then react to produce nitrogen and water, the chemical
reactions being:
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 4N2 + 6H2O
6NO2 + 8NH3 7N2 + 12H2O
2NO2+4NH3 + O2 3N2 + 6H2O
The reaction can result in a potential NOx removal capability of more than 90%, though practical
limitations include ineffective mixing of NOx and NH3, velocity and temperature variations, NH3
slip, and gradual loss of catalyst activity. Retrofit installation of an SCR system can require
considerable space, although the reactor can be placed inside the original ductwork if NOx
reduction levels are modest. This would be difficult for coal-fired systems due to the high gas
velocities. A separate reactor allows more flexibility in design.
In general, SCR has been successful in current installations, though impacts on the boiler system
have included air heater deposition and plugging due to the formation of ammonium sulfate and
bisulfate, ammonia contamination of fly ash, and ammonia slip. SCR systems operate at
significantly lower temperatures than SNCR and are much more flexible in achieving the desired
degree of NOx reduction. These systems utilize catalyst coated metal plates to react flue gas. Inlet
temperatures to the catalyst panels are controlled by bypassing flue gas around the catalyst zone
to meet the level of NOx removal that is required. Clearly an option with relatively high operational
cost, it remains an effective proven method for NOx reductions. (Ref. 3-65, 3-66, and 3-67)
SNCR is a promising lower capital cost alternative to SCR ($10/kW versus more than $50/kW),
but with lower performance (20-35% reduction compared with 50 to as high as 80% for SCR). In
SNCR, the injection of a reagent like urea or ammonia into the upper part of the furnace (Figure
3-51) converts NOx from combustion into nitrogen, this conversion being a direct function of
furnace temperature and reagent injection rate. Usual practice is to inject the reagent into a
region of the boiler or convective pass where the temperature is in the range of 1600-2100F
(871-1149C). NOx reductions can range from 20 to as high as 50%, as previously stated, but are
typically in the range of 20-35%. The level of reduction varies with the amount of nitrogencontaining chemical that is injected. One major operating issue is that the system is not very
flexible because the temperature of the flue gas at the point of ammonia injection is a function of
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boiler load. Additional operating issues that are of concern are the amount of unreacted ammonia
(or slip) that exits the reaction zone, air heater fouling by sulfate compounds that are formed by
reaction between SO3 and excess ammonia, plume formation and ammonia content of flyash.
There is a significant operating cost, although reagent consumption can be controlled.
Figure 3-51
NOx Control Systems
Options for control of nitrogen oxides (NOx) include both combustion and post-combustion
approaches. They vary in efficiency and cost. Among low cost opportunities are methods for
optimizing the combustion process. On the other hand, SCR offers potential reductions of NOx
from 50% to in excess of 80% in some specific cases.
Controlling SCR Systems

Major plants are being required to retrofit selective catalytic reduction systems (SCR) for NOx
control. In addition to being much more expensive than low- NOx burners, SCR systems may be
more difficult to control, and excessive ammonia slip is always a concern. To ensure that SCR
systems deliver optimum performance -- especially during dynamic load changes plant
operators must carefully manage sophisticated control systems.
To help power plant operators deal with these systems, EPRI recently performed a study that
examined and evaluated several different approaches to improving SCR control system
operation. This study was a first step toward the development of comprehensive for optimizing
SCR control system operation, both to minimize NOx and to ensure smooth plant operation. This
study identified a number of ways that power plant operators can improve the operation of their
SCR control systems or maximum performance including optimizing key control strategies and
automating routine startup and shutdown sequences.
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SCR Basics
The SCR system can be located before or after the air preheater. In the United States plants most
frequently install the SCR before the preheater. This because when the system is located after the
preheater, the plant operator must provide a supplemental source of heat to raise the temperature
of the flue gas up to the correct level for catalyst function. Moreover, the SCR relies on a number
of complex subsystems. One such subsystem is the ammonia flow control system, which injects
a mixture of ammonia and air into the flue gas stream through a grid of nozzles that distribute the
ammonia evenly across the gas duct. Other key system components include instrumentation such
as temperature and pressure gauges as well as NOx analyzers that reside at the SCR inlet and
outlet. Figure 3-52 illustrates the configuration of a basic SCR system.
FD Fan
ID Fan
Figure 3-52
Typical SCR System Configuration
The SCR System--How it Works

Controlling an SCR typically uses digital programmable logic controllers (PLC) or could use a
distributed control system (DCS). Regardless of the control system components, an SCR control
system broadly encompasses all aspects of SCR equipment and operation. Equipment controlled
includes the ammonia storage and delivery facility, the ammonia injection system, the dilution
air system, and the SCR isolation dampers. From an operational perspective, the control system
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is responsible for regulating main process parameters during regular operation as well as putting
the SCR into or out of service, as dictated by the operation of the whole generating unit.
While the SCR is operating, the control system regulates several process variables including
outlet NOx concentration as well as standard pressure, temperature, and control flow loops. Of
the process variables managed by the SCR control system, outlet NOx concentration is the most
complexand by far the most difficult to control. A key remaining issue is how plant operators
can improve their control system operations to better manage outlet NOx concentration during
operations and to ensure the safe and efficient startup and shutdown of the SCR system.
Optimizing SCR Outlet NOx Concentration
Figure 3-53 shows the general arrangement of an ammonia control system strategy designed to
inject the proper mass flow of ammonia required for achieving an optimal NOx concentration.
The control strategy is a cascade-type system with the ammonia flow being the inner loop and
the outlet NOx concentration being the outer loop. In addition a feed forward signal is used to
improve the dynamic response of the system.
Typically, the entering NOx concentration is measured with an analyzer and the desired outlet
NOx concentration is set by the operator. The amount of NOx to be removed is calculated from
the concentration of NOx entering the SCR, the desired concentration leaving the SCR, and the
volumetric gas flow rate through the SCR.
One way to improve the ammonia control strategy (and thereby optimize outlet NOx
concentration) is to obtain more accurate measurement of the gas flow rate through the SCR.
Although many plants have a flue gas monitor as part of their Continuous Emission Monitoring
System (CEMS), the CEMS flow meter is usually too slow for use in a control system. Therefore
to identify the most effective way to estimate the gas flow rate, EPRI has considered a variety of
rate signals that have a strong correlation to flue gas flow. These include steam flow, megawatts,
air flow, fuel flow, and boiler demand. The challenge for plant operators has been to determine
which of these correlated plant parameters has the best dynamic characteristics for their
operation. In general, signals that detect process changes sooner are more effective that those that
detect changes later because it is easier to slow a signal down.
Based on EPRIs most recent research, air flow is the most effective volumetric flow rate signal,
primarily because it is closely related to the flue gas flow and is independent of Btu input
changes that may occur during load changes. Moreover, if the air-flow signal is too noisy, it can
be filtered digitally in the control system; it may also be desirable to factor in the excess oxygen
to improve the efficiency of the signal. However, if the excess oxygen does not change too much
over the normal load range, it probably will not provide much improvement.
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Boilers
Figure 3-53
SCR Control System
(Ref 3-68)
Combustion Modifications for NOx Control

The use of combustion modification techniques such as low NOx burners can lead to higher levels
of carbon in the flyash when used with low volatile coals. In order for flyash to be sold into its
ordinary major market, which is as a component of cement, the unburned carbon content
contained in that ash must typically be below about 3-5%. In extreme instances, it has been
reported that the use of low NOx burners in combination with overfire air has resulted in levels of
20% or more if the system operation is not optimized. There is also a loss of boiler efficiency
when substantial amounts of carbon remain unburned. For coals containing 10% ash, the loss of
efficiency due to the amount of unburned carbon remaining in the ash varies from about 0.2%
with 1% carbon in the ash to about 4% for ash with 20% carbon. High carbon in ash can be
prevented or dealt with in a number of ways. One is to feed a finer grind of coal to the boiler so
that carbon burnout is more complete. Another is to modify the existing overfire air design to
allow the remaining carbon on the ash that is carried from the primary combustion zone of the
boiler to undergo additional combustion in the upper reaches of the boiler. If the problem cannot
be dealt with adequately in the boiler to bring the level of carbon in flyash to a level below about
3-5%, additional external processing can accomplish this goal. South Carolina Electric and Gas
has installed a special fluidized bed process, known as the Carbon Burn-Out process to reduce
carbon-in-ash to levels at which the ash can be sold.
Returning to combustion optimization, balancing efficiency, NOx emission levels, and the carbon
content of the ash has provided a market for sophisticated new control system enhancements.
Looking at two of these, GNOCIS utilizes on-line neural networks to arrive at an optimum
combination of operating conditions, while Ultramax utilizes sequential optimization techniques
offline to identify suggested settings that operators can utilize to obtain optimum performance.
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Boilers
One source suggests four relatively simple operational improvements to reduce NOx by at least
16%. These are combustion optimization, optimizing sootblower schedules (cleaning furnace
walls decreases NOx formation), improving CEM flow measurements, and making small changes
in coal specifications. (Ref. 3-69). It appears to many industry experts that a combination of
options might turn out to be the most cost-effective NOx control approach for any particular unit.
Estimated Costs of NOx Reduction Alternatives
In 2000, EPRI published a report, (Ref 3-70) summarizing the various technology approaches
that have been utilized in coal-fired power plants to reduce NOx. The nominal NOx reduction
potential and range of installed capital costs for each of these technologies is summarized below.
Additional and much more detailed information is included in the report.
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Table 3-27
NOx Control Costs
Technology
NOx Reduction Potential,

%
Capital Cost Range,

$/kW
Wall Fired
Over-Fire Air
15-30
5-10
Low NOx Burners
40-60
10-20
Low NOX Burners plus Over-Fire Air
50-70
15-30
Burner Component Modification
10-40
3-6
Low NOx Concentric Firing System 1
15-40
5-15
30-50
10-25
40-70
10-30
Burner Component Modification
10-40
3-6
5-40
$20,000$50,000
per unit
Gas
35-65
15-30
Coal
40-55
30-60
20-50
10-20
Hot-side
50-80
60-100
Post FGD
50-80
90-140
Tangentially Fired
Combustion Optimization
Reburning
SNCR
SCR
Measurement of Pulverized Coal Flow

To properly balance the flow of pulverized coal and combustion air into the individual burners,
knowledge of the mass of coal flowing at any point in time is of prime importance. But,
surprisingly, this measurement has remained one of the most difficult to make and only recently
have accurate techniques reached the practical demonstration stage. Obviously a poorly balanced
set of burners will lead to in-furnace combustion that is non-optimum from the perspective of
both NOx formation and unburned carbon, as well creating concerns about tube wastage, tube
fouling, corrosion and slag formation. A recent series of tests by EPRI at the Kingsnorth plant of
PowerGen in the UK (Ref. 3-71), investigated several methods for pulverized coal flow metering
including the use of electrostatic charges (caused by coal particles impinging on the pipe walls),
and microwaves (Figure 3-54) (that can be attenuated by dielectrics such as coal). Both of these
methods appeared to give adequate results that compared favorably with a sampling method.
They are now currently under test in the US.
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Boilers
Figure 3-54
Microwave PC Sensor
This is one of several pulverized coal flow sensors installed and tested at the Kingsnorth plant of
PowerGen, on a 500 MW tangential-fired unit. Transmitting and receiving sensors were installed in
two planes so as to measure the full cross sectional flow in the pipe. Microwaves operate on the
basis that the signals attenuate due to the interactions with the dielectric coal particles.
NOx Control in Gas-Fired Boilers

Gas-fired boilers comprise a significant proportion of the fossil-fired generation capacity and the
continuing competitive price of this fuel, together with the much greater day-to-day maintenance
and operational costs of the coal-fired unit suggest that the gas-fired boiler will continue as an
important generation asset. In addition there are thousands of industrial gas-fired boilers
worldwide.
In terms of NOx control two low-cost options have emerged in the last few years. First, units that
have spare forced draft fan capacity can make use of the induced flue gas recirculation approach,
described in its first large scale application in Ref. 3-81. The installed cost of this application was
less than 0.25$/kW. Second the GasREACH concept makes use of a novel gas burner approach
that has an approximate installed retrofit cost of 1-2 $/kW. The two methods can be combined to
produce 80% or more NOx reduction.
The Gas REACH concept (Ref. 3-72) involves a patented configuration of gas injectors
operating in conjunction with a compound-curved-blade flame stabilizer (swirler). Figure 3-55
depicts the basic concept of Gas REACH adapted to a gas- or gas/oil-fired burner. A primary
feature is a segmented gas flame produced by a non-uniform injection of gas around the
periphery of the flame stabilizer. The resulting gas jets in combination with the aerodynamic
flow field produced by the burner air register and flame stabilizer produce an internally-staged,
low-NOx flame that is stable with or without the use of FGR. Development tests on a 2-burner
package boiler (20 MWe equivalent size) at Consolidated Edison Company achieved NOx
reductions of 45 to 50% compared to standard gas spud designs. NOx reductions of 80% or more
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were achieved with Gas REACH combined with 10% windbox flue gas recirculation (FGR),
demonstrating the potential of Gas REACH combined with Induced FGR (IFGR). NOx
emissions as low as 0.15lb/MBtu are projected with Gas REACH for full-scale, wall-fired utility
boilers, with emissions below 0.1lb/MBtu when operating with up to 10% FGR or IFGR.
Figure 3-55
GasREACH Concept
The GasREACH approach to NOx reduction in gas-fired boilers uses a segmented gas flame
produced by a non-uniform injection of gas around the periphery of the flame stabilizer. First tests
on a packaged power boiler at Consolidated Edisons 59th Street station in New York showed 4550% NOx reduction.
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Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Combustion Systems

for NOx Control
Multiple Combustion Modifications at Duke Powers Allen and Lee Units Reduce
NO
x
Emissions to Less Than 0.20 lb/MMBtu and Maintain LOI on Fly Ash
Issues/Goal
Reduce NOx emission to well below 0.20 lb/MM Btu by combustion modifications alone without
the use ammonia-based post-combustion NOx emission control systems
Key Conclusions
NOX emissions in the 0.20 lb/MM Btu range were achieved by combustion modifications
alone without the use ammonia-based post combustion NOx emission control systems
The unburned carbon in the fly ash remained at about the same levels compared with preretrofit values of 4-8%
No significant increase in CO was observed compared with pre-retrofit values of ~ 100 ppm
Superheat and reheat steam temperatures returned to design values without the use of fireside
additives that had been required prior to the retrofit
According to the manufacturer, the typical cost for designing and supplying a TLN 3 unit
modification ranges from a low of $3/kW for large units to a high of $11/kW for small units with
an average of about $6/kW. Addition of the LOFIR system to a unit equipped with the TLN 3
system was estimated to add a similar increment of cost.
These units had previously been modified in the early 1990s to reduce NOx emissions. The top
coal elevations were lowered from their original positions as part of ABB LNCFS I Overfire
Air System modification for NOx reduction. This resulted in three compartments of closecoupled Overfire Air for NOx control. This earlier modification was aimed at achieving NOx
emission levels of approximately 0.45 lb/MM Btu.
In order to reach their target level of 0.15-0.20 lb/MMBtu NOx emissions, Duke installed two
additional complementary systems: the FWEC TLN 3 System (Separated Overfire Air) and the
Duke LOFIR (Lowered Fire Incremental Spacing). The TLN 3 system features multiple levels of
Separated Overfire Air for NOx reduction. By redirecting a portion of the combustion air above
the upper fuel elevation, fuel nitrogen conversion and thermal NOx production are significantly
3-106

Boilers
reduced. Control of the staging process through proper coal and air nozzle design is critical to
maximize combustion efficiency and component life.
The Duke LOFIR system is based on lowering the heat release in the burner zone by re-spacing
of the coal burner elevations, which results in lower average temperature, which in turn lowers
thermal NOx production. Application of the LOFIR System to the Allen Unit 1 and Lee Unit 3
involved relocating the center coal burner elevation of the five total existing elevations to an
accessible area below the existing main windbox. Allen Unit 4 has four burner elevations. The
lowest coal burner elevation is known as LOFIR coal. Lowering the burner centerline results in
additional residence time in the furnace zone and increases char burnout reducing unburned
carbon. Secondary air is ducted from a takeoff point on the hot-air duct to the mills. The results
that are described below were obtained in April-May 2001.
Table 3-28
NOx Reduction Results with LOFIR Technology
Unit
Allen 1
Allen 4
Lee 3
MCR
175
290
175
Steam
conditions
2400 psig/1050F/1000F
2400 psig/1050F/1000F 2400

psig/1050F/1000F
Configuration
Single boiler
Separately-fired
superheat and reheat
furnaces
Single
furnace
NOX levels prior to

current modifications
~0.45 lb/MM
Btu
~0.45 lb/MM
Btu
~0.45 lb/MM
Btu
NOx levels after TLN 3 0.20 (at 60 % load) to

modifications placed about 0.25 (at MCR)
in service
lb/MM Btu, typical
operations are about
0.22 lb/MM Btu
n.a.
n.a.
NOx levels after initial8-0.19 lb/MM Btu with

operations with
further optimization
LOFIR
under way
n.a.
n.a.
Prior to the TLN 3 modification, the use of special fireside additives was required for operators
at Allen Unit 4 to maintain design steam temperatures even with burner tilts straight up. After the
TLN 3 conversion, steam temperatures could be maintained at close to design superheat values
of 1050F with the tilts at horizontal or below without the use of additives.
These units, Duke Powers 175 MW Allen Unit 1 and 290 MW twin furnace Unit 4 at Belmont,
NC and 175 MW Lee Unit 3 in Pelzer, SC, are all Combustion Engineering tangentially fired
pulverized coal steam generators, early 1950s vintage. They fire Eastern bituminous coal.
(Ref. 3-73)
3-107

Boilers
Critical Assessment
The system described in this Case History and the two Case Histories that follow, are
representative of several competitive systems that are currently offered by a number of vendors
to accomplish the same NOx emission reduction goal. In the period from 1996 to 2000, there was
a marked increase in the number of NOx control retrofits of existing units in response to further
tightening of NOx regulations. Included among these NOx reduction activities were:
approximately 100 complete burner retrofits of wall and T-Fired Boilers bringing the total to
357
32 burner component modification projects
combustion optimization in over 200 boilers
13 reburn projects
5 SNCR
2 SCR projects
There are hundreds of units with low NOx burners, and combustion modifications are clearly
capable of achieving NOx emission levels of about 0.20 lb/MMbtu in many boilers. However, it
appears necessary in some applications to employ additional methods techniques in order to
reduce NOx to the 0.20 lb/MMBtu level and, in some instances, further toward the EPA Title 1
NOx emissions requirement of 0.15 lb/MMbtu. The systems described in these Case Histories are
representative of several competitive systems that are currently offered by a number of vendors
to accomplish the same NOx emission reduction goal.
The overall performance that can be obtained with combustion modifications is site specific and
dependent on the boiler, coal or blend of coal that is being used, load, and operating procedures.
EPRI has published a report, (Ref. 3-63) that summarizes the actual field experience that has
been obtained for a variety of approaches to NOx emission reduction. EPRI has done this
consistent with its typical role of acquiring and correlating field data of interest to the owners of
power generation equipment.
Increasing competition in the electricity generation business makes it more necessary than ever
to seek the lowest cost options that achieve compliance with NOx emission regulations. All
options should be evaluated, especially the low cost ones, to identify the optimum combination
of NOx controls that satisfies each generating companys requirements and that provides
adequate flexibility to make further adjustments in the future.
3-108

Boilers
Combustion Modifications at Reliants 820 MW Limestone Unit Reduce NO x

Emissions on Powder River Basin Coal to Less Than 0.20 lb/MMBtu
Figure 3-56
Low NOx Burners Reduce NOx Emissions from Powder River Basin Coal-Fueled Plants
A TLN 3 system cut NOx emissions with Powder River Basin coal to less than 0.2 lb/MMBtu. The
continuous curve on the chart represents the best fit to the experimental points that are shown as
dots.
Issues/Goal
Reduce NOx emission to 0.20 lb/MM Btu by combustion modifications without exceeding eight
hour rolling average emission of 60 ppm CO. By 2003, local air regulations require that NOx
emissions be limited to 0.165 lb/MMbBtu.
Key Conclusions
After installation of the Foster Wheeler TLN 3 system, NOx emissions were maintained
below 0.20 lb/MMBtu on both Texas Lignite and Powder River Basin coal while maintaining
CO emissions far below the 60 ppm limit. The baseline NOx value before the modification
was 0.42 Lb/MMBtu.
NOx emissions were lower with PRB coal than with the Texas lignite. However boiler
modifications would be required with 100 % PRB coal to maintain economizer gas outlet
temperatures within design limits. Using pet coke in the fuel blend tends to increase NOx
production
3-109

Boilers
Relative to an unmodified twin unit at the site and prior experience with Unit 2, operation
with the TLN 3 system resulted in:
Reduced furnace slagging
1-2 % improvement in boiler efficiency without an increase in LOI on resulting ash
No increase in CO production was noted as NOx was reduced
Based on 14 months of successful operation, Reliant decided to install the TLN 3 system in the
second 820 MW unit located at the site.
According to Foster Wheeler, the typical cost for designing and supplying a TLN 3 unit
modification ranges from a low of $3/kW for large units to a high of $11/kW for small units with
an average of about $6/kW.
Reliant installed the Foster Wheeler TLN 3 system in its Limestone Unit 2. The system was
engineered, fabricated, and delivered to the site in sixteen weeks. It was installed and made
operational in seven weeks. It was fully operational in May 2000 and was tuned by September
2000 to control NOx emissions to less than 0.20 lb/MMbtu. A single level of Separated Overfire
Air (SOFA) was installed as the primary means of incorporating vertical air staging. A network
of secondary air ducting was supplied to reroute and induce secondary air to the new SOFA
windboxes. All of the original main windbox nozzle tips were replaced with Foster Wheelers inwindbox (close-coupled) overfire air nozzle tips, boundary air nozzle tips for fireball shape, and
Double Shroud air and coal nozzle tips. Lower Furnace Stoichiometry Control (LFSC) was
installed to minimize and control the fuel rich lower furnace hopper conditions normally found in
boilers of this type.
The design requirements for this system stress fuel/air balance and mixing for successful ultralow NOx tangential coal firing. CO formation is related to primarily to the degree of fuel and air
mixing. Improper air or fuel distribution, jet penetration or mixing can result in very high CO
levels, particularly with highly reactive coals like lignite and PRB. Previous experience shows
that low NOx tangential systems operating with high numbers of idle compartments and
excessive leakage through closed dampers under deep staged low NOx conditions tend to exhibit
higher CO levels due to poor penetration and mixing.
The damper settings defined by the tuning closely matched those predicted by the design
program.
3-110

Boilers
Table 3-29
TLN 3 Performance Summary Data Table
Fuel
Test
Duration
NOx
lb/MMBtu
CO
ppm
SH
Out
Temp
deg F
RH
Out
Temp
deg F
MW
Gross
Furnac
e Slag*
Panel
Slag*
Lignite
30 days
0.193
15.4
996
1002
810
PRB
9 days
0.137
22
1003
1009
808
Lignite/20% Pet
Coke
2 weeks
0.21
21
1000
997
797
33% PRB/67%
Lignite
24 hours
0.165
49
998
1004
813
45%PRB/55%
Lignite
24 hours
0.18
25
991
999
803
71% PRB/29%
Lignite
24 hours
0.159
22
990
998
806
PRB/20 Pet
Coke
8.5 hours
0.167
954.4
968.6
807
*Higher slag numbers denote worse slag conditions

Problems encountered
Intermediate blends of PRB and lignite exhibited some undesirable slagging conditions when
the ratio was between 30-70% PRB coal by heating value.
Pet coke does not mix well with other fuels in pulverizers
Including pet coke in fuel blends increased NOx
Steam temperatures could not be maintained when firing pet coke with PRB perhaps due to:
Decreased mass flow due to the higher BTU content of the pet coke
The lower ash lading and cleaner surfaces associated with pet coke contributed to lower
firing zone temperatures and the resultant decrease in steam temperatures
820 MW Combustion Engineering controlled circulation, tangentially fired pulverized coal

steam generator; Reliant Energy Unit 2, Limestone Electric Generating Station; Jewett, Texas.
The fuels for the plant include Texas Lignite, Powder River Basin Subbituminous Coal and
Petroleum Coke (pet coke)
(Ref. 3-74)
3-111

Boilers
Consumers Power Utilizes a Combination of PRB Coal and Combustion Modifications

to Reduce NOx to 0.15 lb/MMBtu at 156 MW Cobb #5 and 265 MW Campbell #1 Units
Figure 3-57
Low NOx Burners Cut Emissions from Blended Coal Fuel Operations
NOx emissions ranged from 0.14 to 0.20 lb/MMBtu in a test at Cobb Unit #5 on a blend of 70 % PRB
and 30 % eastern bituminous coal after installation of a Alstom TFS 2000 R combustion system.
Issues/Goal
Consumers Power anticipates that in the future it may have to reduce NOx emissions to as low as
0.15 Lb/MMbtu to meet EPA and State Implementation Plan (SIP) requirements. Their
objectives for this dual approach to NOx reduction of combustion modifications and the use of
Powder River Basin (PRB) coal were to reduce emissions to 0.15 Lb/MMBtu with minimum
investment costs and to maintain stable, inexpensive fuel prices. Lower rank fuels such as
Powder River Basin subbituminous coal are more highly reactive than bituminous coals and
produce less NOx when combusted.
3-112

Boilers
Key Conclusions
The combination approach met the NOx emission goals in the Cobb #5 Unit without the need
for more expensive SCR systems
Similar results are anticipated with the Campbell Unit #1 that will fire 100% PRB coal
Both the Cobb Unit #5 and the Campbell Unit #1 boilers were modified by installation of the
Alstom TFS 2000 R combustion system. This system incorporates three design features to
achieve precisely controlled stochiometry required for low NOx operation:
Two levels of Separated Over Fire Air (SOFA) as well as Close-Coupled Over Fire Air
(CCOFA)
Flame-front nozzle control tips that allows control of early devolatization of the coal particles
Concentric Firing System to create a second imaginary circle of secondary air which is
concentric with and outside the inner circle formed by the primary air and coal.
The Cobb #5 unit is fueled by a mixture of 70% PRB coal and 30% Eastern bituminous coal. In
order to accommodate the higher moisture content of the PRB coal, in-duct burners were added
to the pulverizer/primary air system. The Campbell #1 Unit is fueled with 100% PRB coal.
Therefore in addition to the in-duct burners that were added, DYNAMIC classifiers and High
Efficiency Exhauster were also installed to increase pulverizer capacity.
The 12-week modification program of the Cobb unit was completed in February 2001. This unit
has two elevations of tilting tangential burners in each furnace. Each SOFA elevation has two
compartments containing tips with both tilt and yaw capability. Two elevations of coal nozzles
were required for a total of 16 nozzles and LNCFS P2 low NOx nozzle tips. As shown
previously in the Figure, NOx emissions were in the range of 0.14-0.20 lb/MMBtu over a two
week test period in May, 2001. It is anticipated that with additional fine-tuning, particularly with
respect to excess oxygen, increased operator familiarity with the system, implementation of a
Neural Net system and control system tuning, the range of NOx emissions will be tightened. The
LOI on the flyash is as anticipated at 13-17%, which is somewhat higher than the pre-retrofit
level of 11%. That flyash will be sent to a commercial landfill.
Campbell Unit #1, fueled with 100% PRB coal, began its 15-week installation outage in January
2001. In that unit, the lower SOFA elevation has three compartments containing tips with both
tilt and yaw capability. Five elevations of coal nozzles were required for a total of 40 nozzles and
LNCFS P2 low NOx nozzle tips were utilized. It is anticipated that the LOI on flyash will be in
the range of 1-3 %.
In both boilers, a new ductwork system was installed to supply air to the registers from the
existing secondary air ductwork.
3-113

Boilers
The 156 MW Cobb Unit #5 was designed by Alstom in the mid 1950s to fire Eastern
bituminous coal. It is a Controlled Circulation, balanced draft, divided furnace, radiant reheat,
tangentially fired steam generator with a current main steam flow of 1,100,000 lb/hr with
superheat outlet conditions of 2020 psig and 1050F. Before the modifications described here,
the NOx emissions were 0.45 Lb/MMBtu. After the modifications, this unit fired a blend of 70 %
PRB coal and 30% Eastern bituminous coal.
The 265 MW Campbell Unit #1 was designed by Alstom in the mid 1950s to fire Eastern
bituminous coal. It is a Controlled Circulation, balanced draft, divided furnace, radiant reheat,
tangentially fired steam generator with a current main steam flow of 1,900,000 lb/hr with
superheat outlet conditions of 2450 psig and 1050F. Before the modifications described here,
the NOx emissions were 0.45 lb/MMBtu. When the unit is in commercial operation, it is
anticipated that the NOx levels will be 0.15 lb/MMBtu.
(Ref. 3-75)
Modeling Points the Way to Lower NOx Emissions at NYPAs 865 MW
Charles Poletti Unit
in
trg e
n0
3
O
FA
1
O
FA
St
ag 2
ed
N
o 1
FG
R
FG
R
N
Ba
se
l
NOx, lbs/MMBtu
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Figure 3-58
Poletti Plant NOx Reduction Modeling Predictions
The NOx emission results predicted by modeling for the various cases that were studied indicate
that high velocity Overfire air (OFA) would be the most effective. Increasing the velocity of the
Overfire Air increases the NOx reduction because of additional penetration of the OFA into the
main gas flow, producing better mixing.
Issues/Goal
Although the Poletti boiler currently meets all operating requirements regarding NOx emissions,
NYPA investigated whether modeling could be used to predict if minor, low cost changes to the
boiler could significantly reduce NOx.
3-114

Boilers
Key Conclusions
Modeling the boiler identified modification of the existing Over Fire Air (OFA) injection
system as a promising approach to reducing NOx emissions
By forcing all of the OFA through the upper and smaller 6 of 12 available Overfire Air ports,
NOx emissions since February 2001 during operations at 700 MW and higher were reduced
by approximately 30% from a baseline level of 0.26 lb/MMBtu
Operating experience indicates that the level of OFA can be increased above previously used
levels with no increase in secondary superheat temperatures
Costs for combustion modifications vary according to the application. See the ranges identified
in the NOx Reduction Alternatives in Table 3-27
A three-dimensional gas phase turbulent reacting flow code was used to analyze the various
boiler configurations described below.
Table 3-30
Poletti Parametric Case Descriptions
Case
Description
Baseline (700 MW)
5.8% OFA, 6 upper; 6 lower OFA ports
Ntrgn03 (700 MW)
N content of fuel oil decreased from 0.47 to 0.30 wt%
OFA 1 (700 MW)
12% OFA; 6 lower OFA ports closed
OFA 2 (700 MW)
6 lower OFA ports closed
Staged 1 (700 MW)
Successive burner staging by adjusting oil flow rates as

follows: row 10 (+15%), row 20 (+10%), row 30 (+5%),
row 40 (-10%), row 50 (-20%)
No FGR (150 MW)
Baseline operation at 150 MW with no FGR through burners;

91 % excess air
With FGR (150 MW)
17% FGR in burner air, 60% excess air
The results of the analysis indicated that increasing the amount of OFA accompanied by
modification to the OFA ports to increase penetration of the air from the OFA ports showed the
greatest promise for significant levels of NOx reductions at low cost. During January 2001, the
lower level of six ports was blocked in order to force all OFA flow through the six upper level
ports.
The 865 MW Foster Wheeler front-wall fired boiler, fires either low sulfur #6 fuel oil or natural
gas. The unit provides 6.6 million pounds per hour of stream at 1005F. The load is regularly
varied between 18 and 100%. Thirty burners are fired from the front wall and are configured in a
3-115

Boilers
6x6 array. There are 12 overfire-air ports, placed in two rows of six ports each above the burners.
Flue gas recirculation is utilized.
(Ref. 3-76 and 77)
Critical Assessment
Combustion modifications can provide substantial NOx reductions with minimal added hardware
or burner change-out, with recent applications having achieved NOx emission levels on the order
of 30 50% from baseline NOx levels. As an initial step, parametric variations are assessed
utilizing computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling to identify and evaluate the relative
performance and drawbacks of a variety of practical combustion modifications. Once the most
promising approaches are identified through the CFD analysis, field validations and
demonstrations are implemented. Typically, modeled approaches include strategic
redistribution of combustion air through critical burners or burner rows, and tertiary air biasing.
NYPAs Poletti station was an example of how the operation of a large gas and oil-fired power
producing boiler was cost-effectively modified to minimize NOx levels well below that required
by current regulations.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Combustion Systems for

NOx Control
Hawaiian Electric NOx Control
In 1990, Hawaiian Electric completed modification of their oil-fired 142 MW Kahe Unit 6 with a
combination of advanced atomization technology, 1988 vintage low NOx burners, flue gas recirculation
to the windbox and burners, and overfire air ports. With these changes, local emission requirements of
0.23lbs/MBtu (0.099g/MJ) of NOx and 0.03lb/MBtu (0.013g/MJ) of particulates could be
achieved. (Ref. 3-78)
Kansas Power and Light Installs Low NOx Burners
In 1987, in a test of an early system for NOx reduction, Kansas Power and Light (now Western
Resources) retrofitted the 400 MW tangentially fired Lawrence Unit 5 with ABB Combustion
Engineering low NOx (PM) Firing System, which incorporated both low NOx burners and overfire
air. With this system, they were able to achieve a NOx emission reduction of 40-60% below their
base line NOx levels of 0.50lb/MBtu (0.22g/MJ). (Ref. 3-79)
Potomac Electric Optimizes Combustion to Control NO x
Potomac Electric was able to reduce their NOx emissions levels at their Potomac River Station Unit 4 to
a target of 0.38lb/MBtu (0.16g/MJ), by careful optimization and control of a number of variables.
These included the economizer oxygen level which was identified as the most important, followed by
air damper setting and burner tilt position. At reduced loads, fuel bias and primary air modulation also
3-116

Boilers
affected NOx emissions. It was necessary to utilize a finer coal grind to limit the carbon content of
the ash to acceptable levels, while maintaining NOx below target levels. (Ref. 3-80)
Entergy Installs Induced Flue Gas Recirculation to Control NOx
Entergy was able to reduce NOx emissions by 30-40% to a level of 0.2lb/MBtu (0.086g/MJ) at its
gas-fired 570MW Willow Glen plant by installing an innovative Induced Flue Gas Recirculation
(IFGR) system. This system was able to take advantage of the presence of a FD combustion air fan with
excess capacity by routing a fraction of the boiler outlet gases to the fan where they could be mixed
with combustion air and injected into the boiler. (Figure 3-59). The cost of this simple modification was
about $0.25/kW. A straight flue gas recirculation system, employing a separate fan to recirculate flue gas
from the boiler economizer outlet to the windbox inlet costs about $20/kW. In addition, Entergy was
able to eliminate their previous practice of water injection to control NOx which resulted in a fuel
saving of 77Btu/kWh (81 MJ/kWh). (Ref. 3-81)
Figure 3-59
Induced Flue Gas Recirculation Duct Arrangement
By utilizing spare forced draft fan capacity, Entergy was able to induce flue gas to the fan inlet
and implement a very low cost and effective solution to a NOx problem in their Willow Glen Unit 3.
Added ductwork is shown in the center of the picture.
Southern Company Uses GNOCIS to Increase Combustion Efficiency While Maintaining

Compliance NO x Emissions
GNOCIS methodology utilizes neural network models of boiler combustion and other plant
processes to enhance the on-line performance of digital control systems. The objective is to
optimize plant performance while maintaining NOx emission within prescribed limits. At
Southern Companys 500 MW Hammond Unit 4, boiler efficiency was increased from 87.5 to
88.3% by a combination of settings to control excess oxygen, advanced overfire air dampers and
mill flows. (Ref. 3-82)
3-117

Boilers
TVA Optimizes Combustion Parameters to Control NOx

TVA utilized the ULTRAMAX sequential optimization system to bring its Johnsonville Units 1
through 6, ranging in capacity from 125 to 147MW into compliance at full load by reducing NOx
below 0.45lb/MBtu (0.11g/MJ). In addition, heat rate and LOI of the coal ash was reduced. By
taking this action, they were able to avoid the replacement of existing burners with low NOx
burner/overfire air technology. (Ref. 3-83)
Louisville Gas & Electric Modify Burners at Cane Run
Cane Run 4 is a 170 MW front wall-fired boiler that entered service in 1962. A modification of
the burners included new coal nozzles, flame stabilizers, and secondary/tertiary air sleeves. Cane
Run 5 was similarly upgraded. The new burners started up in April 1996 and NOx was reduced
over the load range from 0.8 - 1.3lb/Mbtu to 0.38 - 0.45lb/Mbtu. Subsequently a new DCS
system, new igniters, scanners and burner management system were added. (Ref. 3- 84)
Duquesne Light Burners Modified at Elrama to Reduce NOx 30-44%
At Duquesne Lights Elrama plant, four units were modified by redistributing the primary and
secondary air streams within the burners. Elrama 1, 2 and 3 are roof-fired units rated 110, 110
and 120 MW. Elrama 4 is a 200 MW wall-fired boiler. On units 1, 2 and 3 up to 25% of coal
primary airflow was blocked, and the inner secondary air was redistributed to create substochiometric conditions at the core of each burner. At unit 3, NOx reductions were in the 3040% range (at full load down from 0.65lb/Mbtu to 0.45lb/Mbtu). At unit 4, burner modifications
reduced NOx from 0.82 to 0.66lb/Mbtu. (Ref. 3- 85)
Deseret G&T Tunes Burners Using Flame Analysis
Deseret Generation and Transmission Corp. optimized combustion using a simple process of
changing the secondary air damper settings. A tool that helped the process was flame analysis
that supplied information on each burner. At the Bonanza station in Utah, the process reduced
unburned carbon by 40%, decreased net heat rate by 0.6% and increased net heat output by 2.4%.
The method has also been used at the New York State Electric and Gas, Kintigh station, reducing
unburned carbon up to 25%. (Ref. 3-86)
3-118

Boilers
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of SCR Systems for NOx
Control
Static Mixing Improves SCR Performance to Better than 90% NOx Emission Reduction
in Twin 750 MW PP&L Montour Units
Figure 3-60
Vortex Mixers
Injection of ammonia downstream of static mixer at intersection of vortices results in rapid mixing
and eliminates the need for a complex injection system
Issues/Goal
SCR systems were installed in two parallel coal fired boilers to reduce NOx emissions by 90%
from 0.45 lb/MMBtu to 0.04 lb/MMBtu, which at 3% O2 is equivalent to 29 ppmdv. This is also
equivalent to 9 ppm at 15% O2 which is a common specification for gas turbine NOx emissions.
The other important design specifications were <2 ppm ammonia slip at 90% NOx reduction at
7600 hour catalyst life, and maximum system pressure drop of 7.63 in. water with a full
complement of catalyst loaded into the system.
3-119

Boilers
Key Conclusions
The targeted NOx emission reduction of >90% was achieved with ammonia slip and pressure
drop better than design
Physical modeling supported the successful design effort
The addition of limestone to the coal eliminated the problem of arsenic poisoning of the SCR
catalyst that had been experienced at other locations.
The installation of these SCR systems, which are among the largest systems now in operation,
was done in conjunction with replacement of the electrostatic precipitators and the installation of
new induced draft fans. Each SCR system consists of two parallel reactor trains, which are
symmetrical about the boiler centerline. The SCR system was installed in the high dust/high
temperature position between the outlet of the existing economizer and the inlet of the air heater.
Two scale models were constructed to support design engineering. A flow model was used for
testing to assure that complete mixing and uniformity of all gas species, temperature and uniform
flow distribution would be obtained in the unit. Delta Wing flow mixing devices were
installed to accomplish the mixing. These devices produce very active vortices for mixing. The
ammonia injection point is located immediately downstream of the mixer.
A second larger dust model was constructed to examine dust distribution. One advantage of
this mixing system is that it achieves the desired level of mixing at reduced load conditions. This
is in contrast to grid ammonia systems, which are tuned to perform best at full load conditions
and static mixing devices or riffles.
The simplicity of the injection system is illustrated by the fact that the ammonia is injected
through six-inch diameter pipes immediately downstream of the six static mixers in each SCR
unit. The mixers are inclined in the range of 30-45 from the vertical in the direction of flow.
The SCR system requires that the flue gas temperature be above 600F, which occurs at about
75% load. These two units have the lowest dispatch costs in the PPL system and typically run at
95-100% load.
This station is designed to fire any Class II, medium volatile and high volatile A, B, or C
bituminous coal. However, the particular coals used at this station can have a combination of a
high arsenic content and a low calcium content. This combination required the installation of a
calcium addition system to the coal feed to avoid arsenic poisoning of the catalyst.
The SCR system in Unit 2 began operation in May 2000 and the SCR system in Unit 1 began
operation in May 2001.
3-120

Boilers
Table 3-31
Key Montour NOx Reduction Test Results
Test Condition
Guaranteed Value
Measured Value
NOx removal efficiency
90%
91.2%
NH3 slip
2 ppmdv (end of life)
<1 (first season)
Pressure loss
7.63 in. water
5.92 in. water (full catalyst)
Problems Encountered
The seal air gaskets on the inlet and outlet NOx monitors leaked initially.
Low seal and dilution air flows were difficult to calibrate
Flow stratification occurred entering the dilution air heat exchangers. This was corrected by
the addition of flow distribution plates.
The damper hydraulic system had leaks. A solution has not been found.
Two nominal 750 MW tangentially fired, supercritical, combined circulation divided furnace and
single reheat units with positive pressure operated by PPL Generation, LLC in Montour, PA.
Steam conditions are 3830 psig/1010F/1005F. The units were originally placed in service in
1972 and 1973 respectively. These boilers had previously been retrofitted with a NOx reduction
system comprising concentric firing, with both close-coupled and separated overfire air.
(Ref. 3-87)
Critical Assessment
It has been estimated that approximately 90,000 MW of coal-fired generating capacity in the US
may have to be retrofitted with SCR systems, so the potential market for such systems is large.
There are only about a dozen SCR units now in operation in the U.S., providing a limited
operational experience base for US generators. One of the issues that was identified in European
units is the difficulty in maintaining high NOx removal rates over long periods of time. There has
been some recent US experience, including that reported in this paper that indicates that some
units can in fact achieve over 90% NOx removal.
Proper mixing of ammonia with flue gas is crucial to the achievement of high NOx removal with
low ammonia slip in SCR systems. The two general approaches to injecting the ammonia in the
flue gas so that the concentration of ammonia is essentially equal at all locations in the flue gas
stream are by:
a grid of ammonia injection points requiring an extensive piping network and accurate flow
control system
a set of static mixers.
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This summary discusses the use of a specific type of static mixer designated as the Delta Wing.
Static mixers have been used in European SCR installations but not extensively in the US. The
claimed advantages of such a system are fundamental simplicity leading to lower capital cost,
and lower future maintenance costs. If these advantages can be realized, static mixers could
prove to be a strong competitor for future SCR installations in the US.
The retrofitting of static devices like the Delta Wing, depends on the level of maintenance
problems currently being experienced by the multi-nozzle system. If the Delta Wing achieves
better mixing then this is good, though this needs to be verified by on-line testing. The
applicability of this device could be widespread if the mixing is good and the cost is the same or
less. Both capital and maintenance savings should be considered. One thing to be considered in a
retrofit is the validity of the supplier guarantees for the SCR system, if the scheme is
independently changed by the generating company.
Acoustic SCR Sootblowers Reduce Sootblowing Costs by 75% at Mirants

250 MW Birchwood Power Facility
Figure 3-61
Acoustic Cleaners
Comparison of acoustic cleaner installation (on left) with steam sootblower installation (on right)
demonstrates the lower space requirements of the acoustic system.
Issues/Goal
The steam sootblowers that were originally installed to maintain the cleanliness of the SCR
catalyst layers in the plant performed as specified and the reactor operated as designed since
start-up in 1996. A set of three sootblowers was located above the first full layer of catalyst, a
second set above the half layer of catalyst below the first layer, and a third set above the space
where a third layer of catalyst was to be added. However, steam sootblowers are expensive to
purchase, install and operate. The Birchwood plant tested a set of four Powerwave DC-75
acoustic cleaners, to determine if they would perform as well as the steam sootblowers, while
reducing operating costs.
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Key Conclusions
The acoustic cleaners were tested from October 2000 to May 2001. The inspection during the
May 2001 outage showed that the acoustic cleaners were as effective as the steam
sootblowers in maintaining the cleanliness of the catalyst.
Based on the results of the test, the plant purchased the four test cleaners as well as an
additional four cleaners that were installed later to clean the third catalyst bed that was added.
There have been essentially no operating or maintenance problems with the acoustic cleaners
The cost of each of the four acoustic cleaners that were initially tested at Birchwood was about
one fourth the cost of each sootblower rake. Four acoustic horns functionally replace three
sootblower rakes to clean each catalyst layer. The cost of each of the nine sootblowers originally
installed was about $17,000.
Quantitative Value of the Improvement
There was a significant reduction in the cost of the compressed air used to operate the eight
acoustic horns compared with the steam to operate the six sootblowers ($40.50/day for steam
compared with $3.76 for air). The annual savings of about $13,400 provides a payback period of
about one year for the acoustic cleaner investment.
The acoustic cleaners are air-operated horns that emit low frequency, high-energy sound waves.
The waves are produced by pulses of air, which flex a titanium diaphragm and are amplified by
the bell of the acoustic cleaner. Ash deposits are dislodged from the surface of the catalyst. The
only moving part of the acoustic cleaner is the titanium diaphragm, which is expected to last five
years. Its replacement cost is about $300.
The physical size of the acoustic cleaners is much smaller than the rake style steam sootblowers
that they replaced. The acoustic cleaners are installed through a 16-inch diameter opening
located about 18 inches above the catalyst layers. The unit protrudes only 30 inches from the
reactor wall. In contrast, the steam sootblowers protrude more than 10 feet from the reactor wall.
The acoustic cleaners were each initially programmed to operate for 10 seconds every 10
minutes.
The Birchwood Power Facility is 250 MW power plant owned by Mirant that started operation in
1996. The boiler and pollution control equipment (SCR reactor, scrubber and reverse air
baghouse), were supplied by Alstom. The coal used is a low sulfur (less than 1%) eastern
bituminous coal that has an ash content of 8-11%.
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(Ref. 3-88)
Critical Assessment
In addition to the installation at Mirant's Birchwood Power Facility, Babcock Hitachi America's
(BHA's) Acoustic Cleaners have been installed on SCR systems at PG&E Generating Companies
Indiantown Station, TVA's Paradise Station, AEP's Gavin Station, Carolina's Power & Light's
Roxboro Station, Constellation Power's Brandon Shores Station, and Kansas City Power &
Light's Hawthorn Station. These installations represent combinations of high and low dust
SCRs, firing eastern bituminous coal or Powder River Basin coal. Both plate and honeycomb
catalyst, have been cleaned with acoustic horns.
So far, acoustic horns appear to have been successful in preventing build up of ash on SCR
catalyst. However, they could not be expected to remove existing ash build up.
Georgia Power's Plant Bowen has seen the accumulation of "popcorn" ash in honeycomb type
SCR catalyst. Rake-type sootblowers have not been effective in breaking up the popcorn ash.
Acoustic horns are not expected to be any more effective than sootblowers in dealing with
popcorn ash. Acoustic horns offer significant capital and O&M cost advantages over rake-type
sootblowers. It appears that the acoustic horns will have widespread application on SCR
systems.
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of SNCR Systems for

NOx Control
SNCR Reduces NOx Emissions from Twin 250 MW Coal Fired Boilers at KEPCOs
Honam Plant by 40% to Meet Local Emission Requirement of Less Than 300 ppm
Issues/Goal
Install a SNCR systems to reduce NOx emissions by 40% from a baseline of 400 ppm or higher,
corrected to 6% O2, with less than 15ppm ammonia slip at the economizer outlet to meet local
requirements to reduce NOx emissions to less than 300 ppm.
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Key Conclusions
The targeted NOx emission reductions of 40% have been achieved with no evidence of
pressure drop across the air heater after two years of operation.
SNCR systems typically cost $10-20/kW.

SNCR technology was selected for this application over low NOx burners and SCR because the
plant had limited space for retrofit and less than 12 years of remaining life. SNCR offered the
lowest capital investment, best economics, required a shorter outage schedule, and was capable
of achieving the NOx emission limit. Since the SNCR technology requires operation in a precise
temperature range to achieve the required NOx reduction (set by the highest temperature in the
zone) and ammonia slip (set by the lowest temperature in the zone), extensive temperature
measurements and modeling of the boilers was done so that the location of this preferred
temperature zone could be defined as a function of load. Three levels of injectors were specified
so that the desired levels of NOx reduction and ammonia slip could be obtained at loads of 250,
180, and 130 MW. The reagent is delivered as a 50 % urea solution in water.
The installation, start-up and optimization, and the first performance test were completed
between May and September 1999. The second performance test was completed in April 2000.
The temperature zone determined for the two higher loads was 980-1125C and for the lowest
load it was 900-1075C.
Table 3-32
Key SNCR Results at Kepcos Honam Plant
Unit
#1
Unit
#2
Test 1
Test 2
Test 1
Test 2
Load, MW
250
250
250
250
Baseline NOx @6% O2
462
384
416
333
Controlled NOx @6% O2
271
230
244
208
NSR (Normalized
Stoichiometric Ratio)
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
NOx Reduction
41.4
40.1
41.4
37.4
NH3 Slip, ppm @6% O2
9.8
2.6
4.0
2.9
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The plant, operated by Korea Electric Power Corporations Honam Power Plant in Yosu, Korea
contains two nominal 250 MW Babcock and Wilcox opposing-wall- fired units. Originally
constructed in 1972 to fire #6 fuel oil, these units were converted in 1984 and 1985 to fire low
sulfur (<0.5 %) coal. Coal with less than 0.5% sulfur is obtained from Alaska, Australia, China
and Indonesia.
(Ref. 3-89)
Critical Assessment
The application of SNCR described in this paper is typical of most SNCR applications. It is a
niche technology that is utilized most often where (1) the NOx emission reduction requirement is
limited to the range of 20-50%, (2) the sulfur content of the feed coal is relatively low to avoid
plugging of the air heater with ammonium bisulfate, and (3) one of the major objectives is to
minimize the cost of compliance over the near term.
This project met those criteria. The sulfur content of the coal is below 0.5%, resulting in no
problems with air heater plugging in more than two years of operation. Clearly ammonia slip is
not an issue with this low a sulfur content.
As is typical with SNCR installations, several levels of injectors for the ammonia have to be
utilized because the temperature range where SNCR is effective is limited. The physical location
in the boiler where the temperature is in the correct range is a function of load. Therefore, as
described in this paper, three levels of injectors were installed to allow for effective NOx
reduction over the load range.
One of the key features of SNCR is the need to get good mixing of the ammonia with flue gas.
Also the ammonia must be injected at the right temperature. Since temperature changes with load
the injection points must change also. Mixing could be a problem with installations like at
KEPCO since the lances do not go completely across the duct. However, the low sulfur content
of the fuel allows the system to operate with relatively high ammonia slips without plugging the
air heater, making it easy to reach the required 40% NOx reduction.
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Carolina Power and Light Reduces NOx to 0.28 Lb/MMbtu at their 198 MW Coal Fired
Ashville #1 Boiler with Fuel Lean Gas Reburn and SNCR
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Post Modification
NOx, lb/MMBtu
Baseline NOx,
lb/MMBtu
100
200
300
MW
Figure 3-62
NOx Emission Results with Fuel Lean Gas Reburn and SCR
This combination of modifications reduces NOx by 52% from the baseline level of about 0.60
lb/MMBtu to a level of 0.28 Lbs/MM/Btu at the 210 MW full load rating. The post modifications NOx
measurements were done with a CEM system.
Issues/Goal
The objective of this program, which uses a combination of SNCR and Fuel Lean Gas Reburn,
was to reduce emissions to a level of 0.28 lb/MMBtu. Before this program was initiated, low
NOx burners installed in 1997 reduced NOx emissions to 0.58 lb/MMBtu. Evaluations of the
boiler indicated that with the addition of SNCR alone, the NOx emissions could not be reduced to
less than 0.45 lb/MMBtu
Key Conclusions
The target emissions of 0.28 lb/MMBtu were achieved at 100%, 75% and 48% loads.
Ammonia slip varied was in the range of 10-12 ppm during testing in October 2001.
Further optimization is required to achieve the goal of less than 5 ppm of ammonia slip and
minimization of any potential balance of plant impacts
Throughout the testing, the air heater pressure drop at the tested loads remained constant,
indicating no evidence of air preheater fouling
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The cost of installing this combination of NOx control techniques was about $30/kW.
The Fuel Lean Gas Reburn (FLGR) system utilizes the injection of natural gas, in an amount
equivalent to 3-10% of the total boiler heat input, via turbulent jets into the upper furnace of
fossil fuel boilers. The amount of gas injected is such that a reducing environment is maintained.
The injection of natural gas into a hot, low oxygen furnace results in the formation of
hydrocarbon radicals and the injection of urea results in the formation of amine radicals. Both of
these radicals reduce NOx to nitrogen. SNCR reactions reduce NOx in the temperature window of
1700F to 2100F. Using natural gas as a carrier for the amine reagent widens the SNCR
temperature window.
Natural gas is injected into two separate zones of the boiler through two separate, control skids.
These skids can supply up to 10% of the total heat input to the boiler. One skid feeds Zone 1
through five injectors on the front wall. The other skid feeds Zone 2 through nine injectors on the
front wall. The urea is fed to the unit as a 50% solution with a small amount of additives for
scale and corrosion control.
There are a total of 4 zones that are numbered from lowest elevation to the highest. The wall
injection zones are 1, 2, and 3. In Zone 4, multi nozzle lances are used. The injectors for each
zone are placed on retract mechanisms that are independently controlled and placed into service
depending on boiler load and furnace temperature. This is necessary because the location of the
preferred reaction zone varies as a function of load.
Testing was done at 100%, 75% and 48% MCR. At full load, while the overall NOx objective
was achieved, the NOx and ammonia profiles were not uniform at the economizer outlet.
Ammonia levels varied from 1 to 12 ppm and NOx levels varied from 0.23 to 0.33 lb/MMBtu.
The boiler is a wall fired Riley Unit. It was built to fire Eastern bituminous coals.
(Ref. 3-90)
Critical Assessment
It appears that the goal with this technology of 20-50% NOx reduction was achieved on this
medium size boiler, albeit at the expense of significant ammonia slip which they continue to try
to get below 5 ppm. Although the sulfur content of the coal was not provided in the reference,
the absence of an increase in pressure drop across the air heater indicates that for the coal used
and the level of ammonia slip, ammonium bisulphate deposition in their air preheater did not
occur. Use of coals with sulfur contents above 1% would likely result in the formation of
ammonium sulfate deposits in the preheater with ammonia slips of 12 ppm. The economics of
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this process depend strongly on the level of natural gas firing used to achieve these results and
the cost of that gas at the site. At 3% natural gas injection, the economics may be favorable, but
at 10% natural gas injection, the economics are likely to be unfavorable. However the
economics are very dependent on site-specific factors.
It is possible that additional boiler tuning to achieve balanced air and coal distribution to the
burners would assist in obtaining improved NOx profiles at the economizer exit. As is typical
with SNCR technologies, multiple injection lances are necessary to cover the range of loads and
the movement of the optimum temperature window. However the addition of natural gas should
widen this window of opportunity. It is possible with additional tuning of the NH3 injection as
well as boiler tuning, that the NH3 slip could be reduced.
For scale up to larger units, the issue remains obtaining good mixing across the load range with
combinations of lance and wall mounted injectors. Often modeling of the boiler can be helpful is
assessing the effectiveness of the technology for a given application.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades for SCR and SNCR
Systems for NOx Control
Southern Energy Inc. Utilizes SCR at the Birchwood Plant
This 240 MW plant utilizes a combination of low NOx burners and Selective Catalytic Reduction
6
(SCR) to consistently maintain NOx emissions below 0.10lbs/10 Btu (0.043g/MJ). In the SCR
process, ammonia reacts with NOx to produce nitrogen in the presence of a vanadium/titanium
based catalyst. A plate type catalyst, contained in a down-flow multiple bed reactor, is utilized.
The system was designed to achieve a NOx removal efficiency of 53% with a maximum ammonia
slip of 5ppmvd at 3% O2. (Ref. 3-91)
LILCO Installation of SNCR
The first long term testing of SNCR (Selective Non Catalytic Reduction) technology, which uses
urea as the reactant, for NOx reduction at an oil fired unit was carried out in 1993 at LILCOs oilfired Port Jefferson unit. This work established that in oil fired applications SNCR could achieve
up to 40% NOx reduction with ammonia slip at 10 ppm, but reductions would be in the range of
25-30% if ammonia slip had to be maintained below 10ppm. In addition, air heater plugging with
ammonium bisulfate would increase SNCR costs when used with sulfur bearing fuels such as the
1% sulfur fuel oil used at this plant. The conclusions supported by this work were that if higher
NOx removal levels were required, SNCR would have to be supplemented by another technology
such as in-duct or air heater SCR, flue gas recirculation to the windbox, or lower NOx burners.
(Ref. 3-92)
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Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Coal Flow Control

Systems for NOx Control
On-line Coal Flow Measurements Improve Performance At PG&Es 225 MW Logan
Generating Station
Comparison of ECT Measurement

With Sampling
Distribution, %
25
20
15
ECT Value
Rotoprobe Value
10
5
0
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6
Conduit/ECT Channel
Figure 3-63
Coal Flow Distribution Monitoring
ECT measurement system compares closely to Rotoprobe results of coal flow distribution (ideal
distribution is 16.7% per channel)
Issues/Goal
Minimizing NOx emission from pulverized coal boilers requires that variation in fuel/air ratios at
individual burners be minimized. In the spring of 2000, the Logan Generating Plant installed an
Electric Charge Transfer (ECT) measurement system, supplied by Foster Wheeler and TR-Tech,
to provide continuous on-line measurement of coal flow distribution. The ECT system measures
the electric charges present in any two phase flow transport and uses the signal to measure the
relative coal distribution among the conduits. The system can also be used to provide
measurements of conduit velocity and coal fineness. These other features were not in use at
Logan in early 2002.
Key Conclusions
The ECT system provides continuous real-time information about relative coal flow through
each of the six conduits to the individual burners. This information is used by the plant
operators to make adjustments in mill settings and airflow. The changes reduce the variations
in the amount of coal delivered to individual burners.
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Better combustion balance reduced unburned carbon in the flyash from 19.3% to 13.6% and
lowered NOx. Lower NOx reduced ammonia consumption in the SCR by 10%. An improved
oxygen profile at the SCR inlet reduced ammonia slip and ammonium bisulfate deposition in
the air heater. Intervals between air heater washings have been doubled improving plant
availability.
The ECT system can detect changes in the type of feed coal being processed.
Cost and Value of the Improvement
The installed cost of the ECT system was about $80,000. The payback period for this investment,
obtained from the savings realized from lower unburned carbon losses, reduction in ammonia
consumption, and less frequent air heater washing, was estimated at about two years.
The Foster Wheeler boiler has 12 low-NOx burners arranged in four rows in the front wall. There
are overfire air ports on the front and rear walls to help control NOx. Coal is ground in two
double-ended ball tube mills. Fuel from each end of the two mills is supplied to one row of three
burners, after passing through an adjustable three-way distributor that is mounted at the outlet of
the heart shaped classifier. An individual burner is fed from one of the three lines leaving the
classifier. Mechanical devices in three side pockets of the distributor vessel can be used for
rough adjustment of the coal flow.
Figure 3-64
Coal Preparation and Distribution
Coal flow distribution piping arrangement for a Foster Wheeler ball mill.
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The ECT system consists of receiving antennas in each coal conduit that are connected to a
signal-conditioning unit and in turn to a computer for data processing and analysis. Wearresistant tungsten carbide antennas are installed through the walls of the conduit into the coal
stream. Three antennae are used for coal balance measurement and six for coal flow and velocity
measurement. The system is initially calibrated against a standard ASTM or Rotoprobe sampling
procedure.
The Logan Generating Station is a nominal 225 MW coal fired cogeneration plant, that began
commercial operation in 1994, is located in Swedesboro, NJ, and is owned by a PG&E
subsidiary. Up to 50,000 pounds per hour of steam is exported to the Ferro Corporation. The
plant is equipped with an SCR to reduce NOx emissions to 0.15/lbs/MMBtu, a lime-water spray
dryer absorption system to remove 93% of the SO2, and a bag house. A natural circulation Foster
Wheeler boiler normally fires high volatile eastern bituminous coal with a heating value of
12,700 Btu/lb, 10% ash and 35% volatile matter.
(Ref. 3-93)
Critical Assessment
This technology has received favorable reviews at several other sites although there were
problems with antennae wear at one site after eight months in operation. This could be due to
the nature of the coal they burn but is a concern that needs to be addressed. Accessibility to the
probes is not always easy for replacement. At other sites the velocity determination has also
proved useful and it is recommended be incorporated in future installations. It has been tested on
a variety of coals and piping configurations and appears to be generally applicable in many
environments. At one other site, there was a sensitivity to primary air flow but this issue was
corrected with some software modifications. The application of the technology to determine
gross particle size changes also looks promising from testing at other sites. However, this aspect
of the technology is still in the Beta-test stage. Further testing in controlled environments over a
range of parameters is still recommended for both coal flow and particle size determination. The
biggest drawback to the technology is that it is an intrusive approach and thus subject to potential
wear.
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Burner Line Orifices Improve Coal Distribution to Burners at Consumer Energys 260
MW Karn and 780 MW Campbell Plants
25
20
15
% of Total Flow 8/7/97

% of total Flow 1/21/93
10
5
0
Coal
Pipe 1
Coal
Pipe 2
Coal
Pipe 3
Coal
Pipe 4
Coal
Pipe 5
Coal
Pipe 6
Figure 3-65
Burner Line Orifices Effectively Control Flow Distribution
Flow distribution patterns remain relatively constant and close to the ideal numeric average of
16.7% over a four-year interval for the H-Mill of Consumer Energys Campbell 3 Unit
Issues/Goal
Uniform low oxygen combustion is essential in minimizing NOx emissions without impacting
unburned carbon and CO losses. Many retrofit Low NOx burner installations require balanced
coal flows from each pulverizer to meet these goals. Consumers Energy has successfully used
orifices in the coal pipes to improve performance at both their Karn and Campbell plants.
Key Conclusions
The use of fixed and variable orifices generally improves the balance among the quantities of
coal flowing through each of the individual pipes that convey the coal between the pulverizer
and the individual burners
The improved distribution is effective in reducing unburned carbon losses, CO and NOx
emissions
Individual pipes with either above or below average coal flows tend to retain that
characteristic over long periods of time
Cost and Value of Modifications
The cost of individual orifices is in the $8,000-$10,000 range. The amount of time required to
adjust a set of orifices in the system of pipes associated with an individual pulverizer and set of
burners varies from days to weeks in duration. The value of these performance improvements
exceeds their costs.
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Consumers Energy conducted a trial demonstration of a real-time coal flow measurement system
on a 260 MW Karn unit. Data taken at reduced load show a reduction in the deviations between
burner pipes. Another trend noted was that burner lines with above average coal flow tend to
consistently stay high and low flow burner lines tend to stay low. This trend was also
confirmed as a result of tests where the relative flows returned to the same levels after a ninehour period during which the mill was out of service.
An example of a comparison of RotorProbeTM data taken at different time periods from the H
mill of a Consumers Energy 780 MW Campbell 3 is shown on the previous page. No changes
were ever made to the orifices during that time period. The coal flow distribution data for the two
tests, which were separated by more than 4 years in time, were essentially the same.
The Campbell Unit 3 is a Foster Wheeler design with a capacity of 780 MW. The Karn unit is a
wall fired B&W design with a capacity of 260 MW. Both units burn low sulfur Western coal.
(Ref. 3-94)
Critical Assessment
Coal pipe flow balancing is a necessary but not sufficient condition to reduce unburned carbon
losses, CO, and NOx. For example, reducing the amount of coal to a particular burner may
improve LOI but will likely result in increased NOx formation if nothing is done to correct
fuel/air ratio at that burner. This has been experienced while balancing burners at TVAs
Johnsonville plant. LOI may also be a function of the mill condition. If results of coal fineness
tests show a high percentage of >50 mesh coal, then balancing coal pipes may have a minimal
effect on LOI.
To achieve maximum potential benefits, the entire fuel delivery system should be looked at as a
system. Primary air flow, classifier settings, mill condition, mill differential, riffler and
exhauster mechanical condition, and operating set points (if equipped), and coal properties all
have impact on performance.
Changing orifice size often has a more direct effect on air flow. On occasion, one will find a
pipe with high coal flow and low air flow. Reducing the orifice size in this type of pipe may
result in a plugged coal pipe and possible fire. Also dirty (primary) air flow must be checked at
both minimum and full load mill conditions to insure minimum transport velocity is maintained.
Another issue here is the age-old one of extractive testing. The best way to measure coal flow is
not in real time. Batch testing during steady-state boiler conditions is the standard. The problem
is it is time consuming, expensive, and a generally nasty job. And while the data support that
coal flows do not change greatly with time under the same boiler operating conditions, coal
flows do shift with mill load. In addition, in more complex systems such as one mill feeding 8
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corner burners in twin furnaces, burner tilts being radically different in the two furnaces may
influence coal flow (i.e. one furnace tilts + 30 and the other at 0 degrees).
These comments touch on only a few points, as this is a fairly complex subject. Some prior LOI
data from the Kingston 9 retrofit concerning fuel delivery system improvements are shown
below. The first baseline was the as-found condition; the second was same operating conditions
after mill blueprinting and orifice changes. The last bar (Final Test) is after new controls and
final elements allowed better control of primary air flow and temperature.
Figure 3-66
Coal Flow Distribution Improvements at Kingston 9
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SPECIAL ISSUES OF B&W CYCLONE UNITS

General Discussion
Cyclone furnaces are relatively high temperature, minimum volume, systems that were originally
developed by B&W to utilize coals with a slag viscosity of less than 250 poise at 2500F (1370
C). As shown in Figure 3-67, the basic design is a horizontal, cylindrical, water cooled chamber
in which crushed coal (95% smaller than 4 mesh) is combusted with air that is injected to carry
the coal in a rotational path carry around the walls of the cylinder. A molten slag layer is present
along the walls and drains out from a slag tap at the plane where the combustion gases enter the
boiler furnace. As the coal particles travel on their rotational path, oxygen is continuously supplied to
the surface of these particles from injected air, which follows the same path. This promotes the
complete combustion of the coal and capture of the mineral matter in the slag. However, the high
temperature of operation, normally about 3000F (1650C), results in the production of very high
levels of NOx. Cyclone boilers can be retrofitted with a variety of post combustion NOx controls
including SNCR, SCR, and reburning.
Courtesy B&W
Figure 3-67
The Cyclone Furnace
All combustion gases leave the horizontal, water-cooled combustion chamber through the
reentrant throat. Molten slag drains from the bottom of the combustion chamber into the boiler,
through a channel at the bottom of the throat. (Ref. 3-95)
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Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Cyclone Boilers

CFD Modeling Aids in Reducing NOx in Cyclone Boilers
Test programs, in cyclone boilers at Union Electric (now Ameren), Basin Electric, and American
Electric Power, demonstrated that significant NOx reductions can be obtained through innovative
combustion based approaches. Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) modeling of cyclone boilers
indicated that much of the NOx was formed within the high temperature cyclone furnace. At the
500 MW Sioux Unit 2 of Union Electric, about 20-25% of the total air was injected as overfire
air in a temporary configuration installed to evaluate the concept. This resulted in a reduction in
NOx emissions of 60 % to levels of 0.55lb/MBtu (0.24g/MJ). The cost of these modifications was
less than $2/kW. A permanent installation is estimated to cost less than $5/kW. (Ref. 3-95) At
Basin Electrics Leland Olds Unit 2, staged combustion was used to demonstrate that NOx levels
could be maintained below 0.9lb/MBtu (0.39g/MJ). In this approach all of the cyclone burners
are operated fuel rich, with the final air required for burnout entering the boiler through the
waterwall. This approach was very low cost at this plant because of existing openings that could
be used for air injection. (Ref. 3-96)
American Electric Power Uses Water Spray to Reduce Cyclone Boiler NOx Emissions
American Electric Power, at its 500 MW Tanners Creek unit 4, introduced finely atomized water
in a stream that flows directly down the centerline of the cyclone barrel. A NOx reduction of 2530% to a level of 1.35lb/MBtu (0.58g/MJ) was obtained. The cost was less than $1/kW. There
was a 2% heat rate penalty but a NO2 reduction of over 50% eliminated a visible opacity problem
at the unit. (Ref. 3-97)
Wisconsin Power and Light Uses Coal Reburning to Reduce Cyclone Boiler NOx
Emissions
Wisconsin Power and Light demonstrated the use of coal reburning for reducing NOx by about
50% at the two 110 MW cyclone boilers at the Nelson Dewey Station which had been converted
to low sulfur, sub-bituminous coal use. About 15-25% of the heat input was added to the furnace
above the main combustion along with an amount of air that was less than that required for
complete combustion. When the flue gas from the cyclone burners, which is high in NOx, passed
through this fuel rich zone, the NOx was converted. Additional air was added higher in the
furnace to complete combustion. An additional benefit of this approach was that it was not
necessary to downrate the boiler, which is often the case when this coal is used to replace coals
with a higher Btu/lb energy density. (Ref. 3-98)
Nebraska Public Power Injects Anhydrous Ammonia In SNCR System
At the 105 MW Sheldon unit 1 cyclone boiler, Nebraska Public Power District (NPPD) chose to
reduce NOx using a unique lance design to inject anhydrous ammonia as the reagent in an SNCR
system. This reagent has a lower cost than the more common urea reagent (0.61 times for this
test), is non-corrosive, and produces less of the greenhouse gas N2O. Ammonia slip in the 14-day
3-137

Boilers
test averaged less than 5 ppm and no pluggage of the boiler or air heater was seen. The fuel was
low sulfur Powder River Basin coal. Average emissions of NOx were reduced from 0.882lb/Mbtu
to 0.47lb/Mbtu. (Ref. 3-99).
REFERENCES
3-1
Combustion Fossil Power Systems, Joseph G. Singer, Ed., Page 5-7, Published by Combustion
Engineering,Inc., Windsor, CT, 1981.
3-2
SOAPP Boiler Design Module, SOAPP ( State-Of-the-Art-Power Plant) workstation technology
modules, EPRI, CD-102225-R1, October 1994.
3- 3
Armor, A.F., Bakker, W.T., Holt, N.A.H., Viswanathan, R., Supercritical Fossil-Fired Plants:
Designs and Materials for the New Millennium, Power-Gen International Conference, Nov.30Dec.2, 1999, New Orleans, LA.
3-4
Cycling of Fossil Fueled Power Plants, EPRI Report GS-7219, Volume 6, September 1993.
3-5
National Electric Reliability Council (NERC) 1996-2000 Generation Availability Data System
GADS Report, July 2001, (Supplementary information provided by M. Curley)
3-6
Dooley, R.B. and Chang ,P., The Current State of Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants,
Proceedings: Third International Conference on Tube Failures in Fossil Plants. EPRI Report TR109938, April 1998.
3-7
Dooley, B. and McNaughton, W., Boiler Tube Failures: Theory and Practice. EPRI Report TR105261, 1996.
3-8
3-9
Ascolese, C.R., et al.,BETZ Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning, 9th Edition, 1991.
3-10
Circumferential Cracking on the Waterwalls of Supercritical Boilers. EPRI Report TR104442, September 1995.
3-138

Boilers
3-11
French, D. N., Carburization Corrosion in Superheaters and Reheaters, pages 8-35 to 8-46,
Third International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants. EPRI Report TR109938, April 1998.
3-12
Viswanathan, R., Damage Mechanisms and Life Assessment of High Temperature
Components, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1989.
3-13
Lamping, G. A. and Arrowood, R. M. Jr., Manual for Investigation and Correction of Boiler
Tube Failures, pages A7-A8, Volume 6. EPRI Final Report CS-3945, April 1985.
3-14
Dooley, B. and McNaughton, W., Maintenance Aspects of Boiler Tube Failures, pages 44-1 to
44-27, Proceedings: 1996 EPRI Fossil Plant Maintenance Conference. EPRI Report TR106753, July 1996.
3-15
Stephenson and Prince, J.W., Guidelines on Fossil Boiler Field Welding. EPRI Report
TR-101699, January 1993.
3-16
Acoustic Leak Detection for Boiler Tubes, Diagnostic Monitoring Products Guide-Volume 1.
EPRI Report AP-101840-V1, P13, December 1992.
3-17
Acoustic Monitoring Techniques and Applications in Power Plants, EPRI Technical Brief, TB113905, October 1999.
3-18
Tools for State-of-the-Art Thermography Programs, Diagnostic Monitoring Products GuideVolume 3. EPRI Report AP-101480-V3, P8, December 1995.
3-19
On-Line Metal Loss Monitoring by Surface Layer Activation, Diagnostic Monitoring Products
Guide-Volume 1. EPRI Report AP-101840-V1, P17, December 1992.
3-20
On-line Monitor Tracks Creep Fatigue Damage and Crack Growth in Fossil Plant Piping.
3-21
Timothy J. Yager, OPPDS Boiler Tube Failure Program; EPRI Boiler Tube Failures and
HRSG Failures and Inspection Conference, November 6-8, 2001
3-139

Boilers
3-22
Alan Beveridge, Attaining Reliability in a High Availability Station by Managing the Pressure
Parts Supply Chain, EPRI Boiler Tube Failures and HRSG and Inspection Conference,
November 6-8, 2001
3-23
John Begg, Ian Redpath, and Matshela Koko, ESKOMs Boiler Tube Failure Reduction
Program, EPRI Boiler Tube Failures and HRSG and Inspection Conference; Phoenix, AZ;
November 6-8, 2001
3-24
R.F. Small; A Review of NSW Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Program; EPRI Boiler Tube
Failures and HRSG and Inspection Conference; Phoenix, AZ; November 6-8, 2001
3-25
R. B. Peterson, E. L. Troutman, J. Alice, and J. Henry, Investigation of 347H SS Superheater
Tube Failures in a Supercritical Unit; EPRI Boiler Tube Failures and HRSG and Inspection
Conference, November 6-8; Phoenix, AZ; 2001
3-26
James M. Yagen, Boiler Automated Welding System, 2001 EPRI International Maintenance
Conference, August 16, 2001 Houston, TX
3-27
Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Program Improves PECOs Availability Over Five Percent in
Just Three Years. EPRI Innovators IN-100673, July 1992.
3-28
BTF Reduction Program Improves Availability of Gibson Station Three Percent in Just Three
Years. EPRI Innovators IN-100595, June 1992.
3-29
EPRI Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Program Helps KCPL Improve Availability. EPRI
3-30
Wine, R. D. and Lindberg, A., Corrosion Fatigue Boiler Tube Failure Field MechanismComEd Crawford and State Line Stations, pages 3-3 to 3-14, Proceedings: Third
International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants. EPRI Report TR-109938,
April 1998.
3-31
French, S. M., Failure Analysis of Four Ruptured Water Wall Tubes, pages 3-29 to 3-42,
Proceedings: Third International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants. EPRI
Report TR-109938, April 1998.
3-140

Boilers
3-32
Bonnington, A. J. and Cullen, T. M., Performance of Chromized Panels in Supercritical Units,
pages 6-3 to 6-18, Proceedings: Third International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil
Plants. EPRI Report TR-109938, April 1998.
3-33
Chang, P. S. and Stangarone, R. J., Lessons Learned from the Reheater Replacements TVA
Gallatin Fossil Plant Units 1 and 2 pages 27 to 1-12, Proceedings: 1996 EPRI Fossil Plant
Maintenance Conference. EPRI Report TR-106753, July 1996.
3-34
NYPAs Use of High Temperature Lenses for Infrared Thermography Leads to Reduced Tube
Metal Temperatures, EPRI Innovator, IN-111720, June 1999.
3-35
Interim Guidelines For Solving Ash Deposition In Utility Boilers, EPRI Report 1000645,
November 2000
3-36
Tools for On-Line Coal Quality Evaluation, EPRI Report AP-101840, March 1996
3-37
Targeted Slag Fighting Technology Successful at Utah Plant; Power Engineering; November
2001, Page 20
3-38
Paul Watson, Water Cannon Experience at Martin Lake Plant, VGB/EPRI Lignites and Low
Rank Coal Conference, May 17-18, 2001, Frankfurt/Wiesbaden, Germany
3-39
David Turner and John Sorge,; Sootblowing Advisor at Plant Hammond Unit 4; Fourth
Intelligent Sootblowing Workshop Proceedings, Houston, TX, March 19-21, 2002
3-40
Blanton Ray, Robert Hemperley, and Rory Courtney, W.A. Parish Units 7 and 8 ISB Project,
Fourth Intelligent Sootblowing Workshop Proceedings, Houston, TX, March 19-21, 2002
3-41
R. E. Kessler, Thermal Fatigue Cracking of Water Tubes from Water Lances and Water
Cannons, Fourth Intelligent Sootblowing Workshop Proceedings, Houston, TX, March 19-21,
2002
3-42
Rabon Johnson, Reliant W. A. Parish Five-Year ISB Plan, Fourth Intelligent Sootblowing
Workshop Proceedings, Houston, TX, March 19-21, 2002
3-141

Boilers
3-43
R. Thompson, A. Hickinbotham, T. Holden and S. Frostad, AMEC Inc Fouling Monitor and
Alarm Software; Fourth Intelligent Sootblowing Workshop Proceedings, Houston, TX, March
19-21, 2002
3-44
Morgan, B. C. and Tilley, R., Acoustic Emission Monitoring for Crack Growth in Headers,
pages 14 1-15, Proceedings: 1996 EPRI Fossil Plant Maintenance Conference. EPRI Report TR106753, July 1996.
3-45
Welding Research Heats Up, EPRI Journal, Spring 1999.
3-46
Utility Uses EPRI Software to Evaluate Ligament Cracking in a Superheater Outlet Header.
EPRI Innovators IN-100894, November 1994.
3-47
LCRA Demonstrates Advanced Material for Replacement Header. EPRI Innovators IN1000457, November 1992.
3-48
KCP&L Uses Creep-FatiguePro to Monitor Critical Plant Components. EPRI Innovators IN105292, October 1995.
3-49
APS Applies Guidelines to Prevent and Control Crack Growth in Economizers. EPRI
3-50
Damage of Fossil Plant Components Resulting from Cycling Duty, Materials & Components in
Fossil Energy Applications, DOE Newsletter Number 138, February 1, 1999.
3-51
Consolidated Edison Uses EPRI Technology and EPRI RRAC to Avoid Reheat Manifold
Replacement, EPRI Innovator, IN-111771, March, 1999.
3-52
Guidelines for the Evaluation of Seam-Welded High Energy Piping, EPRI Report TR-104361,
September 1996.
3-53
Acoustic Emission Monitoring of High Energy Steam Piping, EPRI Report TR-105625-V1,
November 1995.
3-54
SCE&G Uses EPRI Inspection and Materials Technology to Assist in the Evaluation and
Repair of a Main Steam Line, EPRI Innovators IN-100013, August 1991.
3-142

Boilers
3-55
SDG&E Increases Plant Safety by Using F91 Steel in Wye Fittings. EPRI Innovators IN103316, November 1994.
3-56
Flow Accelerated Corrosion of Power Plants. EPRI Report TR-106611-R1, July 1998.
3-57
Guidelines for Controlling FAC in Fossil Plants. EPRI Report TR-108859, November 1997.
3-58
R. Swanekamp, Concerns About Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Grow, Power, July/August 1999.
3-59
Assessment of the Pulsed Eddy Current Technique: Detecting Flow Accelerated Corrosion in
Feedwater Piping, EPRI Report TR 109146, December 1997
3-60
Assessment of Magnetorestrictive Sensor Techniques: Detecting Flow Accelerated Corrosion
in Feedwater Piping, EPRI Report TR 108449-R1, November 1997.
3-61
Peter S. Jackson, David. S. Moelling, and Frederick C. Anderson; Case Studies in Maintaining
Piping Reliability by Economical Predictive Methods for Inspection Planning; 2001 EPRI
International Maintenance Conference, August 16, 2001 Houston, TX
3-62
Dana Crawford, Bob Tally, Bruce Beckman, Gary Knoche and John Wilson, KCP&L Increases
Plant Capacity by Retrofitting New Control Valves, Power Engineering; October 2001, Page 4446
3-63
Retrofit NOx Control Guidelines for Coal and Gas/Oil Fired Boilers. EPRI Report TR-108181,
June 1997.
3-64
Improving Existing Fossil-Fired Power Plants. EPRI Report TR-109342, March 1998.
3-65
SCR Design and Operational Recommendations: R&D Lessons Learned. EPRI Report TR105103, January 1996.
3-66
SNCR Applications in the Utility Industry: Scale Up and Balance of Plant Issues. EPRI MI110742.
3-143

Boilers
3-67
Hybrid Post-combustion NOx Control, Feasibility and Recommendations. EPRI Report TR105693, July 1997.
3-68
Cyrus Taft and David Broske, Controlling SCR Emissions-Helping Operators Maximize NOx
Capture Without Effecting Plant Efficiency; EPRI Fossil Technology Center News, Spring
2002
3-69
Trimming NOx During the Ozone Season, Lehigh Energy Update, Vol. 16, No. 3, October,
1998.
3-70
Retrofit NOx Controls for Coal Fired Utility Boilers - 2000 Update (EPRI Report 100448)
3-71
Bindemann, K, Miller, d., Brown, R., Hayward, P. , PF Flow Meter Demonstration Trials on a
500 MWe Boiler, Proceedings EPRI/DOE/EPA Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium: The
Megasymposium, EPRI Report TR-113187, August 1999, Vol.2.
3-72
McElroy, M., Lucente, J., Facchiano, A., GasREACH: A Low-Cost burner Modification to
Reduce NOx Emissions on Gas-Fired Boilers. EPRI Workshop: NOx Controls for Utility
Boilers, Baltimore, MD, August 25-27, 1998.
3-73
Ken Barna, Orest Walchuk and John Grusha, Results and Operating Experience from the First
Installations of Foster Wheelers TLN system with Duke Powers LOFIR at the Allen and
Lee Steam Plants; EPRI-EPA-DOE 2001 Mega-Symposium, August 2001
3-74
Ron Pearce and John Grusha, Tangential Low NOx System at Reliant Energys Limestone Unit
2 Cuts Texas Lignite, PRB and Pet Coke NOx; EPRI-EPA-DOE 2001 Mega-Symposium,
August 2001
3-75
James Topper, Herb Blue, and Jim Pomaranski; Ed Rebula and Robert Lewis, Maximize PRB
Coal Usage in Conjunction with In-Furnace NOx Solutions to Minimize Cost of NOx
Compliance; EPRI-EPA-DOE 2001 Mega-Symposium, August 2001
3-76
Marc A Cremer, Rahul A. Shah, Bradley R. Adams, Philip M. Winegar, Robert Lane, and
Anthony Facchiano, Reduced Emissions via Overfire Air Modifications in New York Power
Authoritys Charles Poletti Station; EPRI-EPA-DOE 2001 Mega-Symposium, August 2001.
3-77
Computational Fluid Dynamics Modeling of New York Power Authoritys Charles Poletti
Boiler, EPRI Report 1000060, 2001.
3-144

Boilers
3-78
NOx and Particulate Emissions Control by Combustion System Upgrading. EPRI Innovators
IN-100121, October 1991.
3-79
Burner Retrofit Reduces Cost of NOx Emission Control. EPRI Innovators IN-100009, June
1991.
3-80
Combustion Optimization Controls at PEPCOs Potomac River Station. EPRI Innovators IN102957, December 1993.
3-81
IFGR Lowers NOx Control Costs for Entergy. EPRI Innovators IN-109347, March 1998.
3-82
Sorge, J.; Slatsky, M.; Noblett, J.; Warriner, G. and Stallings, J., Update on Generic NOx Control
Intelligent System (GNOCIS), Proceedings: 1998 Heat Rate Improvement Conference. EPRI
Report TR-111047, September 1997.
3-83
ULTRAMAX Optimization Methodology Leads to NOx Compliant Units with Added Heat Rate
and LOI Benefit, EPRI Innovators IN-104960, November 1995.
3-84
Melick, T.A. et al, Burner Modifications for Cost-Effective NOx Control, PowerGen 97,
Dallas, TX, December 9-11, 1997.
3-85
Breen, B.P. et al, Duquesne Light Cos Modifications for NOx Compliance on a 200 MW
Wall-Fired Pulverized Coal Unit, International Joint Power Generation Conference, Houston,
TX, October 14-16, 1996.
3-86
Proceedings EPRI/DOE/EPA Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium: The Megasymposium,
EPRI Report TR-113187, August 1999.
3-87
Roy D. Glaser, Anthony Licata and Thomas F. Robinson, The SCR Retrofit at the Montour
Steam Electric Station, EPRI-EPA-DOE 2001 Mega-Symposium, August 2001
3-88
Jake Shelton, and Gary Tillman, Acoustic Cleaners vs. Steam Sootblowers: The Birchwood
Power Facility Story; EPRI-EPA-DOE 2001 Mega-Symposium, August 20-23, 2001, Chicago,
IL
3-145

Boilers
3-89
Moon-Chul Boo, Soo-Hun Eoe, Woo-Chang Jang, Young-Dae Jo, Dong-Chuai Yang,
Jeong B. Park, Paul G Carmignani, and William H. Sun, First Installation of Selective NonCatalytic NOx Reduction Process on Utility Boilers in Korea, EPRI-EPA-DOE 2001 MegaSymposium, August 2001
3-90
David Killen, John M. Boyle and John H. Fuel Lean Gas Reburn and Urea-SNCR Applied to
a 198 MW Coal Fired Boiler, EPRI-EPA-DOE 2001 Mega-Symposium, August 20, 2001
3-91
Lauber, J. A.; Cohen, M. B. and Donais, R. E., The Control of Emissions at the Southern
Energy Company Birchwood Power Facility.
3-92
EPRI/ESEERCO Demonstration at LILCOs Port Jefferson Plant Refines NOx Economic
Options for New York Utilities with Oil Fired Boilers. EPRI Innovators IN -103049, December
1993.
3-93
J. D. Kersch, S. Laux, J. Grusha, and T. Rosin; On-line Coal Flow Measurement Technology
Benefits and Experience from Three Years of Operation; EPRI-EPA-DOE 2001 MegaSymposium, August 20-23, 2001, Chicago, IL
3-94
Frederick P. Haumesser, Richard E. Thompson, and Thomas A. Davey, Achieving Uniform
Combustion Using Burner Line Orifices to Balance Coal Flow Distribution; EPRI-EPA-DOE
2001 Mega-Symposium, August 20-23, 2001, Chicago, IL
3-95
Steam: Its Generation and Use, Babcock and Wilcox, New York, Page 10-1, 1978.
3-96
EPRI Fossil Plant News, Quarterly publication of the Generation Market Segment, pages 4-5,
Spring 1998.
3-97
Combustion Based Modification and Optimization Allow Substantial NOx Reduction on
Cyclone Boilers at Drastically Reduced Cost. EPRI Innovators IN-107206, March 1997.
3-98
Coal Reburning Reduces NOx for Cyclone Fired Boilers. EPRI Innovators IN-101515, January
1993.
3-99
Swoboda, D., and Largis, K., SNCR Lance Cuts NOx, Power Engineering, November 1998.
3-146

Boilers

Boiler Tube Failures
The ASME Handbook on Water Technology for Thermal Power Systems, ASME, 1989.
Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Power Plants Proceedings: 1987 BTF Conference, eds. Dooley,
Barry & Broske, Dave. EPRI Report CS-5500-SR, 1988.
Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical Guide, Volumes 1 & 2. EPRI Report TR-102433, 1993.
Nondestructive Inspection Systems for Boiler Tubes. EPRI Report CS-4742, 1986.
Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Program. EPRI Report GS-7454, 1991.
Boiler Tube Failures: Correction, Prevention and Control. EPRI Report GS-6467, 1989.
Proceedings: International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Power Plants. EPRI Report
TR-100493, April 1992.
Harth, G., Coal Ash Corrosion of Reheaters and Superheaters, pages 7-3 to 7-9, Proceedings:
Third International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants. EPRI Report TR109938, April 1998.
Burnett, T.; Lesiuk, J. and Kuntz, T., Root Cause Analysis for The Complete Analysis and
Correction of Boiler Tube Failures, pages 4-15 to 4-26, Proceedings: Third International
Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants. EPRI Report TR-109938, April 1998.
Steam Drums and Headers
Ellis, F.V.; Henry, J.F.; Roberts, B. W.; Askins, M.C.; Shammas, M. S. and Crane, B.J.,
Remaining Life Assessment of Boiler Pressure Parts. EPRI Final Report, Cycling of FossilFueled Power Plants, Volume 6. EPRI Report GS 7219, September 1993. CS-5588 Volume 1
November 1988 referenced on Page 6-9.
Viswanathan, R., Life Assessment of Boiler Pressure Parts: Volume 6, Guidelines for NDE of
Heavy Section Components. EPRI Report TR-103377-V6, 1993..
Viswanathan, R. et al, State-of the-Art Weld Repair Technology for High Temperature and
Pressure Parts. EPRI Report TR-103592-Vl, 2, 3 1996.
Monitoring and Diagnostics
Schlader, D.; Stevens, D.; Nakoneczny, G. and Tilley, R., Field Experience and Performance
Summary Using the EPRI EMAT-Based Gauging System for Boiler Tubing, pages 12 1-11,
3-147

Boilers
Proceedings: 1996 EPRI Fossil Plant Maintenance Conference. EPRI Report TR-106753, July
1996.
Sootblowing
Baldridge, D.; Bangham, M.; Gratcheva, K.; Katsigiannakis, G.; Abeledo, H.; Mazzuchi, T.;
Vasquez, P.; Stevenson, T. and Sturzebecher, K., An Intelligent Controller for Optimized
Sootblowing, pages 27 1-10, Proceedings: 1996 Heat Rate Improvement Conference. EPRI
Report TR-106529, May 1996.
Nasl, J. R.; Desjardins, R. R. and Deaver, R., Expert System Support of a Heat Transfer Model
to Optimize Soot Blowing-A Case Study at Delmarvas Edge Moor Unit #5, pages 23 1-17,
Proceedings: 1996 Heat Rate Improvement Conference. EPRI Report TR-106529, May 1996.
Walther, J. M. and Whitehead, B. K., Maintenance Strategies to Improve Sootblower
Availability, pages 46 1-15, Proceedings: 1996 EPRI Fossil Plant Maintenance Conference.
EPRI Report TR-106753, July 1996.
NOx Reduction
GNOCIS-The Generic NOx Control Intelligent System for Optimizing Combustion
Performance and NOx Emissions. EPRI TB-108370, July 1997.
State-of-the-Art Assessment of SNCR Technology. EPRI Report TR-102414, September 1993.
Shore, E., et al, Urea SNCR Demonstration at Long Island Lighting Companys Port Jefferson
Station Unit 3, EPRI/EPA Joint Symposium on Stationary Combustion NOx Control, Miami, FL,
May 24-27, 1993.
Application of Boiler Performance Improvement Tools to Control NOx, Proceedings of the
1992 EPRI Heat Rate Improvement Conference. EPRI Report TR-102098, March 1993.
Ultramax Sequential Optimization Software Field Validation Studies, EPRI AFPS
Developments, Issue 11, Summer 1992.
Kerho, S. E.; Giovanni, D. V.; Eskinazi, D. and Yee, J. L. B., Reduced NOx, Particulate, and
Opacity on the Kahe Unit 6 Low NOx Burner System, Presented at the 1991 Joint Symposium
on Stationary Combustion NOx Control, Washington, D.C., March 1991.
Eskinazi, D., et al, Operating Experiences with a Retrofit Low NOx System for Tangentially
Fired Boilers, Presented at the Gen Upgrade Conference, Washington, D.C., March 1990.
Thompson, R. E.; Davey, T. A. and Hickinbotham, A., How to Use Combustion Diagnostics to
Tune a Boiler, page 153, Powergen 97 Abstracts, December 9-11, 1997, Dallas, TX.
3-148

Boilers
Mercury Emission Control

Pilot-Scale Screening Evaluation of the Impact of Selective Catalytic Reduction for NOx on
Mercury Speciation, Report 1000755, December 2000
Assessing Sorbents for Mercury Control in Coal Combustion Flue Gas, to be presented at the
EPA-DOE-EPRI Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium: The Mega
Symposium, and the affiliated A&WMA Specialty Conference on Mercury Emissions: Fate,
Effects, and Control, August 20-23, 2001.
Effect of NOx Control Processes on Mercury Speciation in Utility Flue Gas, EPRI-EPA-DOE
2001 Mega-Symposium, August 2001
Cyclone Boilers
Stuckmeyer and Boyle, Optimization of a Cyclone Boiler for NOx Control,Proceedings; 1996
EPRI Workshop on NOx Controls for Utility Boilers. ERPI Report TR-107269, November 1996.
Stuckmeyer, Adams, Heap, and Smith, Computer Modeling of a Cyclone Barrel, 1996 EPRI
Workshop on NOx Controls for Utility Boilers. ERPI Report TR-107269, November 1996.
Melland and Heap, NOx Reduction Using Combustion Modification Techniques in a Lignite
Cyclone Boiler, 1996 EPRI Workshop on NOx Controls for Utility Boilers. ERPI Report TR107269, November 1996.
1991 Symposium on Stationary Combustion Nitrogen Oxide Control. EPRI Report GS-7447,
Volumes 1-2, November 1991.
Technical Feasibility and Cost of Selective Catalytic Reduction for NOx Control. EPRI Report
GS-7266, May 1991.
1989 Symposium on Stationary Combustion Nitrogen Oxide Control. EPRI Report GS-6423,
Volumes 1-2, July 1989.
Weld Repair
Smith, C. V., Supplemental Report on the Elevated Temperature Properties of ChromiumMolybdenum Steels, ASTM Data Series Publication DS6S2, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1971.
Hart, R. V., Assessment of Remaining Creep Life Using Accelerated Stress-Rupture Tests,
page 1-7, Metals Technology, Vol. 13, 1976.
Stubbe, J. and van Melsent, C., Symposium on Residual Life of Constructions Operating at
Elevated Temperatures, Den Haag, The Netherlands Inst. Of Welding, 1977., pages 71140.
3-149

Boilers
Viswanathan, R. and Gehl, S.M., Effect of Aging on the Creep Rupture Behavior of Steels,
pages 3541, First International Conference on Microstructures and Mechanical Properties
of Aging Materials, P.K. Liaw et al., eds., TMS Warrendale, PA, 1992.
Beech, S.M.; Gooch, D. J., and Strang, A., Remanent Life Assessment of 1 CrMoV HP and IP
Steam Turbine Rotors, Materials Engineering of Turbines and Compressors, pages 277292,
Proc. of The Third international Charles Parsons Turbine Conference, R. D. Conroy; M. J.
Goulette and A. Strang, eds., The Inst. of Materials, London, 1995.
Melton, K.N, The Isostress Extrapolation of Creep Rupture Data, Mater. Sci. and Engg.,
pages143149, Vol. 59, 1983.
Neary, C.M., Utility Guidelines For Controlled Deposition Repair Welding, pages137145,
PVRC/EWI Weld Repair Technology Workshop, January 31-February 1, 1996.
Gandy, D.W.; Viswanathan, R. and Findlan, S. J., Performance of Weld Repairs on ServiceAged 2-1 / 4Cr-lMo Girth Weldments Utilizing Conventional Postweld Heat Treatment and
Temperbead Repair Techniques, pages 4359, Welding Research Council Bulletin, 412, June
1996.
Gandy, D.W.; Findlan, S.J. and Viswanathan, R., A Comparison of Conventional Postweld Heat
Treatment and Temperbead Weld Repair Techniques for Service Aged 2-1/ 4Cr-lMo Girth
Weldments, Proceedings: Welding and Repair Technology for Power Plants Conference,
Daytona Beach, FL, May 21-24,1996. EPRI Report TR-107719.
Viswanathan, R.; Gandy, D.W. and McErnaney, J.F., Weld Repair of Aged Piping - A
Literature Review, ASME Journal Of Pressure Vessel Technology 1977.
3-150
4
STEAM TURBINES
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Typical Configurations
The steam turbine that converts the heat energy in the boiler to shaft power and turns the
electrical generator, can be over 200 feet long and weigh more than five million pounds. The
largest units that have been built to date have rated capacities up to 1200 MW. Steam can enter
the turbine at pressures up to 4500 psia (310 bar) and temperatures above 1000F (538C). It
typically leaves at a pressure of less than 2 psia and a temperature of 100F (38C).
Large units typically contain several cylinders that can be arranged in cross compound or tandem
compound configurations. In the cross compound arrangement, the high and intermediate
pressure turbines are on one shaft and the low-pressure turbine or turbines on another. The lowpressure turbines can be set up with either single or double flow arrangements. In the latter case
the steam enters the turbine at the center of the casing and flows toward the turbine ends through
a pair of opposed turbines. In this arrangement the higher-pressure blading is nearer the turbine
center and the low-pressure blading at the ends. In single flow units, the steam passes from the
higher-pressure inlet to a single lower pressure outlet. Tandem compound units have all the
turbines on a single shaft that runs through the cylindrical casings. (Figure 4-1)
4-1

Steam Turbines
Photo Courtesy M.A.N.
Figure 4-1
A 220 MW Double Reheat Supercritical Turbine
Exposed in this turbine are the HP and IP turbine rotors installed in the inner and outer lower half
casings. Steam lines and associated valving are being assembled alongside.
A large steam turbine (Figure 4-2) has the following basic elements:
Valves - Stop, Control and Emergency
Rotor - Carries the turbine blades and transmits the torque to the generator
Nozzles - Stationary blade rows that accelerate the steam and are attached within the turbine
cylinder
Stationary elements - Cylinder and casing
Frame - Base to support the cylinder and rotor
4-2

Steam Turbines
Courtesy GE
(Ref. 4-2)
Figure 4-2
Single Reheat Steam Turbine With Single Flow LP
This condensing steam turbine, with single reheat, has a single flow low pressure turbine and
downward exhaust to the condenser. Depending on the rating, the turbine can have several
configurations of casings. This model has HP and integral IP/LP sections.
Design Approaches
Competition by steam turbine suppliers is based largely on performance and reliability and
vendors continually seek incremental improvements in components of their turbines. These
benefits can be quantified for generation companies in terms of the reliability and cost of
generating a MWh.
There are two different design approaches adopted by major steam turbine vendors for their
machines, which are referred to as the impulse and reaction designs. Machines based on impulse
steam path designs have been supplied by (in their original company names) GE, M.A.N.,
Toshiba, Hitachi, Alstom, LMZ, TMZ, and Skoda. Westinghouse, ABB, Siemens, KWU,
Parsons, and Mitsubishi have supplied machines based on reaction steam path designs.
Illustrations of the blading that differentiates these two types are shown in Figure 4-3. The
turbine stages used in modern utility steam turbines have short blade heights with hub to tip ratio
of less than 0.9. Impulse and reaction designs differ by the amount of pressure drop and
therefore, the expansion that occurs across the stationary and rotating blades. Design for either
type calls for axial exit velocity to minimize flow losses. In a pure impulse stage, the entire
pressure drop occurs across the stationary row. Among other differences between the two design
4-3

Steam Turbines
approaches are that reaction path machines have blades which are mounted at the shaft surface
and more stages. (Ref. 4-3)
Courtesy PennWell Publishing
Figure 4-3
Comparison of a) Impulse and b) Reaction Stages
The curves in the lower part of the figure illustrate the pressure drop distribution that occurs
across impulse and reaction stages. Impulse stages take virtually all the pressure drop over the
stationary stage while reaction stages typically split the pressure drop across stationary and
rotating elements. (Ref. 4-3)
Impulse Turbines
Impulse stages have higher velocities leaving the stationary row and lower velocities in the
rotating row, compared to a reaction stage. Since there is a small pressure drop across the
rotating row of an impulse stage, there is little change in steam velocity. Therefore the velocities
at the rotating blade inlet and exit are about equal. Impulse-type turbine stages are generally used
for the first HP (control) stage to allow partial arc admission control. (Figure 4-4) The remaining
HP stages are then either impulse type or reaction type depending on the manufacturer. Types of
leakage that are experienced with both impulse and reaction stages are bucket tip leakage, bucket
root leakage and diaphragm packing leakage. For the impulse type there is an additional bucket
dovetail hole flow. (Ref. 4-1)
4-4

Steam Turbines
Photo Courtesy Alstom
Figure 4-4
600 MW Control Stage
The control stage in a steam turbine is designed to withstand intermittent loading as the blades
enter and leave the arc of admission. In addition, this heavily loaded stage in the creep regime is
subject to potential stress concentration sites, if the blades are dovetailed to the rotor. A welded
control stage is a possible alternate.
Since an impulse stage has a higher pressure drop than a reaction stage, practically all of which
occurs across the stationary row, the stationary rows are mounted in diaphragms with deep seals
that minimize the leakage flow area. In general these diaphragms carry a greater number of seal
teeth than do the stationary rows of a reaction stage.
Reaction Turbines
Reaction stages are designed to divide the pressure drop between the nozzle and blade rows. In a
50% reaction stage, half the pressure drop is across the nozzle row and half is across the rotating
blade row. Such a stage has symmetrical blading. Stationary and rotating blades have the same
configuration, inlet and exit angles and velocity levels.
Low Pressure Blading
The arrangement of the disks and blades on a typical 2-flow low-pressure shaft is shown in
Figure 4-5. Steam enters between the two sets of blades and expands as it flows outwardly to the
exit. The blading increases in length as the steam pressure decreases and its velocity increases.
Normally the shaft is constructed from a single forging and the disks that hold the blades are
shrunk fit onto the shaft. Keyways, cut into the shaft, prevent rotation of the disks. Occasionally
the shafts and disks are from one monobloc forging.
4-5

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-5
Low Pressure Turbine and Disk Attachments
A low-pressure turbine has long blading to extract energy from the rapidly exhausting steam flow.
The blades in the last row can be as long as three meters and are carefully designed to handle the
three-dimensional steam flow patterns. Vibration problems in the last rows can occur. Further,
corrosion products can affect blades, blade attachments and disks.
Materials of Construction for Rotors and Disks

Because of the severe temperatures and stresses that exist throughout the turbine, special alloys
have been developed that can provide satisfactory service for the individual components. These
are listed in Table 4-1. Materials are carefully chosen to mitigate any long-term problems. For
example, in the HP and IP rotors, where high temperatures can lead to creep concerns, strong
CrMoV materials are needed. For LP turbines, long-term operation can lead to temper
embrittlement, so special NiCrMoV steels have been found necessary.
4-6

Steam Turbines
Table 4-1
Typical Materials Used For Steam Turbine Rotors and Disks
Component
LP Rotor and Disk
Steam Temperature
< 650F (345C )
Material
LP/IP/HP Rotor
Rotor and Disk
1050F (565C)
CrMoV
NiCrMoV*
HP Rotor and Disk
1100F (595C)
CrMoV
CrMoWV
NiMoV
NiCrMoV*
HP Rotor and Disk

(Figure 4-6)
1100F (595C)
12CrMoV
12CrMoVW
HP Rotor and Disk
> 1150F (620C)
Advanced Alloy
NiMoV
NiCrMoV*
* Material free from temper embrittlement. (Ref. 4-7)
Photo Courtesy Toshiba
Figure 4-6
Turbine for a Modern 700 MW Supercritical Plant
Units with high steam temperatures and pressures require strong materials in the boiler and
turbine, including 9-12% chrome steels for headers, steam lines, rotor forgings, casings, and
valves. More than 150 supercritical units operate in the United States.
4-7

Steam Turbines
Materials for Ultrasupercritical Turbines
Turbine Forgings
Steam temperatures and pressures are again on the rise as the world seeks efficiency
improvements from ultrasupercritical (supercriticals operating with steam temperatures above
about 1100F) machines. To date it is reasonable to view 1100F (593C) as a steam temperature
for which ferritic steels for high pressure turbines are well established. It is likely that 1150F
(620C) will be possible with ferritic steels in the near future (Figures 4-7, 4-8), and perhaps even
1200F (650C) with the addition of tungsten as an alloying element (Ref. 4-5 , 4-6). Other
options for HP/IP turbine rotor steels are listed in Ref. 4-7 for supercritical units operating at
565C (1050F), 593C (1100F), 620C (1150F), and 650C (1200F). Additional long-term creep
data may be necessary for these advanced steels.
For LP turbines, cross-over temperatures from HP and IP elements are possible now up to 800F
(427C) with the use of superclean steels with lower levels of sulfur and other elements such as
As, P, Sb, Sn, Mn, and Si. Following the development of such super-clean steels, that possess
improved toughness, creep strength, and ductility, the issue of temper embrittlement has
essentially disappeared for new low pressure rotors in supercritical units (Ref. 4-7). Units with
superclean, low-pressure turbine forgings were installed first in the Chubu Electric Kawagoe
units in 1989.
Figure 4-7
Materials for Turbine Forgings
A European assessment of the status of forgings for high temperature steam turbines focuses on
a 100,000 hour creep-rupture strength at 100 MPa. From this chart we see the traditional 1CrMoV
is good to 550C and an advanced 12Cr material to 600C. Even stronger materials are under
development.
4-8

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-8
A New Rotor Steel Envisioned
Developments in Japan for ultrasupercritical HP/IP turbine rotors envisage a new rotor steel
(candidate A) that offers adequate strength at 630C. This material includes 2.61% tungsten to
suppress any reduction in strength due to long exposure at higher temperatures.
Beyond 1200F
Beyond 1200F (650C) it is anticipated that super-alloys could replace the traditional ferritic
steels for HP and IP rotors. Nickel-based super-alloys may not only be required for turbine
forgings, but also for superheater tubes, boiler outlet headers, steam piping, valve bodies, and
turbine casings. Because of the increased thermal expansion coefficients of these materials over
ferritic steels, forging and casting thermal stresses become an important issue in start-ups and
load cycling, and rotor axial expansions require new design approaches. For this reason it is felt
that such turbine designs might be more suitable for baseload duty where thermal stress-caused
fatigue damage is limited, rather than for on-off or load-change operation.
Baseload operation implies that such ultrasupercriticals would likely be of a large unit size (say
800 MW and up) to take advantage of the economies of scale. The larger units might lack some
appeal though in a generation business operating in electricity markets that are increasingly
volatile, and that often seek the fast loading of power blocks to accommodate demand surges.
For this reason there are major design and development needs for units that will deploy austenitic
steels or nickel-based super-alloys at temperatures of 1200F (650C) and up. In fact temperatures
of 700C (1300F) and beyond are now being studied by research groups in the U.S., Europe, and
Japan, so it is clear that new turbine design approaches to accommodate these higher steam
temperatures and pressures will be needed.
4-9

Steam Turbines
Casting Steels
The adoption of 91-grade steel, the U.S.designed, 9- chrome steel, was a major advancement
for turbine valves, turbine casings, boiler headers, and steam lines, and is deployed in turbines of
the 1990s (Ref. 4-8). The T-91 casting steel is seen to offer (Figure 4-10) about a 40C creeprupture strength improvement (measured at the 100 MPa level for 100,000 hours) over the 22 Cr
casting steel then used in Europe. This suggests that T91 is adequate for 1100F (594C) turbines.
In the last 10 years the search has been on for even stronger ferritic steels Figure 4-11, and
alloying modifications, including tungsten additives, have led to the formulation of P92 or P122
(Ref. 4-9). These materials are now being tested in operating supercritical plants, and appear to
be suitable up to 1200F (650C).
Figure 4-9
Stress Rupture Curves for Alloys
Stress rupture curves for steam turbine blade alloys. In the early EPRI studies the selected
materials were M252, a gas turbine material, and Refractaloy 26, used for more than 30 years in
steam turbines.
Turbine Blades
Materials for turbine blades (Figure 4-9) appear to be available for temperatures beyond 1300F
based on nickel-based superalloys, used for many years in gas and steam turbines.
4-10

Steam Turbines
Overall Materials Summary

In summary, ferritic and martensitic materials for turbine forgings, for valve bodies, and for
turbine casings can be routinely used for designs up to 1100F (593C), offering adequate creep
strength in both forged and cast components. Beyond this, improved ferritic steels could be used
for turbine and boiler designs up to around 1200F (650C).
The real opportunities though, for major leaps in power plant efficiencies using supercritical
steam, occur at temperature levels of 1300F (704C) and above. It appears that two opportunities
(from the turbine viewpoint) exist to capitalize on the thermodynamics of these high steam
conditions. One is to make the change to nickel-based superalloys for turbine forgings and other
heavy wall boiler and turbine components. The other is to employ elaborate steam cooling
systems to hold down steam temperatures close to forgings and other turbine components, while
permitting the mass of the high temperature steam to pass through the turbine. This could greatly
extend the use of ferritic steels for HP and IP turbines.
Figure 4-10
Creep Rupture Strength of High Temperature Casting Materials, 1993 Assessment
In 1993, an assessment by Siemens Power Corp. of the creep-rupture strength of high
temperature casting materials for turbine casings and valve bodies, shows that conventional
casting alloys had been superseded by the advanced 9-chrome material T91. (Ref. 4-8)
4-11

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-11
Strong Ferritic Steels
Creep rupture strength of the ferritic steels such as P91 have been surpassed recently by
tungsten-modified steels such as NF616 and NF12 (HCM12A), (P92 and P122).
Cooling Schemes for Supercritical Turbines

In the early supercritical designs, such as the Philo 6 unit of Ohio Edison Co., even though the
turbine components were small for this 125 MW machine, rotor cooling was required (Ref.4-10).
Figure 4-12
Early Turbine Cooling Scheme
An early turbine cooling scheme for a 700 MW turbine was used for steam as low as 1000F.
4-12

Steam Turbines
Steam conditions were 31 Mpa, 622C/566C/538C (4500 psi, 1150F/1050F/1000F), at the time a
significant extrapolation for the HP rotor material. Cooling steam was taken from the main steam
lines, desuperheated and fed into the HP turbine through the flanges of the main steam inlets.
The cooling steam then flowed around the stationary and rotating parts to reduce the material
temperatures. For larger units, with increased stresses, such as the double-flow, reheat section
shown in Figure 4-12, cooling was needed even though the inlet steam was only at 538C
(1000F). Rotor materials at the time did not permit operation without cooling (Figure 4-13),
however better material designs alleviated this concern for later machines. Now, as higher steam
temperatures are planned, it is time to revisit the question of optimum rotor cooling.
Figure 4-13
Limits on Ferritic Steels1993
This assessment by Siemens made in 1993 illustrates the (then) limits on existing ferritic steels
used for HP and IP forgings, and on castings for valve bodies and casings. At 1100F (593C) the
limit was reached with 12% chrome forgings, without the use of rotor cooling. (Ref. 4-8)
Extending the use of ferritic materials for steam turbine forgings to handle temperatures in
excess of 1100F is desirable, since it avoids the issues relative to material expansion and thermal
stresses that accompany the use of austenitic materials. So it is appropriate to again review the
options opened up by turbine rotor cooling schemes.
A promising approach for example uses a relatively high cold reheat flow (Figure 4-14) for
maximum cooling effectiveness, with the expectation that the thermodynamic loss will be
4-13

Steam Turbines
minimized by extracting useful work from the large cooling flow (Ref. 4-11). Several other
cooling approaches are possible.
Such new cooling systems require long-term evaluation of the impact on turbine blades,
including transient and steady-state tests, and the evaluation of creep and fatigue performance
under the modified thermal conditions. Early EPRI studies suggested that 5-10 years of
development effort might be involved.
Figure 4-14
Cooling Schemes
Cooling schemes, such as this for high pressure and hot reheat turbines, using cold reheat
steam, permit rotor ferritic steels, and turbine blade steels to operate with adequate
strength margins at higher temperatures. Depending on the operating main and reheat
steam temperatures, turbine cooling could avoid the use of austenitic steels, or of nickelbased superalloys.
Worldwide Designs for Supercritical Turbines

The greatest concentration of installed supercritical units is in the countries of the former USSR
where 232 units are in operation providing about 40% of all electric power needs. These units
are designed at specific sizes of 300MW, 500MW, 800MW, 1200MW, and have steam conditions typically 24 MPa/565C/565C. The former USSR has also manufactured 18 supercritical
4-14

Steam Turbines
units of 300 and 500 MW output, with shaft speeds of 3000 rpm, for China and Cuba. A typical
Russian 800 MW supercritical steam turbine flow diagram is shown in Figure 4-15. Technology
for Russian machines, for more than 70 years, evolved largely independently from the rest of the
developed world. For that reason the design of Russian equipment offers some intriguing
possibilities for plant improvements (Ref. 4-12). Boiler modifications for the combustion of lowrank and high- ash coals, turbine designs with unusual back-end configurations, district heating
applications of supercriticals, and water chemistry approaches using oxygenated treatments were
all reviewed in the U.S., after EPRI staff were invited to visit the power industry of the (then)
USSR in 1989.
Russian Designs
Russian supercritical designs include features that are unusual and sometimes unique when
compared with others worldwide. These include:
Titanium blades for the last stages of 1200 MW LP rotors
Direct contact feedwater heaters to improve heat rate (Figure 4-16)
Baumann exhausts with divided LP steam flow to improve efficiency (Figure 4-18 a,b,c)
HP and IP cylinder flanges with heating devices to minimize start-up times
Side-by-side condensers to lower steam velocity and increase condenser pressure (Figure 419)
Supercritical units adapted for co-generation of steam for greater plant utilization
There is a single tandem-compound 1200 MW supercritical unit operating at Kostroma with

titanium last stage blades. In the U.S. most operating supercritical units above 960 MW are of
cross-compound configuration, though designs exist for turbines with single shaft up to 1200
MW. The largest operating units in the U.S. are 1300 MW cross-compound, with condenser back
pressure of 2 in Hg and a main steam flow of 9,000,000 lb/hr. Both shafts run at 3600 rpm and
the last stage blades are 30 in. compared with 47.2 in. in comparable Russian machines operating
at 3000 rpm. The last stage blades in Russia are titanium shrouded, compared to the free
standing U.S. blades that require no damping wires or shrouds.
4-15

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-15
Cycle Diagram, Standard Russian Supercritical Turbine
Cycle diagram for a standard Russian 800 MW supercritical turbine shows double flow HP and IP
elements and three double flow LP elements. Russian supercriticals are designed at unit sizes
from 300 MW to 1200 MW.
Direct Contact Heaters

Field tests in Russia have shown that most closed LP heaters operate with air content in the
steam side, particularly at partial turbine load. This is undesirable since the presence of air in the
extraction steam worsens heat transfer. In fact, with as little as 0.4% relative air content in the
steam, heat transfer practically ceases. The large tube surface areas in closed LP heaters can also
be major sources of impurities in the feedwater train.
So to improve plant reliability and minimize shut down for heater repair many 300 MW
supercritical plants were equipped with direct contact (DC) heaters. There are more that 30 such
plants in operation now.
4-16

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-16
Direct Contact (DC) Horizontal Feedwater Heaters Deployed in Russian Supercritical
Plants
Direct contact (DC), horizontal feedwater heaters deployed in Russian 300 MW supercritical
plants. These heaters are said to reduce heat rate 5% (55 Btu/kWh), reduce corrosion in turbine
4-17

Steam Turbines
steam flow sections, reduce dissolved oxygen, and reduce cost. Units at the 800 MW size are
designed with vertical DC heaters and no deaerator, reducing costs and improving performance.
In this system most condensate from the hotwell is pumped through the polisher (some goes to
the turbine cooling spray system) and then flows to the lowest pressure DC heater. It then flows
by gravity to the next DC heater and passes to the condensate booster pump. To prevent
condensate induction into the turbine, a quick-acting isolation valve is installed on the extraction
steam line of each DC heater. From the DC heaters, the condensate is pumped to the closed LP
heaters and the deaerator. Drains are cascaded from the closed LP heaters to the penultimate DC
heater and then pumped forward. Any air-vapor mixture is cascaded from the closed HP heaters
through the DC heaters to the condenser.
Field experience with the 300 MW supercriticals equipped with two DC heaters show the
following advantages over the closed LP heater approach:
Increased efficiency of 0.5% or 55 Btu/kWh heat rate reduction.
Three times less corrosion deposition in the turbine steam flow sections
Less dissolved oxygen (always less than 5 ppb)
Better operation of the closed heaters with less extracted steam needs
Increase in condensate temperature after the DC heaters of 10-20C
These advantages have led to deployment of DC heaters in an 800 MW supercritical unit that
reduces costs and simplifies equipment layout in the turbine building. This system is shown
schematically in Figure 4-17.
4-18

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-17
Layout of Direct Contact Heaters
Layout of direct contact heaters installed in a Russian 800 MW supercritical turbine system . The
DC heaters improve heat rate, increase condensate temperature, and reduce corrosion transport.
Baumann Exhaust Schemes

Baumann exhaust schemes for the LP turbine, sometimes called double-tier flow paths, seek to
maximize the output from the long last-stage blades, that typically contribute a significant
percentage of the overall turbine power. A Baumann exhaust scheme for a Russian 500 MW
supercritical unit is said to raise the turbine output by about 10% (Ref. 4-12).
The basic approach is to take maximum advantage of the flow leaving the L-1 blades by
providing two split flows that enhance both exhaust area and thermodynamic performance of the
last two blade rows. The L-0 stage is not the longest in this scheme. With a Baumann exhaust,
steam flow is divided before the L-1 stage. A portion of the flow passes through the lower part of
the L-1 stage to the L-0 stage, and the remainder is expanded in the upper part of the L-1 stage
and exhausted to the condenser. Approximately the same amount of energy is contained in the
two streams.
This scheme for a 200 MW size unit works well by increasing exhaust area without increasing L0 blade length, though a modification for a 500 MW supercritical was necessary to optimize the
4-19

Steam Turbines
aerodynamics of the last two blade rows. For a 1200 MW supercritical unit, a further
modification redirects part of the hub section L-1 flow backwards through the top half of the L-1
blades, greatly reducing turbine axial forces and stresses and permitting longer L-1 and L-0
blades.
Figure 4-18a
Baumann Design of Turbine Exhaust
The Baumann design of a turbine exhaust increases the exhaust area without increasing last
stage blade length. The steam flow is divided before the L-1 stage. The approach shown here is
for a 200 MW turbine.
4-20

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-18b
Baumann Exhaust, Modified Version
For a 500 MW turbine, a modified version of the Baumann exhaust is said to raise turbine output
10%. The L-2 and L-3 stages are also divided into two flow streams.
Figure 4-18c
Modification to the Flow Exiting the Lower L-1 Stage
4-21

Steam Turbines
For the 1200 MW supercriticals, a modification to the flow exiting the lower L-1 stage redirects
flow, using turning vanes, backwards through the upper half of the blades. This reduces the axial
force on the turbine while still achieving full aerodynamic performance.
Side-by-Side Condensers
Improvement in heat transfer in condensers provides an opportunity to increase power output of
large supercritical units. However with typical foundations and turbine dimensions, it becomes
difficult to provide adequate cooling surface in the condensers. In fact with tube bundles parallel
with the turbine rotor, the bundle height can be so great that it causes undue aeration and subcooling in the condenser along with excessive steam velocities and pressure drops. Trying to
cram the tube bundles perpendicular to the rotor instead, often leads to non-uniform steam
distribution.
One promising way to avoid the limitation in available condenser space is the side-by-side
condenser arrangement. With this approach the hood opening areas almost double and the heat
transfer surface can be arranged without any space limitations. Such condenser installations have
reduced heat rates by approximately 75 Btu/kWh.
In general great attention is paid to improving the equipment layout in the Russian turbine
buildings. It is recognized that locating the LP heaters in the condenser neck causes high pressure
losses and worsens heat rate. In Russia, the LP heaters are installed elsewhere in all supercritical
power plants. Even without the LP heaters, the loss in steam pressure between turbine flange and
condenser tube bundle is more that 0.1in Hg.
Figure 4-19
Use of Side-by-Side Condensers in Russian Supercritical Machines
Russian designs for supercritical, high efficiency machines often use side-by-side condensers to
increase the condenser volume. Steam from the LP cylinder is exhausted to the condensers on
4-22

Steam Turbines
both sides through two rectangular exhaust necks. This permits 20% more cooling surface and up
to 75 Btu/kWh heat rate recovery.
Designs in Japan
In Japan there are more than 60 supercritical plants in operation. Twenty- five are coal fired with
another nine due to start up in the next two years. Until the early 1990s these plants had steam
conditions of 24.6 MPa/538C/566C (3500 psi/960F/1000F) but, starting in 1993, the steam
temperatures of the newer plants have climbed to the ultrasupercritical range, approaching 600C
(1100F). The more recent of the largescale, coal-fired supercritical plants to come on line and
those planned for commissioning in the next two years are shown in Tables 4-2 and 4-3
respectively. It is notable that new USC plants, such as Tachibana, will use advanced ferritic
steels NF616 (P92) and HCM 12A (P122).
Japan, with few natural resources, depends on efficient fossil generation plants burning coal,
LNG, and heavy oil (as well as nuclear). Efficiency has always been a key issue, both for
resource use minimization as well as environmental control. The Japanese supercriticals have
adopted the best in European and U.S. technologies for their plants including the European
spiral-wound boiler and the U.S. partial arc admission turbine. Japanese steel- making is among
the best in the world and the original EPRI advanced plant studies involved the leading Japanese
steel makers. The first superclean low pressure turbine steels (an EPRI innovation to avoid
temper embrittlement) were first deployed in units at the Chubu Kawagoe station. Material
advances for ferritic steels beyond P91 have been stimulated by new Japanese formulations using
tungsten as an alloying element (P122 for example).
It is noticeable in this table of new supercritical plants that the units are of large size, sometimes
a deterrent to cycling operation because of the thermal stresses involved. Yet careful adaptation
of automated start-up systems and the use of turbine by-pass systems have essentially solved
start-up and cycling problems. The next generation, however, with the likely use of austenitic
steels or of nickel-based superalloys will present new design challenges.
Table 4-2
Recent coal-fired ultrasupercritical units in Japan. Several other supercriticals are oil or
LNG-fired.
Power Plant
Company
Output
MW
Hekinann #3
Noshiro #2
Nanao-Ohta #1
Reihoku #1
Haramachi #1
Maatsuura #2
Misumi #1
Haramachi #2
Nanoa-Ohta #2
Chubu
Tohoku
Hokuriku
Kyushu
Tohoku
EPDC
Chugoku
Tohoku
Hokuriku
700
600
500
700
1000
1000
1000
1000
700
Steam Conditions
MPa/ C/ C
24.6/538/593
24.6/566/593
24.6/566/593
24.1/566/566
25/566/593
24.6/593/593
25/600/600
25/600/600
24.6/593/593
Start-up Date
April 93
Dec 94
March 95
July 95
July 97
July 97
June 98
July 98
July 98
4-23

Steam Turbines
Table 4-3
New and upcoming coal- fired ultrasupercritical units in Japan.
Noticeably they are all single reheat units, double reheat being reserved for the more
expensive oil and gas-fired units.
Power Plant
Company
Output
MW
Hekinann #4
Hekinann #5
Tsuruga #2
Tachibana-wan
Karita #1 (PFBC)
Reihoku #2
Tachibana-wan #1
Tachibana-wan #2
Isogo (New #1)
Hitachinaka #1
Maizuni #1
Maizuni #2
Chubu
Chubu
Hokuriku
Shikoku
Kyushu
Kyushu
EPDC
EPDC
EPDC
Tokyo
Kansai
Kansai
1000
1000
700
700
350
700
1050
1050
600
1000
900
900
Steam Conditions
MPa/C/ C
24.6/566/593
24.6/566/593
24.6/593/593
24.6/566/566
24.6/566/593
24.6/593/593
25/600/610
25/600/610
25.5/600/610
24.5/600/600
24.1/593/593
24.1/593/593
Start-up
Date
Nov 2001
Nov 2002
Oct 2000
July 2000
July 2000
July 2003
July 2000
July 2001
April 2002
2002
2003
2003
Cycling Flexibility in Japan

In Japan the search for maximum flexibility from fossil units has resulted in advanced control
concepts, reduced start-up periods, and rapid load change capacity. Rate of change
measurements for both boiler and turbine critical components were incorporated into the control
systems to permit fast automatic start-up rates without loss of life in boiler or turbine.
4-24

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-20
Modern Supercriticals are Suitable for Load Swinging
Modern supercriticals are very suitable for load swinging as shown by this heavy oil-fired unit at
Atsuma in Japan, designed with a Mitsubishi-Sulzer spiral- wound boiler, and a Toshiba partialarc admission turbine. The 700 MW unit achieves 7%/min load change rate.
4-25

Steam Turbines
Japanese requirements on plant heat rate improvement led to designs that permit variable
pressure in the turbine but full pressure in the boiler waterwalls unattractive due to the high
pumping power requirements. This led to the adoption of the spiral-wound boiler (a European
development) and the U.S. partial arc admission turbine design. A European HP turbine by-pass
is used, but typically only to 30% rating. By contrast, European bypasses are often 100%
allowing the bypass to assume duty as a safety valve.
Figure 4-21
Achieving Full Load
Hot start of the Atsumi 3 and 4 supercritical units shows that after transfer from full arc to partial
arc admission for the turbine, full load is achieved in less than 90 minutes.
The results (Ref. 4-13) from a hot start-up (after a 10 hour shutdown) for the two 700 MW,
heavy oil-fired supercritical units with spiral-wound boilers at Chubu Electrics Atsumi plant are
shown in Figure 4-21 . From light off to full load was 195 minutes. As for cyclic load changes,
Figure 4-20 shows that the Atsumi units can go from 50% to 100% load and back to 50% load at
a rate of 7%/minute, making them very suitable for load swinging operation.
4-26

Steam Turbines
Designs in Europe
There are about 60 supercritical units in Europe, largely in Germany, Italy (mostly oil fired),
Holland and Denmark. The most recent European coal fired units with advanced supercritical
steam conditions are listed in Table 4-4. Pioneering work on supercritical machines was carried
out in Germany in the late 1950s and early 1960s, parallel with the U.S. advances. Particularly of
note was the development of the spiral-wound boiler that permitted the pressure to slide up and
down without concerns related to any departure from nucleate boiling, a situation that would
severely damage boiler tubing. These boilers are now routinely used in both Japan and Europe
for full sliding pressure supercritical operation. It is also significant that supercritical units in
Germany, with double-reheat, were built in unit sizes down to 220 MW, a size that would have
appeal in the U.S. where smaller sizes are often sought by generating companies. Unit sizes are
climbing in Germany particularly as shown by the big lignite units at Scharze Pumpe,
Lippendorf, and Niederausem. Lignite is a major resource in Germany and in several other
European counties, such as Greece where a lignite-fired, supercritical, district heating plant is in
construction at Florina. New advanced plants for steam conditions are seen in Denmark, where
the 411 MW, double reheat supercritical units at Skaerbeck and Nordyllands have steam
temperatures of 580C (1050F), and Avedore, a single reheat design, is at 600C (1110F).
Table 4-4
Recent European supercritical units with advanced steam conditions. The trend in Europe
appears to be in the direction of larger unit sizes.
Power Plant
Fuel
Output
MW
Skaerbaek 3
Nordjyllands 3
Avedore
Schopau A,B
Schwarze Pumpe A,B
Boxberg Q,R
Lippendorf R,S
Bexbach II
Niederausem K
Gas
Coal
Oil, Biomass
Lignite
Lignite
Lignite
Lignite
Coal
Lignite
411
411
530
450
800
818
900
750
1000
Steam Conditions
MPa/C/ C/ C
29 /582/580/580
29/582/580/580
30/580/600
28.5/545/560
26.8/545/560
26.8/545/583
26.8/554/583
25/575/595
26.5/576/599
Start-up
Date
1997
1998
2000
1995-6
1997-8
1999-00
1999-00
1999
2002
Evolution of European Plants (Ref. 4-14)

The post-war utility industry in continental Europe developed somewhat differently from the
U.S. Partly because of industrial limits in the manufacture of heavy pressure parts, and also due
to the very high cost at the time of austenitic steels, once-through boilers without large drums
became a popular choice particularly in Germany. The high firing rates, which were necessary to
start once-through units, did not permit operation with no flow in the reheater prior to starting the
turbine, Bypass systems that provided cooling flow to the reheater became necessary to protect
the reheater materials. The boiler thus required a bypass system, with the result that turbine
design and operating procedures could be developed with less concern for temperature
4-27

Steam Turbines
mismatch. The political situation in Europe may have contributed to turbine development since
at that time several countries chose to remain self-sufficient in electric power production.
Lacking a large European network, and with high fuel costs, small units were built which could
be removed from service and restored quickly to meet local grid requirements. Many German
and Swiss-built machines, which present day large supercritical units use as a basis for design,
were designed for maximum efficiency at full load with less concern about low load efficiency.
These were typically units without control stages, with light casings, and in some cases with
rotors welded from smaller forgings to avoid the need for the larger forgings typically used by
U.S. manufacturers. The features that resulted now provide characteristics that permit a great
deal of operational flexibility.
Supercritical boilers designed for the European market are capable of variable pressure
operation. These units have waterwall re-circulation and can now be started with firing rates
similar to those in the U.S. Adoption of this U.S. design concept has reduced the cost of restart
and has provided more efficient low load operation. Now both U.S. and European boilers can
provide steam conditions that closely match the turbine requirements under cycling load duty
and during start-up. When these units are combined with effective bypass systems the major
difference between U.S. and continental European capabilities rests with the turbine design.
By-Pass Systems
The use of bypass systems has become standard practice in continental Europe. While there are
benefits from the use of bypass systems (Ref. 4-15) European experience has shown that there
are potential operating problems, and that modification to the plant and turbine control systems
must be included to realize fully the advantages. The main advantages attributed to the use of
bypass systems are:
They provide a method of matching main steam and reheat temperatures to turbine metal
temperatures. This reduces the loss of life caused by each start-up and shortens start-up time.
They provide a flow path for steam from the boiler in the event of a turbine trip. This enables
the boiler to remain on-line and to be turned down to meet the turbine restart requirements in
an orderly manner.
They have been given credit for the low amount of solid particle turbine erosion seen in
Europe. The bypassing of steam around the turbine as steam temperature rises in the pressure
parts is credited with flushing the solid particles from the internal tube surfaces to the
condenser.
They can reduce operational problems and initial cost in Europe by eliminating the need for
high- pressure safety valves that exhaust to the atmosphere.
Variable pressure, full-arc admission designs are common in Europe. It is claimed that part-load
heat rate of such designs is superior to a partial-arc admission, constant pressure design (Ref. 416). Load change capabilities for coal-fired units of 8-10%/minute and 5%/minute for oil or gasfired plants have been demonstrated. The EPRI advanced plant design (Ref. 4-17) envisioned a
turbine by-pass system as shown in Figure 4-22.
4-28

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-22
A high capacity (25% to 50%) turbine by-pass system
This bypass design was proposed for the EPRI advanced plant design. Such a by-pass overcomes
the start-up problems associated with lack of cooling steam in the reheaters, and the need for the
boiler to wait for the turbine to warm up.
PERFORMANCE
The conventional boiler/steam turbine cycle approximately follows the Rankine cycle. A
temperature-entropy diagram of the cycle is shown in Figure 4-23. Heat is added to liquid water
along line A-B. Additional heat, added along line B-C, vaporizes the saturated liquid. Additional
heat is used to superheat the steam vapor along line CI. Turbine work is extracted, as the
pressure and temperature of the steam are both reduced as it passes through the turbine along line
IJ. Heat is rejected by condensation of steam in the condenser along line JA. The efficiency of
this cycle is calculated as the energy output, extracted as work, as the steam goes from point I to
Point J, divided by the energy input required to go from Point A to Point I. From this analysis, it
can be seen that efficiency can be increased by increasing either steam temperature or steam
pressure, decreasing condenser pressure, or adding superheat. As better materials of construction
4-29

Steam Turbines
have evolved, operating temperatures have increased and reheat cycles are typically utilized in
units above 150MW to improve efficiency. The use of low temperature cooling water in
condensers, when it is available economically, also is advantageous in improving cycle
efficiency. (Ref. 2-5)
Figure 4-23
Rankine Cycle Diagram
Power generation cycles based on boilers and condensing steam turbines can be analyzed with
diagrams of this type. The impacts on cycle efficiency of increasing steam temperature, adding
superheat and lowering condenser temperature are clearly illustrated.
There are a number of basic steam turbine performance rules that all machines follow:
All turbine stages operate at constant inlet to outlet pressure ratio, except the last stage in the
low pressure turbine, which depends on condenser pressure and the first stage in the high
pressure turbine with partial admission, which depends on control valve position
Efficiency depends on pressure ratio and consequently is constant for all stages except for
those stages indicated above
Any change in upstream stage pressure is repeated in downstream stage pressures by an equal
percentage
Sudden changes in performance are usually due to mechanical failure or a foreign body
intrusion, while gradual changes are due to erosion, deposition and wear.
Turbine flow increases as the inlet to outlet pressure ratio increases until a maximum flow is
reached because the velocity of a fluid flowing through any restriction cannot exceed the speed
of sound. This phenomenon is referred to as choking and can occur in the nozzle and/or the rotor
4-30

Steam Turbines
blades. Multiple stages could be choked depending on design and operating conditions. In a
utility steam turbine, steam flow choking can occur in the first stage of the high-pressure turbine,
the control stage, with partial admission and in the last few stages of the low-pressure turbine.
(Figure 4-24)
Turbine nameplate ratings usually are below capabilities. Guaranteed output is usually
referenced to rated throttle and reheat conditions, an exhaust pressure of 3.5 inches Hg, and 3%
makeup water. To ensure that the machine will provide the guaranteed output, vendors usually
design for a throttle flow that is five percent higher than the rating and a throttle pressure which
is 105% of design rating. This combination provides a capability of perhaps 5-10 percent
additional output when the machine is in the new and clean condition.
Efficiency Losses
The distribution of efficiency losses in a typical, new steam turbine is shown in Table 4-5 (Ref.
4-2), although over the years, wear (typically erosion, corrosion, and fretting) can increase the
component design losses. A gradual or sudden change in component efficiency is a signal of
component deterioration. The severity of the change will determine the best course of action.
4-31

Steam Turbines
Table 4-5
Approximate Efficiency Losses in Turbine Generator Components for a Single Reheat
Supercritical Turbine
3500psig (241 bar) -- 1000F (538C) -- 1000F (538C)
Component
Component Efficiency Loss,

% points
Turbine blade path

Blading
4.5
Leakage
0.4
Exhaust and Hood
1.1
Valve Pressure Drops

Throttle
0.2
Reheater Stop
0.4
Interceptor
0.1
Mechanical and Electrical
0.7
Total Turbine Efficiency Loss
7.4
Balance of Plant
BFP and Condensate Pump
0.2
Make-up Loss
0.3
Feedwater Heaters-pressure drop and mixing
1.1
Feedwater Throttling
0.1
BFP Drive
0.2
Total BOP Efficiency Loss
4-32
1.9
____
Total Turbine Cycle Efficiency Loss
9.3
OVERALL TURBINE CYCLE EFFICIENCY
90.7

Steam Turbines
Photo Courtesy Toshiba
Figure 4-24
Low Pressure Turbine
The low-pressure turbine produces a significant proportion of the total power. The last stage
blading is particularly important but can be the source of aerodynamic losses due to the threedimensional nature of the flow, high blade tip speeds and the presence of moisture droplets. Last
stage blading is subject to erosion and corrosion and care must be taken to avoid choking and
Mach related effects.
Efficiency losses over time occur due to (Ref. 4-1):
Steam leakage due to increased seal clearances and internal cracks
Roughened/eroded blade surfaces
Increased turbine control/Intercept valve throttling
Poor radial alignment of nozzles to rotor
Poor tangential alignment-exit angleof nozzle blades
Altered blade flow area: increased due to erosion or decreased due to deposition
Reduced steam temperature
Part load operation
Condenser pressurehigher or lower than design
4-33

Steam Turbines
The efficiency losses, listed in Table 4-6, that occur on turbine blades result from a wide variety
of causes which are summarized in Table 4-7.
Table 4-6
Turbine Blade Efficiency Losses (Ref. 4-3)
Elements
Profile
Cause
Blade surface friction and flow separation
Secondary
Interference of end wall flows
Trailing Edge
Trailing edge thickness and shape
Incidence
High angle of attack
Roughness
Surface boundary layer friction
Seal Leakage
Interference of leakage flow on blade flow
Shock Waves
Flow separation
Limit Load
Supersonic expansion at blade exit
Overlap
Radial alignment of nozzle and rotor blades
Moisture
Condensation
Blockage
Lashing wire, shroud
Partial Admission
Empty rotor blade passages
Later in this section we will discuss ways of detecting and moderating some of these causes,
most of which are minor and incremental and not performance limiting. Occasionally, a major
and sudden failure will curtail unit operation.
AVAILABILITY
Failure rates in steam turbines typically follow what is called a bathtub failure rate curve.
Initially, the failure rate is at a high level but drops steadily during a 1-3 year debugging period
until a lower, fairly constant level is reached, which then continues through a prolonged (20-30
year) operating period. This is sustained until the unit approaches end-of-life, or the wearout
phase, during which the failure rate can increase rapidly to levels similar to those experienced
during the debugging period. Forced outages are often caused by failures of rotating blades,
bearings and valves. Outages caused by failures of rotor forgings and casings are rare, but can be
of long duration.
The steam turbine ranks second to the boiler in terms of loss of availability for major fossil
power plants components. However the losses are only about 40% of the losses due to boiler
failures. The NERC-GADS data, included in Table 4-7, is very interesting in that
miscellaneous causes account for about 60% of these losses, which average 244 hours per year
for the fleet in the period from 1995-1999. Such miscellaneous causes are often vibration
related, stemming from a variety of reasons.
4-34

Steam Turbines
Table 4-7
Steam Turbine Forced and Scheduled Outages and Deratings
Average Equivalent
Unavailable Hours per
Unit Year

per Unit year
Steam Turbine-Overall
244.04
3.30
Miscellaneous
154.17
1.09
Valves
24.49
0.71
Low Pressure Blading
21.65
0.51
High Pressure Blading
15.91
0.12
Controls
15.50
0.65
Lube Oil
5.01
0.05
Intermediate Pressure Blading
4.91
0.11
Piping
2.40
0.05
Table 4-8 indicates that the largest units, those above 800 MW, have significantly lower total
unavailable hours in a year.
Table 4-8
Steam Turbine Reliability as a Function of Size- NERC GADS 1995-1999 Fossil Steam
Plants Data
All Unit Sizes, All Unit Fuels, Average Size 300 MW
Size, MW
Forced Outages
Forced Deratings
Average
Average hours/unit year
Forced and Scheduled Outages

and Deratings
Average hours/unit year
hours/unit year
All
42.73
7.88
244.04
1-99
36.08
7.04
193.01
100-199
36.44
5.82
222.32
200-299
45.91
6.34
239.29
300-399
54.08
7.28
327.60
400-599
58.34
10.20
300.96
600-799
34.25
13.83
256.84
799-1000
19.67
5.61
190.69
1000+
57.83
23.55
140.25
4-35

Steam Turbines
Cycling Issues for Steam Turbines

Figure 4-25 consists of a total of ten charts. The first chart, which was previously presented as
Figure 2-19, summarizes by major category, the turbine changes made by 48 utilities that
converted 215 units to cycling service. The other nine charts provide a breakdown of the changes
that were made in each of the nine categories. The major issue that must be dealt with stems
from the additional cycling stresses on thick-walled components. Temperatures and environment
change frequently and can be punishing on equipment, as instrumentation should be installed to
provide information to operators so that the system can be optimized. Procedures should be
changed to ensure that allowable conditions are not exceeded and remaining life consumption is
economically justified. It is clear from these charts that potentially serious issues must be dealt
with promptly to allow the turbine to provide power reliably and economically.
Figure 4-25
Steam Turbine Problems Related to Cycling
4-36

Steam Turbines
4-37

Steam Turbines
Minimizing Outages and Outage Duration

We have seen that the unavailability due to scheduled outages is 4.5 times that resulting from
unplanned outages. The two approaches to improve this situation are to increase the intervals
between scheduled outages and to minimize the length of time that an outage lasts.
Unplanned failures of steam turbines have been reduced through on-line information on the condition
and performance of key components. This is utilized as input to improved life assessment and
maintenance technologies and to make decisions to run, repair or replace. (Ref. 4-18)
For example, in active use at the Eddystone plant of PECO Energy are on-line monitoring systems
for turbine vibration, bearing wear, blade vibration and rotor and shell stresses. (Ref. 4-19) Other
monitors for rotor crack detection, solid particle erosion and water induction have all been
demonstrated on operating units though they are not yet in broad commercial use. (Ref. 4-20)
Water Induction Monitors on Two Cogeneration Combined Cycle Plants
Water induced into the steam turbine, by back-up through feedwater heater extraction lines and
other drain lines, has been a recurring problem in Brayton cycle turbines and may be even more
of an issue in the growing number of combined cycle applications. Since CC plants often isolate
the condenser to maintain vacuum during shutdown, closed turbine drains provide more
opportunities for steam and water ingress. Water induction monitors have been installed on two
CC cogeneration plants (Cottage Grove in Minnesota, and Whitewater in Wisconsin) to detect
water accumulation in drain connections and control eleven steam turbine drain valves. Use of
these monitors for control is a significant advance. (Ref. 4-21)
Valve Leak Detection at Baltimore Gas and Electric
Acoustic valve leak detection is one of many techniques that can be employed as part of a
predictive maintenance program. In 1994, a valve leak detection program was implemented by
4-38

Steam Turbines
Baltimore Gas and Electric. (Ref. 4-22) The leak detection program has reduced plant heat rate
losses, prevented unnecessary valve maintenance and increased plant awareness of potential
losses. Annual energy savings of over $500,000 have resulted from this program. (Ref. 4-23)
Valves are classified as critical and are surveyed periodically if leakage through those valves
would result in significant energy loss. All valves that are used to isolate the turbine cycle fall
into this category.
Advancements in computer technology have resulted in development of instruments that have
greatly improved the data acquisition process. A small hand-held, battery operated instrument
provides both structure and airborne acoustic measurements. A leaking valve clearly emits a
higher signal than background.
STEAM TURBINE ROTOR FORGING AND DISKS

Summary of Rotor Forging and Disk Damage Mechanisms, Inspection
Techniques and Corrective Actions
Because of the potential catastrophic nature of a rotor forging fracture, great attention has been
placed on the detection, sizing and possible progressive nature of flaws and cracks in turbine
forgings. Cases of outright failure have been few, but they underline the criticality of the need for
vigilance in operation and inspection. One failure in particular, the TVA Gallatin 2 IP rotor burst
in 1974, stimulated intense scrutiny of the conditions that might lead to failure. Two situations
are certainly cause for concern. First, it is important to detect and track flaws in the material,
particularly via bore inspections. For older machines where early steel making practices in
producing forgings (typically CrMoV steel) may have produced pre-existing defects, the need to
carefully track such defects is imperative. Second, cycling operation, particularly start/stop
behavior, may be a source of periodic stresses that through low cycle fatigue can link up small
flaws to create a bigger crack.
A particular problem may exist on low-pressure turbines, where shrunk-on disks offer sites for
corrodants to accumulate and therefore stress-corrosion cracking to initiate. Though creep in LP
rotors is not of concern, low cycle fatigue certainly is. Further, temper embrittlement of
NiCrMoV steels provides a mechanism for crack initiation. Recently superclean steels have
been developed, much more resistant to temper embrittlement, so recently-built turbines are
better protected against this (Figure 4-26). But disks continue to be of concern. By 1980, over 70
cracked disks in nuclear units, and more than 45 in fossil units had been detected (Ref. 4-24).
More have occurred since and several rotors and disks have been replaced. The need for careful
inspection for stress corrosion cracking is emphasized in this section.
In Tables 4-9, 4-11, and 4-12, respectively, brief summations are presented for the damage
mechanisms, inspections and corrective actions that are typically encountered with each rotor
component.
4-39

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-26
Turbine Rotor Forging
Superclean NiCrMoV steel forgings have been developed for turbine rotors with extremely low
sulfur, and other impurity, content. This provides protection against temper embrittlement, a
progressive forging weakness in LP turbines due to long term operation at steam temperatures in
the embrittlement regime.
4-40

Steam Turbines
Table 4-9
Steam Turbine Rotor Forging and Disk Damage Mechanisms
Component
Rotor Forging
Damage Mechanism
Creep of HP and IP rotors.
Cracks in thermal relief grooves on the surface.
Brittle fracture of rotors more than 20 years old.
Temper embrittlement of low-pressure rotors.
Low cycle fatigue in bore area from stop/start cycling.
IGSCC in the bore and keyways of shrunk on turbine disks.
Rotor Forging
OD
Cracking at the outer periphery caused by high cycle fatigue resulting from
bending and vibrational stresses.
Cracking in shaft extensions resulting from out-of-balance or torsional
vibration.
Turbine Disks
and Disk Rims
Stress corrosion cracking of the keyways at the disk shaft interface and blade
attachment areas exacerbated by condensation of steam rich in impurities.
Brittle fracture resulting from IGSCC.
Corrosion fatigue in blade attachment areas especially where resonance is a
known problem.
High temperature creep, stress corrosion cracking, fatigue or combinations of
these.
(Note: The straddle mount and axial entry fir-tree designs are used for most
attachments. The T-slot is used for smaller HP turbines and the pinned design
is used in the last stage of LP turbines)
Couplings
Fretting damage caused by misalignment or torsional oscillation.

Bolt-hole fatigue due to improper assembly
Foreign object damage.
(Ref. 3-8)
Additional Comments on Rotor Forging and Rotor Bore Damage Mechanisms
In summary, cracks in high temperature rotors due to thermal fatigue tend to occur in locations
where stress concentration is evident, such as the root of periphery grooves. Since we have seen
that crack occurrence is one of the important factors in determining service life of the rotor, it is
important to know the residual life before fatigue crack initiation is likely to occur. The time
when a crack first occurs defines the time when countermeasures must be taken. For example, if
the rotor is made of a low ductility material, it may be subject to embrittlement and crack growth
that may limit life. Fatigue or creep-fatigue cracks can occur at the center bore and at the blade
attachment. Shrink fits for disks on LP rotor forgings are clearly an area for potential corrodant
build-up and cracking, although welded rotors avoid this problem. (Figure 4-27)
We have seen that thermal fatigue and creep-fatigue can be initiating mechanisms for cracks in
the bore, at blade and disk attachments and (rarely) on the rotor surface. There are also a number
of cases where crack growth can be propagated by lateral or torsional vibrations caused by
several shaft stimuli. Transverse cracking has occurred due to gross misalignment of the
bearings, or phenomena such as bearing oil whip, steam whirl and mechanical unbalance. These
cracks are notoriously difficult to detect at an early stage by on-line motoring. Ultimately,
sometimes when the shaft is 50% or more fractured, a vibration spectrum will reveal the 2/rev
4-41

Steam Turbines
spike that often indicates a transverse rotor crack. To give earlier warning of this, on-line monitors
have been developed based on vibration spectra, acoustic emissions, or eddy current signals. (Ref
4-25) It is also possible to accumulate shaft damage from torsional stimuli. Typically it is caused
by electrical system disturbances fed back into the turbine-generator train. The impact may be
seen on shafts, at couplings and on blades and disks and can be severe enough to fracture small
shafts such as at the collector end of the machine. Torsional monitors can track such incidents
and accumulate incurred damage. Vibration-related issues are discussed below.
Figure 4-27
Welded Turbine Rotor
A welded turbine rotor is made up of small forgings welded together. This eliminates the shrunkon discs of alternate designs and attendant potential sites for stress-corrosion cracking. Great
care must be taken in welding, of course, and typically a bore-hole is not used, removing the
opportunity for inspection of the forgings from the center line.
4-42

Steam Turbines
Vibration Problems in Turbines

Vibration and balance problems in steam turbine-generators are responsible for many of the
miscellaneous problems cited in the NERC-GADS database. The causes of turbine vibration:
unbalance, misalignment, oil whip, steam whirl, cracked shafts, rubs, thermal hot spots, etc. are
often detected by study of the vibration spectrum. This spectrum is not routinely taken during
operation. Only the lateral amplitudes of vibration are normally displayed in the control room
through standard sensors such as accelerometers and displacement probes. But much more can
be deduced if the vibration data is studied a little more closely. Reference 4-26 discusses more
than 35 case histories of vibration and balance problems in rotating equipment, two of which are
summarized below, in the case study.
Bearing incipient failures can be tracked by the use of an on-line diagnostic monitor (Figure 428) that when checked periodically will clearly show developing wear. Alternatively a direct
reading ferrograph magnetically traps wear particles and optically measures concentrations of
large and small particles. In this technique the stream of sample oil is passed through a capillary
tube subject to a high-gradient magnetic field. This separates out particles and arranges them in
descending order of size. At sizes of 10 microns or less, the wear is normal. Beyond 100 microns
severe wear has started. Potential catastrophic failure occurs above 1000 microns (Ref. 4-27).
Figure 4-28
On-Line Bearing Monitor
An on-line diagnostic monitor for turbine bearings uses an ultrasonic transmitter set into the
bearing that measures the remaining distance to the oil film. Bearing wear can be precisely
measured at intervals so that appropriate maintenance can be scheduled.
4-43

Steam Turbines
Lube Oil Periodic Monitoring

One of the basic and most effective technologies of predictive maintenance is lube oil
monitoring. Lube oil analysis provides effective, early warning of potential equipment problems.
The goal of oil monitoring and analysis is to ensure that bearings are properly lubricated. This is
done by monitoring the condition of both the lubricant and the internal surfaces, which come in
contact with the lubricant.
Some utilities currently maintain their own oil analysis laboratories and chemists; however, the
majority send samples to one of many recognized laboratories. The outside laboratories normally
produce a comprehensive report quickly, and at a modest cost. Oil samples are usually taken
quarterly but the frequency can be changed, as warranted by the conditions.
Figure 4-29
Extracting Lube Oil Sample
This method of oil sampling uses a portable, hand-held vacuum pump and tygon tubing. The
tygon tubing is inserted into the bearing reservoir through the bearing fill plug to obtain a sample
of oil, circulating within the bearing housing. The vacuum pump is used to extract the sample and
direct it to the sample bottle.
The key to interpreting oil analysis reports is to establish baseline levels for all parameters, and
trend the values over time to identify any significant changes. Usually, when sent to a laboratory,
each oil sample has two reports, one for lubricant condition and one for equipment condition.
Measurement of metallic particles in the oil via spectroscopy, for example, a common and useful
way of tracking wear, will provide for each element results in ppm. RDE spectroscopy measures
smaller particles less than 10 microns. Rotrode filter spectroscopy measures large particles,
greater than 10 microns. Together, both tests provide an excellent indication of both lubricant
4-44

Steam Turbines
and equipment condition. Typically, values should be very low for wear metals and contaminants
(less than 1015ppm). Levels for additives like zinc and phosphorous vary depending on the type
of oil and the formulation of the additives used. The table below (Table 4-10) includes brief
descriptions of commonly found elements and their relation to the equipment and lubricant
condition.
Table 4-10
Relationship of Elements to Equipment and Lubricant Condition
Element
Condition
Chromium:
Chrome particles (white non-ferrous metals)
Molybdenum:
Alloy metal or lubricant additive used to decrease the friction between wearing
surfaces
Aluminum:
White non-ferrous metals
Copper:
Brass (copper/zinc) and bronze (copper/tin) in bearings
Lead:
White non-ferrous or babbit metals (with tin)
Silver:
Nickel:
Alloy metal
Vanadium:
Titanium:
Silicon:
Sand/dirt contamination or anti-foaming agents
Sodium:
Detergents, coolant additive, EP agent, or process contamination
Potassium:
Detergents, coolant additive, EP agent, or process contamination
Boron:
Detergents or dispersant additives
Magnesium:
Calcium:
Detergents, dispersants, or acid neutralizers
Barium:
Corrosion inhibitors, detergents, or rust inhibitors
Phosphorous:
Anti-wear additive or fire resistant additives
Zinc:
Anti-wear additive
Cadmium:
Alloy metal
In reviewing laboratory data from the oil samples the following is suggested (Ref. 4-27): compare each
elemental value to previous values and to the reference values. For journal bearings, focus on tin
and lead as indicators of babbit wear, and iron for shaft wear. For anti-friction bearings, focus on
iron as an indicator of ball, race, and cage wear. If slingers are installed in the application, focus
on copper (since they are typically made of brass or bronze). To monitor contamination levels,
focus on silicon values, since most external contamination problems are a result of dirt entering
the system. For additives, monitor zinc and phosphorous levels, since most rust and oxidation
inhibited (R&O) oils use these elements in their additive packages.
4-45

Steam Turbines
Public Service of Indiana Solves Turbine Vibration Problems

Public Service of Indiana (now Cinergy) had suffered from high vibration in the generator end of
Gibson unit 4 for a long time. In spite of 18 balance shots, vibration amplitudes were still at 5 mils.
When alignment data were finally studied, it was clear that the generator was out of alignment by
0.015 inches (0.38 mm). When aligned, bearing vibrations dropped to less than 2 mils, except in
the last generator bearing. That problem was solved by a balance shot in the Alterrex exciter shaft.
A second problem, at the 500 MW Cayuga Unit 2, involved vibration up to 8 mils (0.2 mm)
when accelerating through 2800 rpm. The spectrum showed a half per rev spike at this speed and
the diagnosis was oil whip in the fourth bearing. Shimming up the bearing by 7 mils (0.18mm)
increased the loading on it and removed the oil whip vibration. (Ref. 4-26)
The complete inspection of a steam turbine is a lengthy process requiring up to six weeks to
complete if extensive analysis or repairs are required. Therefore, the planning must be carefully
done. The crucial decision that must be made at the beginning of the process is whether it will be
necessary to remove the rotor or inspect it in its lower casing. If removal is required, provisions
should be made for an adequate set-down area as well as power rollers to facilitate inspection
and obtain important data such as run-out readings (Table 4-11).
The same NDE techniques that were described in Chapter 3 can also be used on steam turbine
components. The bore area of the rotor forging is inspected by a number of ultrasonic
techniques: tangential aim shear wave (S-wave), axial aim S-wave and radial aim longitudinal
wave (L-wave). These techniques can assess the quality of the near-bore material to a depth of
about 4 inches (100 mm).
Because of the unique geometry of many of the component surfaces, variations of these
techniques must be used. For example, tangentially aimed, pulse-echo S-wave inspection
techniques are used to inspect the axial ends of disks where the sections are cylindrical or near
cylindrical.
Further, it is now possible to use the techniques of replication, hardness and X-ray based
inspection to assess the integrity and residual life of steam turbine rotors. These techniques
provide knowledge of creep and/or fatigue damage that can be used to support decisions about
replacement, repairs, inspection intervals and operating procedures. Thirty years ago damage
estimates were often made based on operating histories and material properties. Now one
approach determines the temperature and stress distribution during steady state and transient
conditions and identifies critical locations for NDE examination and analysis of life
consumption. Analytical creep damage estimates of the rotor steeple lug roots, for example,
agreed well with actual damage. (Ref. 4-28)
4-46

Steam Turbines
Table 4-11
Steam Turbine Rotor Forging and Disk Inspection Techniques
Component
Rotor Forging Bore
(Figure 4-14)
Very detailed inspection of the bore is usual whenever the machine is
opened which may be on a five year or more cycle, particularly for 1960s
and 1970s vintage rotors. Fatigue cracks are possible but creep is
unlikely. (though possible)
VT of all visual surfaces. MT and PT of exposed components and
surfaces.
Identification of crack initiation and growth in the radial and axial plane of
the rotor bore using UT, ET. Material sampling may be needed.
Shaft OD
Search for transverse cracking initiating from the outer periphery of the
rotor using VT, ET, PT, MT for cracks on accessible surfaces and UT at
the end of shrink fit components.
Replication for creep-fatigue damage.
Turbine Disks and

Disk Rims
Radial and axial runout measurements of disks

Blade attachments, thermal relief grooves and other locations prone to
cracking examined with MP, PT, and ET.
UT for detection of cracks in straddle mount attachments.
MT or ET for cracks in axial entry blade attachments. UT for T-slot cracks.
Replication for creep-fatigue damage.
Couplings
VT of all accessible areas. MT and PT if damage is found especially at

bolt holes, connecting fit area, shrunk-on interfaces, and anti-rotation
pins.
(Ref. 3-8)
Figure 4-30
Turbine LP Shaft Being Machined
Problems in LP shafts can occur due to cracking of the blade attachments (shown here being
machined) and (rarely) cracks developing in the boreholes of the turbine. The surfaces exposed to
steam are not creep-affected in the lower- temperature LP turbine but are subject to corrodants
carried over from the boiler feedwater into the steam. Since moisture droplets are present in the
last stages this can accelerate any corrosion.
4-47

Steam Turbines
Life Prediction and Corrective Actions

Rotor Life Prediction
EPRIs Stress and Fracture Evaluation of Rotors (SAFER) can be used to assess the remaining
life of turbine or generator rotors. SAFER utilizes boresonic inspection results, calculates rotor
temperature and stress distributions (Figure 4-31), estimates crack growth from actual flaw data
and the cycles required for cracks to reach critical sizes, and reaches conclusions regarding
remaining rotor life. (Ref. 4-29) Typically, a deterministic analysis is based on conservative
estimates of the parameters affecting the life calculations: stress, flaw size, material properties
and operating conditions. The program can also be used in a probabilistic manner to estimate
probability of failure. In this analysis mode, statistical distributions are used for the parameters
affecting flaw criticality, and a probabilistic approach (Monte Carlo simulation) is used to
calculate the risk of failure.
Figure 4-31
SAFER Code Analyses
For a given thermal cycle the SAFER code calculates rotor stress and temperature contours from
which crack growth data can be estimated for any observed flaw in the forging. One important
result from such analyses is a time estimate for the next scheduled inspection based on likelihood
of significant crack growth.
A novel way of determining the fracture toughness of rotor materials, and therefore the
remaining life, has been introduced by EPRI. This is a miniature specimen technique known as
the small punch test. Disk-shaped specimens as small as 0.25 inches diameter and 20 mils thick,
are subjected to a bending load in a die-punch assembly. By testing over a range of temperatures
the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (FATT) can be determined. This leads directly to
fracture toughness and so to remaining life assessment. The method found an important
4-48

Steam Turbines
application at the Potomac River 3 unit of Potomac Electric Power Company (PEPCO). The
recommended inspection interval for the LP rotor was three years, but the small punch test found
the material to have three times the fracture toughness of steels in the generic database. PEPCO
was able to justify extending the inspection interval to nine years, resulting in considerable
savings. (Ref. 4-31)
As far as repairs are concerned, each situation will require careful evaluation before a decision is
made to proceed. Evaluation criteria for the selection of the appropriate technique are suggested
in Reference 4-30. The comments in Table 4-12 are only general in nature.
Table 4-12
Steam Turbine Rotor Forging and Disk Component Corrective Actions
Component
Rotor
Possible Corrective Actions

Bottle bore to grind out flaws in the borehole. Assess remaining life.
Shaft OD
Grind small flaws, weld or replace as necessary.
Turbine Disks
and Disk Rims
Estimate the rate of flaw growth.

Use BLADE to assess remaining life of rims.
Weld repair blade attachment areas of disks or replace disks.
Couplings
Repair flaws by grinding and welding. Replace bolting if necessary.
(Ref. 3-8)
4-49

Steam Turbines
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Rotor Forgings and

Disks
Weld Repair of Twelve Southern Company Low Pressure Steam Turbine Rotors
Figure 4-32
Cracking Close to a Failure
Cracking Close to Failure in a Straddle or Dovetail Root Design
Issues/Goal
In 1999, Southern Company concluded that continued, reliable operation of 16 low pressure
steam turbine rotors in eight units with a combined capacity of 6470 MW, was at risk due to
stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in the L-1 and L-2 blade rows of those rotors. Subsequent
inspection confirmed that the SCC was attributable to operating stresses, susceptible material,
and the operating environment existing in the low-pressure sections of the turbines. Twelve
rotors were selected for repair. Southern established a system-wide approach to the repair of
these units with the objective of minimizing the length of the repair cycle so that overall system
reliability and availability could be maintained through the repair period.
Key Conclusions
The rotors that were repaired were reinstalled and have operated satisfactorily
The total elapsed repair period, including round trip transportation, for each of the twelve
rotors, was in the range of 36 to 51 days depending on the specific work required
4-50

Steam Turbines
The keys to achieving the successful repair of these units in within the time constraints
were:
o Consolidating the repair of all affected units within the Southern system
o Setting rigorous bid specifications
o Selecting a single vendor for the work. The selection of ABB Alstom Power, was
based primarily on the vendors ability to meet the schedule requirements
o Working with that vendor to improve the repair schedule by identifying
developments that would reduce individual task cycle time, identify tasks that
could be done in parallel, and identify improvements in work sequences
Different approaches to schedule reduction were employed for the different units as a function of
their configuration. The repair sequences were shortened for 1) the L-1 wheel pinhole finger
drilling operation, 2) the L-0 wheel blade and re-installation operation, 3) the L-1 and L-2 steeple
turning operation, and 4) the L-2 blade assembly operation. Parallel operations were developed
for weld buildup by welding on both rotors simultaneously, using portable lathes for rough
steeple turning operations, horizontal stress relief of both rotors, drilling TE and GE wheels in
parallel-six holes at a time, and creating a mockup for L-2 blade assembly. A major schedule
improvement was accomplished by removing blades on site before the rotors were shipped.
All of the L-1 rows repaired by ABB Alstom Power had SCC. For L-1 and L-2 straddle or
dovetail root design, the problem is manifested in the form of hook to sidewall radius cracks in
the bucket attachment. In the L-1 finger root design, cracks are found in the finger hooks and to a
lesser extent as cracks emanating from the pinholes.
None of the L-2 bucket attachments had evidence of SCC, but did exhibit general corrosion and
widespread pitting throughout the entire attachment area including the highly stressed hook to
sidewall radius areas.
Submerged arc weld repair using 12% chrome filler material was utilized because of its
improved corrosion resistance compared to the original material. Enhanced radius machining of
the L-2 straddle root was used to decrease the stress concentration notch effect that existed with
the original design. Among the other repair options that were considered but not implemented
were join welding forged rings and long shank buckets.
The repairs for each of the rotors are summarized below.
4-51

Steam Turbines
Table 4-13
Weld Repair Summary
Unit
Weld repair
dovetails
Alabama Power Gorgas #10
L-1 and L-2
Georgia Power Bowen #3
L-2
Weld repair
L-1 fingers
Enhanced radius
machined L-2
dovetails
Balance
High speed
Yes
High speed
Georgia Power Wansley #2
Yes
Yes
Low speed
Alabama Power Gaston #5
Yes
Yes
High speed
Yes
Yes
High speed
Alabama Power Barry #5
L-1 and L-2
High speed
GE originally supplied all of these steam turbines, which contain double flow, low pressure
rotors. Both the low-pressure A and B rotors from the steam turbines from each of the following
units, which are all coal fired, were repaired during this program.
Table 4-14
Southern Company Turbine Characteristics
Unit
Capacity, MW Last stage

blade length,
inches
In Service
Date
Outage Date
Alabama Power Gorgas #10
700
30
1972
Fall 1999
Georgia Power Bowen #3
884
33.5
1974
Fall 1999
856
33.5
1978
Spring 2000
Alabama Power Gaston #5
884
33.5
1974
Spring 2000
856
33.5
1976
Fall 2000
Alabama Power Barry #5
700
30
1971
Spring 2001
(Ref. 4-32)
Critical Assessment
A combination of steeple (dovetail) removal, subsequent weld buildup and remachining is a

reasonably common practice in the steam turbine industry. Southern elected to take a very
proactive approach to potential SCC problems before they happened and should be commended
for working with Alstom to facilitate a remedy. The repair approach is applicable to a variety of
turbines whether the turbines use shrunk-on discs or are monoblocks. Other utilities may want to
consider a similar approach before SCC becomes a problem. Other organizations perform
similar repairs including: Siemens-Westinghouse, TurboCare, GE, Elliott, etc.
According the EPRI surveys (Ref. 4-33), SCC in many dovetail attachments will occur between
75,000 and 125,000 hours service. Other sites may be forced to employ the repair technology or
order new turbines. Additionally, GE has issued a Technical Information Letter (TIL) 1277-2
which suggests utilities should inspect dovetails and pin-finger attachments for all once-through
4-52

Steam Turbines
boilers (roughly 90 US units). This includes L-1 though L-4 blade attachments for each
machine.
EPRI RRAC continues to be engaged with customers using LPRimLife to assess and predict
remaining life of blade attachment cracking. Additionally, advanced repair technologies are
being developed to speed up the repair process and to allow it to be performed on site. This is
particularly a large issue for nuclear rotors since they may contain contamination.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Rotor Forgings and
Disks
GPU Rotor Inspection Interval Extension and Potomac Electric Rotor Analysis
GPU was able to increase the inspection interval of the steam turbine rotor at its Titus plant as
the result of an analysis that utilized the SAFER code. PEPCO utilized the SAFER code to
analyze stress corrosion cracking problems at its Potomac River and Dickerson 3 units. Based on
the results of this work, PEPCO concluded that it was safe to continue to use those rotors. (Ref.
4-34, 4-35)
Potomac Electric Weld Repairs Damaged Control Stage
PEPCOs Morgantown Unit 1 is a 603 MW supercritical unit with a combined HP/IP rotor of 1
Cr 1 MO 0.25V steel. During a routine overhaul a machining error damaged two of the control
stage steeples so that re-blading was not possible. After much study, PEPCO opted to perform a
complete 360 circumferential all metal weld build-up and re-machine of the control stage. Since
installation in 1991, the rotor has performed satisfactorily. Its life is estimated at more than 40
years. (Ref. 4-36)
PECO Energy Weld Repairs a Reheat Rotor After Creep Damage
After 32 years of service, the 1050F (583C) double reheat rotor in Eddystone unit 2 suffered
extensive creep damage. The first stage buckets of the second reheat turbine lifted at the root.
Extensive welding of a small replacement forging to build up wheel diameters and to build up
the forging diameter was carried out. Joining welds were made between the old and new pieces
of the turbine forging. (Figure 4-33) Since 1993, it has operated without rubs or abnormal
vibration. (Ref. 4-37)
4-53

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-33
Welded Replacement Forging for Damaged Rotor
In a unique approach to rotor repair, this small forging was built up by welding the wheels, then
join welding that section to the original pieces of the turbine rotor. Rotor weld repair, once not
considered for turbines, now is used with confidence in certain situations involving shaft or disc
damage.
STEAM TURBINE BLADES AND DIAPHRAGMS

Summary of Blade and Diaphragm Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques
and Corrective Actions
Turbine blades and diaphragms are designed to operate in an extremely hostile environment. Not
only must they be mechanically able to handle fluid and centrifugal forces, they must also
tolerate small vibrational stimuli, creep stresses in HP and IP cylinders, and corrosion and
erosion effects from steam constituents. Clearly plant operation can have an impact on blade life.
Frequent starting and stopping of the machine imposes thermal and mechanical fatigue stresses.
Poor control of water and steam chemistry opens the door to corrosion deposits, water induction
from feedwater heater lines can cause rapid erosion damage and changes in blade support
stiffness, with time, can introduce concerns about blade resonance conditions.
So it is no surprise that blade failures are pervasive in the industry, accounting, on average, for
two outages every three years for each fossil unit. This section covers the damage mechanisms
(Tables 4-15, 4-16) and inspection methods (Table 4-17) for blades and diaphragms. It also
suggests courses of action (Table 4-18), although each blade failure is unique and requires a
careful assessment of the best fix in conjunction with advice from the OEM and others. Ref. 438 has more details on blade failures.
4-54

Steam Turbines
Table 4-15
Steam Turbine Blade and Diaphragm Component Damage Mechanisms
Component
Rotating blades
(see Figure 4-34)
Blade roots
(See Figures 4-35
and 4-36)
Erosion shields
Shrouds, Tie Wires
and Tenons
Nozzle blocks
Diaphragms
Damage Mechanism
High cycle fatigue associated with blade resonance

Creep of the hottest parts manifested by elongation which causes wear of
sealing surface.
Water droplet erosion, which wears away leading edge of LP blading.
Solid particle erosion caused by iron oxide
Pitting and stress corrosion cracking in last stages of LP turbine
High cycle fatigue resulting from vibrations of airfoils.
Creep in areas associated with high temperature blades in HP and IP
turbines.
Low cycle fatigue during each stop/start cycle.
Fretting resulting from vibrations at mating surface.
IGSCC resulting from concentration of steam impurities.
Water droplet erosion in last LP stage.
Shroud wear due to seal rubbing.
Tenon creep damage.
Rivet damage caused by SPE.
High cycle fatigue in notch where shroud, tenon and blade airfoil meet
when blade group is in resonance.
Low cycle fatigue due to cycling at joint where riveted part of tenon and
outer shroud meet.
IGSCC in last LP stages that are moisture prone, or have deposits.
Thermal fatigue resulting from thermal mismatches of sections during
partial admission.
SPE damage.
Thermal fatigue and weld cracking.
Water droplet erosion of last stages.
SPE in initial HP and IP stages.
High cycle fatigue.
(Ref. 3-8)
4-55

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-34
Corrosion Damage Areas in LP Blades
In addition to high and low cycle fatigue, LP turbine blades are affected by deposition of corrodant
products in the presence of moisture. Cracks can develop at any of the sites identified in this
figure. (Ref. 4-39)
Additional Comments on Blade and Diaphragm Damage Mechanisms

A typical distribution of generic failure causes for HP, IP, and LP turbine blades is summarized
in Table 4-16. Surprisingly, more than one-third of all blade failure causes were identified as
unknown.
Table 4-16
Root Causes of Steam Turbine Blade Failures
Cause of failure
Design shortcomings
Vibration
Aerodynamic forces
Erosion
Stress corrosion
Water induction
Other causes
Unknown causes
Total
(Ref. 4-3)
4-56
HP Blading
8%
9
7
17
8
4
14
33
100%
IP Blading
43%
0
0
16
6
6
2
27
100%
LP Blading
9%
8
5
5
24
2
9
38
100%

Steam Turbines
The distribution of components affected by these problems is shown in Figure 4-35. (Ref. 4-40)
Figure 4-35
Blade Problem Areas
Of the blade regions most susceptible to damage, an EPRI survey identified where special
attention must be paid. Shrouds and tenons are particularly troublesome for HP and IP blades,
while the long LP blades suffer damage in the airfoil 40% of the time. For this reason, the long
blades are individually tuned to avoid resonant operating conditions before they leave the factory.
(Ref. 4-40)
Blade Roots
Steam turbine blading is attached to the rotor by means of blade roots or attachments. These
blade roots can have a number of different geometries, determined by blade size and axial
spacing, the manufacturers machining capability, future maintenance requirements and
successful operation of past designs. Roots are often classified by the direction of motion for
assembling blades to the wheel, whether tangential, radial or axial. The varying root geometries
all require complex shapes and attachment schemes, which in turn, cause stress concentrations or
stress risers, in both the blade and the rotor (or disk), Figure 4-36. These areas are often the sites
for crack initiation and propagation. (Ref. 4-41)
4-57

Steam Turbines
Figure 4-36
Blade Root Attachments
Clearly containing potential sites for blade crack initiation, the blade root appears to dominate, in
bulk, the blade itself. Although root stresses are high, the geometries are designed to avoid stress
risers and thus crack sites. Corrosion though, for LP blading, adds a complicating dimension to
the problem.
For example, Pennsylvania Power and Light (PP&L) detected stress corrosion cracking or
corrosion assisted fatigue on 90% of LP rotor dovetails inspected in the L-0, L-1, and L-2 stages
in the finger dovetail, tangential entry and axial entry fir tree root dovetails. (Ref. 4-42)
Representative crack locations are shown in Figure 4-37. The impact of the blade steady state
and start-stop (fatigue) forces is clear. Even with generous radii at the high stress locations,
cracks can initiate. Careful inspections, using magnetic particles, penetrants, eddy currents, and
ultrasonics are called for during the periodic turbine overhauls (Table 4-17). Complete fracturing
of the attachment dovetails in the rotor is not unknown, and innovative ways of building up these
sites by welding and re-machining have been found.
Figure 4-37
Representative Blade Root Crack Locations
4-58

Steam Turbines
In spite of careful stress analysis in design and attention to detail in machining, cracks can still
develop in susceptible areas of the blade root and attachments. These must be detected early so
that total fracture does not occur. Even severely cracked attachments can be sometimes repaired
by weld build-up and re-machining.
Table 4-17
Steam Turbine Blade and Diaphragm Component Inspection Techniques
Component
Rotating blades
VT of all surfaces.
ET, particularly for long blades.
MT and PT of suspect area to determine very small cracks.
Blade roots
VT of all visible portions of the roots.

MT and PT of suspect area to determine very small cracks.
Erosion shields
VT for erosion
PT for cracking
Shrouds, Tie Wires

and Tenons
VT of all components.
Check tenons with UT, PT, MT, ET for subsurface cracking.
Problems with shroud bands lifting away from blades can be detected
during operation by vibration monitors.
Nozzle blocks
VT for thermal fatigue and erosion.

MT/PT for small fatigue cracks.
Dimensional checks to determine erosion.
Diaphragms
VT for erosion damage.

MT, PT, ET of suspect area to determine very small cracks.
Dimensional checks to discover any distortion.
(Ref. 3-8)
BLADE Analysis
The BLADE code, which was developed for EPRI, is very useful for determining both the initial
(as manufactured) and as-found blade resonant frequencies and vibration patterns. Many utilities
have used this computer code to guide decisions regarding permissible flaw sizes, particularly in
blade attachments. It combines static and dynamic stress data, the known properties of the blade
metal, and the cycling history of the turbine to estimate when cracks are likely to appear and
calculates the blades probable life considering crack propagation. Using BLADE, one is able to
diagnose the root cause of blade failures, evaluate new configurations or design modifications
and predict remaining fatigue life. (Ref. 4-29)
Corrective Actions
The comments in Table 4-18 concerning corrective actions are general in nature. Each situation
will require detailed evaluation.
4-59

Steam Turbines
Table 4-18
Steam Turbine Blade and Diaphragm Component Damage Corrective Actions
Component
Rotating blades
Corrective Action ( in all cases check approach with OEM)

Grind out small flaws. Replace as needed
Blade roots
Grind out small flaws. Weld and machine as needed, or replace.
Erosion shields
Rebraze cracks in braze interface. Replace as needed.
Shrouds, Tie Wires

and Tenons
Grind out small flaws. Replace as needed
Nozzle blocks
Repair or replace as required by life estimation. Weld and machine as

needed.
Diaphragms
Grind out small flaws. Repair or replace as needed
(Ref. 3-8)
Dealing with Solid Particle Erosion (SPE)
SPE is caused by erosion by deposits, such as magnetite, that have exfoliated from boiler tube
surfaces. The worst erosion is associated with impingement of particles on the high-pressure
control stage (Figure 4-38) and the first reheat stage. Industry cost estimates for SPE damage
total $150 million/year with an estimated average annual cost of $ 0.70/kW. (Ref. 4-43). AEP
experience shows that supercritical units required nozzle and bucket repair/replacement about
one and half times as frequently as subcritical units and SPE has been reported as the major
cause of heat rate degradation in supercritical unit turbines. (Ref. 4-1)
Photo Courtesy ABB
Figure 4-38
Control Stage Blade
Hard particle erosion is a prime concern in HP and IP stage blading. Inspection of potential crack
initiation sites is appropriate during maintenance. Such sites, shown in this photo, include the
dovetail attachment platforms, blade root and tip, blade cover, and tip seals.
4-60

Steam Turbines
Age and number of starts impact SPE. (Ref. 4-3). Scale begins to break off from surfaces in the
steam circuit after about five years of operation, particularly when a unit is being heated during
start-up. This is due to the difference in thermal expansion coefficient between the base metal
and the scale, which is primarily magnetite. Erosion (Figure 4-39) generally occurs in the first
stages of the high, intermediate and low-pressure turbine sections, where the steam carrying the
scale particles first come in contact with the blades. (Ref. 4-44) Other components that are
impacted include nozzles in service with partial admission at lower loads and reheat turbine
diaphragms. It is a visible and often severe consequence of cycling.
Figure 4-39
Steam Turbine Nozzle Erosion
Solid particle erosion of HP and IP turbine blades and nozzles is particularly a problem with units
that start-up frequently, and pass exfoliated boiler tube materials through the blades. This damage
worsens performance progressively. Better blade coatings, improved flow dynamics, and
reduction of boiler tube exfoliation through tube cleaning or chromizing, all alleviate this problem.
This figure shows the inlet stage of an IP turbine with solid particle erosion on the trailing edge.
(Ref. 4-45)
Reducing SPE Damage
SPE damage can be markedly reduced by a combination of modifications. These include hard
coatings on surfaces that are impacted by particles, redesign of hardware, optimization of
feedwater chemistry and changes in operating procedures. These are summarized in Table 4-19.
4-61

Steam Turbines
Table 4-19
Approaches to Reducing Solid Particle Erosion
Component Modifications
SPE Reduction Approach
High pressure section
Install erosion resistant coatings on first stage nozzles.

Install contoured sidewalls.
Install separate bolted-on flow path that is hard-coated on the
pressure side of the nozzle.
Reheat section
Increase clearance between diaphragms and blades, hard coat

nozzles.
Main stop valve/bypass

valve
Install new angle slot design or rebuild valve with demi-skirt

design and coat with hard material.
Operational changes
Reduce the tube temperature ramps, by slower start-ups
Steam admission
Replace partial arc admission with full arc admission
Boiler tube modifications
Chemical cleaning, chromate treatment, tube chromizing, use of

higher chrome tubes
Particle removal
Install bypass around turbine during start-up to flush exfoliated

particles to condenser.
Install inertial separator
(Ref. 4-43, 4-45, and 4-46)

Brief Case Histories of Blade Refurbishments and Upgrades
Southern California Edison Converts a Control Stage to Restore Partial Arc Admission
Capability
The 325 MW El Segundo unit 3, originally designed for 25% minimum arc of admission,
experienced cyclic fatigue cracking of the control stage blades and dovetail-type blade
attachment. Restrictions led to higher arcs of admission and resultant inefficient part load
operation. Heat rate was penalized by 250 Btu/kWh at low loads. By using a triple pin
attachment for the root, which required machining off the existing control stage and building up
the rotor blade attachment area with weld, the 25% minimum arc of admission was restored.
(Ref. 4-47).
Southern California Edison and Pennsylvania Power and Light Control Stage
Modifications
Replacement of separately attached control stage blades and shrouds with a integral, welded ring
of coated blades has been utilized to eliminate HP control stage blade attachment reliability
problems caused by high cycle fatigue. This is an alternative to using a longer segment of partial
arc admission. That solution reduces low load efficiency and operational flexibility. The use of
the welded ring approach eliminates blade and shroud mechanical attachments (tenons).
Successful projects were done by SCE at Redondo Units 7 and 8 and by PP&L at Brunner Island.
(Ref. 4-48)
4-62

Steam Turbines
BB73 Blade Investigation

Repair strategies for the L-0, L-1, L-2, and L-3 blade rows in Westinghouse Building Block 73
(BB73) low-pressure steam turbines were sought by a broad group of utilities. Approximately
two-thirds of the operating population had experienced a problem of cracking or failure in one or
more of these rows since the units were introduced into service in 1967. An industry survey
revealed 247 outages and nearly 20,000 affected blades.
Analysis indicated that the problems with the individual rows were:
L-0
Low cycle fatigue damage during each start/stop cycle

Non-synchronous vibration at extreme off-design operating conditions
L-1
High steady stresses in the blade attachments

Families of blade disk natural frequencies that had to be tuned out
Operation within the Wilson line that led to corrosion
L-2
High cycle fatigue caused by blade/disk resonance
L-3
High cycle fatigue caused by blade/disk resonance
Proposed solutions were (1) reduce blade stresses in the blade roots (2) improve detuning and
damping of the blade/disk structure. (Ref. 4-49)
TVA Utilization of the BLADE Code
TVA successfully utilized the BLADE code to help them reach a decision on whether or not to
replace several hundred last stage (L-0) turbine blades in the low-pressure turbine at their 1350
MW Cumberland Unit 1. Instead of replacing the blades, it was concluded that an appropriate
solution was to remove fatigued blade material, coat the blades, install a vibration monitor and
change certain operating practices. (Ref. 4-50)
Florida Power and Light Utilization of the BLADE Code
Florida Power and Light (FPL) utilized the BLADE code to extend the period of use of BB-73
low-pressure turbine blades. Assessment of a number of L-1 cracked stage blades indicated that
the root cause of the initiation and growth of these cracks was low cycle fatigue. Grinding out
existing small cracks was the key temporary countermeasure that was successfully utilized until
replacement parts could be delivered. (Ref. 4-51)
Penelec Utilized Eddy Current Probe System to Detect Turbine Blade Cracks
Penelec was able to detect small cracks in the inner rows of low-pressure steam turbine blades
during off-line inspections through the use of an eddy current system. The system was comprised
of eddy current probes, mechanisms for moving the probes along the blade edge, video monitor
and a dual-frequency eddy current monitor electronics package that collected and displayed
inspection data. Cracks as small as 0.03 inches (0.76 mm) long can be detected. In the initial trial
of the system, Penelec detected two cracked blades. (Ref. 4-52)
4-63

Steam Turbines
Southwestern Public Service Detected Cracks in Steam Turbine Blades with Ultrasonic
Inspection
Tenon cracks have been a long-term problem with steam turbine blades. Southwestern Public
Service utilized an ultrasonic technique that allowed separate longitudinal and shear wave scans
to be performed by transducers at the end of the tenon. This technique was used to inspect the
low-pressure turbine at unit 2 of at the Harrington station. The inspection revealed that 25 of the
240 blades had defects that were later confirmed as cracks in a subsequent examination. Based on
this analysis, as well as a vendor recommendation, SPS decided to replace the L-1 blades in this
unit with a freestanding, unshrouded blade design immune to blade tenon cracking. (Ref. 4-53)
WEPCO Refurbished L-1 Turbine Buckets
Oak Creek Unit 8, which has a 310MW capacity, had suffered from tenon cracking and tie wire
hole cracking in the buckets through out its history. The blades in this unit were fabricated from
422SS, which was only used in a total of ten blade rows before the vendor changed the design
material to 410SS. WEPCO identified refurbishment as the lowest cost approach to resolving the
problem. The repair procedure included removal of the bucket tip, using manual gas tungsten arc
welding to attach a block of 410SS onto the 422SS bucket, machining the tenons and tip platform and
polishing the vane section of the bucket to the proper dimensions and contours. It took 31 days at
an outside shop to repair 529 buckets. Installation of the refurbished buckets included new pins,
tie wires and fox-holed shroud covers. (Ref. 4-54)
ELCOM Re-balanced L-2 Blades to Eliminate Failures
Low pressure blading problems in two 500 MW units located at the Wallerawang Power Station
of the Electricity Commission of New South Wales, Australia, (ELCOM) caused an average loss
of availability of 4% during 1980-1990. Repeated cracking of the coverband assembly was
experienced in all L-2 blade rows in unit 7 and in two blade rows in unit 8. The coverband is
attached to the blade tips of each group of twelve blades. Failures were initiated in the buttstraps,
located beneath the coverband and held in position by the peened tenons. There are two peened
tenons per blade. Analysis of the problem indicated that it was related to blade resonance
involving interaction of the sixth modal diameter axial mode with the sixth harmonic of turbine
speed of 300 cycles per second. Attachment of a 38 gram detuning weight to the tips of all 156blade airfoils lowered the bladed disk natural frequency from 300 cycles/second and vibration
was reduced by a factor of ten. (Ref. 4-55)
STATIONARY COMPONENTS
Summary of Component Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques and
Corrective Actions
Turbine casings, single cylinders in older turbines but inner and outer shells in modern machines,
are subject to creep damage due to steady state steam temperatures and pressures, as well as
stresses and fatigue due to frequent cycling operation. Because of the increased demand on older
units for frequent starts and stops, and hence fatigue, the combination of these creep and fatigue
4-64

Steam Turbines
stresses has led to many cases of cracks developing in casings and steam chests. The same is true
of control valves, also susceptible to solid particle erosion in the same way as HP and IP blading.
Though casing cracks can be long and deep, and in some cases leak steam, they are rarely
catastrophic in the same way as, for example, rotor forging failures. Several ways of repairing
casing cracks exist, the most common being welding (with or without post welding heat treatment),
grinding for shallow cracks, and metal stitching for deeper cracks. No specific repairs are suggested
here, each failure requiring a separate analysis and evaluation before decisions are made. The
effect of cumulative damage on the casings, particularly single walled cylinders of older design,
is often to loosen turbine bolting and to change the dimensions of the casing. This implies that
careful dimensional checks should be periodically made and corrective measures taken if tolerances are
exceeded. The casing may require heat treatment to restore its original shape. (Ref. 4-38).
Tables 4-20 and 4-21 provides a brief summation of the damage mechanisms and corrective
actions that are typically encountered with each stationary component. Additional discussion of
key components is provided where appropriate. In each case, the approach selected for corrective
action should be checked with the OEM. Each situation will require a detailed evaluation.
Table 4-20
Stationary Turbine Component Damage Mechanisms
Component
Damage Mechanism
Inspection
Technique
VT, MT, UT to
discover surface
connected cracks.
Dimensional checks
Replication
Possible Corrective
Actions
Grind small defects.
Repair deep cracks
by weld or metal
stitching.
Turbine Casings
Thermal-fatigue
Creep
Creep-fatigue
Steam chests
Thermal-fatigue
Creep
UT to discover
surface connected
cracks.
VT, MT
Dimensional checks
Replication
Repair by grinding,
welding, metal
stitching, depending
on size.
Turbine Bolting
Elongation caused by
creep relaxation
VT.
Dimensional checks
Replace if damaged,
perhaps with stronger
material.
Seals and packing
Wear
VT
Dimensional checks
Replace if leakage
criteria are exceeded.
(Ref. 3-8)
Additional Discussion on Damage Mechanisms
Damage to stationary components, particularly casings, is likely to be a growing concern in view
of the age of fossil plants (now averaging 30 years), and the increasing deployment of them in
cycling service. This concern, of course, spreads across the plant as the cycling issues (see Figure
4-25 for the turbine) indicate. So low cycle fatigue is the predominant failure mechanism and it
is hard to eliminate, except by much slower ramping of the plant or by careful pre-warming of
the turbine. What is recommended is the installation of a turbine stress analyzer that
continuously monitors temperatures and temperature differences, and calculates thermal stresses,
4-65

Steam Turbines
loss of life, and potential damage initiation in forgings and casings. Several of these stress
analyzers are in operation for turbines and a few for boiler thick wall components. It is
interesting that one vendor, by 1986, had identified turbine casing cracks in more than 60% of
units built in the 1950s, two thirds of them within 10 years of initial operation. Machines built in
the 1960s, by comparison, showed casing cracks developing at perhaps half that rate. (Ref. 456). As a quick guide to repairs, Table 4-21 suggests some options (Ref. 4-38), the precise repair
depending on the severity of the situation.
Table 4-21
Repair Options for Turbine Casings
Technique
Grinding
Advantages
Quick, simple, cheap
Can remove casting flaws, tool
marks
Useful for shallow cracks
Disadvantages
Only a temporary repair
Can aggravate potential for future
cracks
Cannot be used for deep cracks
Limited by minimum wall
thickness requirements
Mechanical repair
Can strengthen cracked region

Semi-permanent repair
Can be done on-site
May not be permanent

Stitches may need to be redone
May require analysis to determine
best repair
Weld repair, no post

weld heat treatment
(PWHT)
Cheaper, easier than weld requiring

PWHT
Can be performed on-site
Requires no machining (if no
distortion)
Temporary repair
High residual stresses
Low fatigue strength
Weld repair, with

PWHT
Permanent repair for extending life

Cost approximately 10 % of new
casings
Casing requires machining after

stress relief due to distortion
Casing needs transporting
Most time consuming repair
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Stationary Turbine

Components
Niagara Mohawk Repairs Cracked HP/IP Casings
In 1992, after 35 years of service totaling 200,000 operating hours and 500 starts, the 200 MW
Huntley 67 unit of Niagara Mohawk was found to have 53 cracks in the HP/IP inner and outer
casings. The total length of the cracks was 305 inches (7750mm), with one crack that was 85
inches (2160mm) long by 5 inches (127mm) deep. Weld repairs were accomplished within six
weeks at a cost of $300,000. Replacement of the casing would have cost $12 million and taken
24 months for delivery. (Ref. 4-57)
4-66

Steam Turbines
PowerGen Weld Repairs Cracked Steam Chests

Steam chests can develop cracks due to thermal cycling and old units can be particularly affected
by thermal degradation of the microstructure of PowerGens 0.5 Cr 0.5 Mo 0.25 V steel castings.
More than 50 steam chests were repaired in the period 1978-1992. An intensive inspection
process using MT and UT was utilized to validate the repairs. A weld-repaired steam chest is
considered superior to a new casting and generally costs an order of magnitude less than a new
component. (Ref. 4-58)
Public Service of Indiana Casing Repair
Thermal fatigue cracking, of small turbine unit casings (75MW GE Model D2) at Unit #3 of the
Wabash River plant of Public Service of Indiana, was located in the steam chest area in the upper
half of the casing. Cracks were removed by arc-air gouging. The repair was made by filling in
the excavated area with weld metal using a shielded metal arc technique. After the repair, the
upper casing was stress relieved. (Ref. 4-59)
PERFORMANCE RECOVERY
A steam turbine can lose as much as 2% points of efficiency per decade. The reasons for this
continuous decline are many but result primarily from wear and damage.
A detailed steam path audit is an accounting of efficiency losses in the steam path, best
accomplished when the turbine is out of service and opened for inspection. This helps quantify
the costs and benefits of maintenance actions and prioritize efforts. (Ref. 4-60) It is possible
however to utilize observations of operating performance as valuable indicators of problems that
exist or may be developing in various parts of the machine. The information in Table 4-22
provides a useful analysis path to detect where the problems are located and provides some
suggestions for the root cause. (Ref. 4-1)
4-67

Steam Turbines
Table 4-22
Root Cause Analysis of Turbine Performance Problems
Observation
Low power
output
Possibly due to
Low turbine efficiency resulting from blade path mechanical damage
Increased leakage or erosion

-- blade path seal clearances around blade ring
-- inner cylinder horizon joint
-- turbine inlet piping leakage
-- cylinder access cover plate or end plate
-- excessive shaft end seal leakage
-- leaking equilibrium pipe (combined HP/IP)
High exhaust pressure
Part load operation- high pressure turbine with partial admission
Low steam temperature

Low steam flow
Blade flow area blockage
Control valve malfunction
Low throttle pressure
Cycle isolation
High Steam
Flow
Cracked nozzle chambers or inner cylinders
Enlarged blade or inlet seal clearances
Eroded nozzle flow area
Damaged blade shrouds (covers)
Cycle leakage
High First
Stage Steam
Increased flow area of first stage

-- solid particle erosion
-- blade damage
Decreased flow passing area of downstream stage

-- deposition
-- blade damage
Pressure
High First
Stage Steam
Pressure
High Turbine
Thrust
Blade deposits
Blockage
-- foreign body
-- mechanical damage
Blade erosion
(Ref. 4-1)
4-68
Increased flow passing downstream stages

Reduced flow area of first stages
Increased control valve throttling
Control valve overlap in cases of partial admission
Inlet pipe pressure drop

Steam Turbines
Surface Roughness
Significant losses in efficiency of each stage in the turbine can occur as a result of deposits on
blade surfaces, which increase surface roughness. These deposits decrease the area of passage of
the blading channels and cause an increase in the aerodynamic resistance. Aerodynamic
resistance also decreases because of blade roughness caused by erosion and corrosion.
The range of those losses, that can be surprisingly high, is shown below in Figure 4-40, which
presents the stage efficiency losses for 200 and 500MW steam turbines for the HP, IP and LP
sections. These losses are plotted against the equivalent sand grain sizes that relate to roughness.
Standard surface finish qualities, which correlate against sand grain size are included on the
chart. (Ref. 4-2)
Figure 4-40
Effect of Blade Surface Deposits on Stage Efficiency
Losses can be particularly significant in HP and IP blading, and a loss of 1-4% is not uncommon
in an older turbine. Though not life shortening, such damage at some point becomes uneconomic
and blades should be polished or replaced at a convenient outage.
Steam Turbine Blade Improvement

Utilization of advanced computational technologies for blade design has allowed vendors to
improve the performance of the blades that they offer. For example, GE redesigned their 20 inch
(508mm) last stage blade using the same Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technology used
to previously redesign the 30 (762mm) and 33.5 inch (851mm) blades in their 60Hz machine,
and the 23 (584mm) and 26 inch (660mm) blades in their 50Hz machine. A reduction of up to
1% in heat rate has been claimed if these newly designed blades are used to replace the previous
blades. (Ref. 4-61)
4-69

Steam Turbines
Seven areas that have been modified to reduce secondary blade losses:
Bucket and nozzle profiles
HP/IP stage design
LP stage design
Last stage bucket design
Last stage bucket length
Contoured sidewalls
Tip leakage loss
Replacing worn blades in the HP, IP and LP sections with identical blades will only have a
relatively small impact on the heat rate and capacity of the turbine amounting to 0.50 to 0.95%
and 0.65 to 1.25% respectively. However, if blades that have been developed with the use of 3-D
design codes, are installed instead of the older design blades, an additional 2.85 to 4.45 and 3.15
to 4.85% in heat rate and capacity might be gained. Total benefit from the new blades of 3.35 to
5.4% in heat rate and 3.8 to 6.1% in capacity is claimed. (Ref. 4-62)
Replacing Seals and Packings
Steam leakage can account for 80% of efficiency losses in a steam turbine and as turbines age
this worsens. Rotor distortion, manifested by out-of -roundness, is a major cause of excessive
internal leakage and loss of efficiency, since distortions and vibration cause seal damage. Due to
thermal gradients during startups, turbine inner shells, diaphragms, blade rings and packing
boxes can distort and become eccentric. And since the turbine rotor is subject to vibration as it is
brought through its critical speeds, distortion implies reduced clearances, interference and
packing rubs. Packing rub heating can result in rotor distortion that creates a temporary bow.
Loss of seal efficiency can also result from blade damage, deposits, misalignment and unusual
flow phenomena.
It is recommended that at each inspection interval, the steam path be examined to identify the
quality of critical aerodynamic components, mechanical damage, steam path deposits, erosion
damage, seal damage, and unusual wear. This should be done by photographing damage,
measuring and plotting patterns of seal wear, reviewing startup procedures and thermal gradients,
and determining the probability of distortion problems. Estimates should then be made of the
contribution of each of these items to the total efficiency loss.
Efficiency can be improved by tighter seal packing clearances; reduced tip seal clearances;
packing and tip seal material changes; upgraded seal area components; and upgraded inlet bell
seals and snout rings. (Ref. 4-63)
Retractable Packings
Retractable packings permit wider clearance on startup and reduced clearance in operation. This
eliminates rub induced rotor bowing. It increases efficiency because of reduction of clearances in
4-70

Steam Turbines
operation, thereby minimizing packing and tip seal leakage losses. This is particularly valuable
for the packing losses across integral HP-IP turbines.
The concept of the Brandon packing, for example, is to utilize springs between the packing
segments. These force the packing away from the shaft during startup until the turbine load
increases to a predetermined point. Then the steam pressure behind the packing overcomes the
spring forces and moves the packing toward the shaft, resulting in small clearances during
operation.
Bell Seals
Redesigning the bell seal and changing its materials allows easier disassembly and prevents seal
leakage. The advantages of these solutions include:
1. Relatively high seal to nozzle bore radial clearances at assembly
2. Moderately high seal to bore radial clearance with freedom of float during periods of high
thermal distortion
3. Zero steam leakage at normal operating conditions
4. Positive axial seal flange to retaining nut flange clearance at all conditions
5. Stable crowned sealing surfaces (Ref. 4-64)
Brief Case Histories of Performance Upgrades
Upgrade Packages
Vendors offer upgrade packages for steam turbines. It is reasonable to assume that a steam
turbine upgrade can produce increases of up to 5% in both efficiency and capacity, the nominal
cost of a refurbishment package for a 250-300MW machine being about $5 million. Most
completed projects have involved opposed flow HP/IP units and refurbishments seem to be most
economical with single shell units. Upgrade projects normally add one week to a typical 4-6
week major outage, although the project economics may work best if a boiler upgrade is done at
the same time, since additional steam flow might be utilized by the upgraded steam turbine to
produce additional power. This additional revenue could be an important factor in proving the
project economically viable. (Ref. 4-62 and 4-65)
Replacement LP Turbines
Retrofit of 500MW LP cylinders at the Fiddlers Ferry and Cottam units of Powergen resulted in
a 3-5% improvement in heat rate or 20MW increase in output with same heat input to boiler.
Increased reliability resulted from replacement of life limited components leading to reduced
inspection and maintenance costs. In one project, partial replacement of older blades and nozzles
with CFD designed components with better aspect ratio and better sealing, reduced heat rate by
4-71

Steam Turbines
0.9%. Full retrofitting involved the replacement of the bladed rotor, diaphragms and inner
cylinder in the LP steam path with modern design components. After replacement, the same
boiler heat load resulted in an output of 538MW compared with 518 MW previously. The new
rotors are of the monobloc design instead of the previous spindle and shrunk-on discs. They are
stiffer and have improved running characteristics These rotors and new 37.2 inch (982mm)
blading virtually eliminate inspection requirements. (Ref. 4-66)
Southern California Edison Steam Turbine Performance Recovery
SCE conducted performance audits on nineteen steam turbines. They determined that the
efficiency of these steam turbines was typically 5.23% lower than design prior to major outages.
Degradation was highest in the HP turbine, followed by the LP turbine with the IP turbine being
the lowest. Losses were due to leakages (interstage packings, radial spill strips, end packings and
others), flow path damage (SPE, deposits, mechanical damage), and stage losses (surface
roughness, casing deposits, trailing edge thickness). On average 68% of this lost performance
was recovered by repair actions during outages. Recovery however was highest in the LP turbine
(72%) followed by the HP turbine (69%) and IP turbine (57%). (Ref. 4-67)
San Diego Gas and Electric Rotor Replacement
San Diego Gas and Electric replaced the LP turbine rotor and casing in their Encina unit 4 and 5
steam turbines in 1994. The double flow BB72 model units equipped with 6 rows of blades per
flow path and a nominal 28.5 inch (724mm) last stage blade length. Problems with the BB72
rotor included cracking in the L-1 root, blade and tenon followed by cracking in the L-0 blade
and root, L-2 tenon cracking and rotor steeple cracking.
The original rotors were replaced with Siemens rotors that had 7 stages per flow path and a 32
inch (813mm) last stage blade. The outages required to replace the rotors in each unit lasted six
weeks. As a result of the changes, heat rates improved by 2.3% in Unit 4 and 2.7% in Unit 5.
Output improved by 2.4% in Unit 4 and 3.3% in Unit 5.
The project was economically justified on the basis of performance improvement, maintenance
savings, and the increased inspection intervals that were specified for the advanced components.
Minor inspections, which do not require opening the casing or removing the rotor are
recommended after 25,000 equivalent operating hours. Major inspections, which require casing
and rotor disassembly, are recommended after 100,000 equivalent operating hours. The value of
improved efficiency and output was projected at over $20 million over the next thirty years of
use at an annual capacity factor of 40%. An additional $5 million saving was estimated from
improved reliability, improved availability and reduced O&M, associated with L-0 and L-1 blade
repairs and replacements. Flame hardening of the leading edge of the last stage blade was
utilized to reduce water droplet erosion. The rotor was forged from a single ingot of 3.5%
NiCrMoV steel. (Ref. 4-68)
4-72

Steam Turbines
Improved Seal Rings at Brayton Point

Inlet pipes to the steam turbines have seal rings installed to prevent leakage. Conventional rings
suffer from oxidation, which leads to binding between the rings and casing. This has led to ring
distortion, which results in leakage. Newly patented, Articulated Snout Rings were successfully
tested at Brayton Point Unit #2 of New England Power. These rings, of a high stress superalloy,
have improved thermal coefficients of expansion and corrosion resistance. (Ref. 4-69)
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Course Notes, Instructors Fruchtman, I. and Burkhart, D., Steam Turbine Performance
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4-2
Cofer IV, J.I.; Reinker, J.K. and Summer, W.J., Advances in Steam Path Efficiency, 35th GE
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4-73

Steam Turbines
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4-74

Steam Turbines
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4-75

Steam Turbines
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4-35
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4-76

Steam Turbines
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Breitkreuz, D. and Jerwann, K., Solid Particle Erosion-The Phenomena and the Engineering
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Partial Arc Admission Capability, American Power Conference, Chicago, IL, April, 1999.
4-48
Kilroy Jr., R.; Hershey, T. G.; Morin, M.; Gibson, S.; Perez, R.; Bennett, M. and Piatt, B.,
Improving Control Stage Reliability, Low Load Efficiency and Operational Flexibility of Two
Single Control State HP/IP Rotors and One Curtis Stage LP Rotor, Volume 13, Pages 121
144, Powergen '96, December 46, 1996, Orlando, FL.
4-49
Low Pressure Turbine Blade Design Evaluation. EPRI Report TR-105839, November 1995.
4-50
BLADE Code Helps TVA Diagnose Blade Failure Quickly and Avoid Blade Replacements.
EPRI IN-10420, December 1994.
4-51
Florida Power and Light Uses BLADE Program to Analyze Low Pressure Turbine Blade
Failures. EPRI-100229, November 1991.
4-52
Remote Eddy-Current Probe System Details Turbine Blade Cracks. EPRI First Use FS7321B,
October 1987.
4-53
Detecting Cracks in Steam Turbine Blades. EPRI First Use FS6416B, December 1986.
4-77

Steam Turbines
4-54
Greco, S. W.; Burtand, T. W. and Robinson, D. B. Wisconsin Electric Power Company Oak
Creek Power Plant Unit 8 L-1 Turbine Bucket Refurbishment, pages 1-3 through 1-20,
Proceedings of the Steam and Combustion Turbine -Blading Conference and Workshop-1992,
EPRI Report TR-102061, April 1993.
4-55
Hesler, S. H. and Marshall, J. E., Diagnosis and Recurring Failure in L-2 LP Turbine Stage,
pages 1-61 to 1-80, Proceedings of the Steam and Combustion Turbine -Blading Conference and
Workshop-1992, EPRI Report TR-102061, April 1993.
4-56
Vogan, J.H. and Morsen, A., Improvements in Shell Design and Maintenance Techniques for
General Electric In-Service Shells, Proceedings: Life Assessment and Repair of Steam Turbine
Casings, EPRI Report CS-4676- SR, July 1986.
4-57
Sheikh, M. Practical Solutions for Repairing Cracked Turbine Casings of 1 Mo I Cr 0.25 V
Cast Steel, Proceedings: Welding Repair Technologies for Fossil Power Plants, EPRI Report
TR-104588, December 1994.
4-58
Allen, P.; Bates P. and Kelly, T. Weld Repair of Service Damaged Power Plant Components,
Proceedings: Welding Repair Technologies for Fossil Power Plants, EPRI Report TR-104588,
December 1994.
4-59
Dowling, M.; Thielach, H. and Wisner, D., Repair Welding of a High Pressure Turbine Casing
Subject to Thermal Fatigue Cracking and Original Manufacturing Defects, Book 5, Pages
125132, Powergen 1995, December 57, 1995, Anaheim, CA.
4-60
Cioffi, D. H. and Rylander, L., Steam Path Audits, Page 152, Powergen '97 Abstracts, December
911, 1997, Dallas, TX.
4-61
Morson, A.; Dinh, C. V. and Ruggles, S. G., Redesigned 20-inch Last Stage for Improved
Turbine Reliability and Efficiency, Proceedings: Third EPRI Turbine and Generator NDE Life
Assessment and Maintenance Workshop. EPRI Report TR-103392, January 1994.
4-62
Drier Jr., W. Donald and Doret,Stanley A., Improving Competitiveness Through Advanced
Steam Path Uprates, Volume 13, Pages 181210, Powergen '96, December 46, 1996, Orlando,
FL.
4-63
Turkett, K. Scott and R., James, Steam Turbine Efficient Enhancement Solutions for Utility
4-78

Steam Turbines
Power Plant Applications, Proceedings: 1996 Heat Rate Improvement Conference.

EPRI Report TR1-106529, May 1996.
4-64
Trukett, K. S. and Dalton, W., Expanding Bell Seal Improves Reliability, Reduces Inlet Steam
Leakage, and Simplifies Assembly, Volume 13, Pages 93112, Powergen '96, December 46,
1996, Orlando, FL.
4-65
Haynes, Christopher P.; Madina, Carlos A.; Cioffi, Deborah A. and Cook, E. Thomas,
Measurement of HP-IP Turbine Leakage Flow, Proceedings: 1996 Heat Rate Improvement
Conference. EPRI Report TR-106529, May 1996.
4-66
Hesketh, J. A.; Spilsbury, B.; Tritthart, H. and Aubry, P., Modernization of Steam Turbines for
Improved Performance, Book 6, Pages 311336, Powergen 1995, December 57, 1995,
Anaheim, CA.
4-67
Cioffi, D. H.; Mitchell, D. R. and Whitecar, S. C., Improving Steam Turbine Efficiency,
Proceedings: 1994 Heat Rate Improvement Conference. EPRI Report TR104241-V3, June 1995.
4-68
Trimble, L. and Smiarowski, M., LP Turbine Retrofit of Encina 4 and 5 Book 6, Pages 369390, Powergen 1995, December 57, 1995, Anaheim, CA.
4-69
Reis, H. and Glynn, B., Improved Inlet Pipe Seal Design, Book 5, Pages 133148, Powergen
1995, December 57, 1995, Anaheim, CA.
Rotors
Swaminathan, V. P.; McCloskey, T.; Viswanathan, R. and Foulds, J., Condition Assessment of
High Temperature Steam Rotors, Page 205, Powergen '97 Abstracts. December 9-11, 1997,
Dallas, TX.
R., Viswanathan, Damage Mechanisms and Life Assessment of High Temperature
Components, ASM International, Cleveland,1989.
Ammirato, F.V. et al, Life Assessment Methodology For Turbo-generator Rotors, Report
CS/EL-5593, Vol. 1-4, and the Stress and Fracture Evaluation of Rotors (SAFER) Code. Electric
Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, March 1988.
4-79

Steam Turbines
Swaminathan, V. P. et al, Quantification of NDE Uncertainty by Boresonic Evaluation and

Destructive Sectioning of Steam Turbine Rotors, ASME Joint Power Generation Conference,
Phoenix, October 1994, PWR-Vol. 26, Advances in Steam Turbine Technology for Fossil Power
Gen. Industry, eds. Moore, W.G. Book. No. G00877-1994.
Viswanathan, R. and Gehl, S.M., A Method For Estimation of the Fracture Toughness of
CrMoV Rotor Steels Based on Composition, ASME Transactions, Journal of Engineering Mat.
and Tech., Vol. 113, page 263, April 1991.
Kaplan, A. and Pepe, J., Evaluation of Temper Embrittlement in Turbine Rotor Steel, Report
GS-7145, Electric Power Research Institute. Palo Alto, CA, February 1991.
Seeley, R. E.; Kaplan, A. and Bullock, G.S., C-Grade CrMoV Turbine Rotor Life Assessment,
Proceedings of the Third EPRI Turbine/Generator Conference, Albany, NY, July 20-23, 1993.
EPRI Report TR-103392, January 1994.
Foulds, J. and Viswanathan, R., Small Punch Testing for Determining the Material Toughness
of Low Alloy Steels in Service, pages 452464, ASME, Journal of Engineering Materials and
Technology 116, 1994.
Proceedings: Second EPRI Steam Turbine Generator NDE, Life Assessment and
Maintenance Workshop. EPRI Report TR-101333, October 1992.
Rotor Boresonic Inspection Guidelines. EPRI NP-6742-L, March 1990.
Proceedings: EPRI Steam Turbine Generator NDE, Life Assessment and Maintenance
Workshop. EPRI Report TR-101333, October 1992.
Steam Turbine Rotor Life Assessment and Extension. EPRI Report TR-103702, 1994.
Boresonic System Performance Guide. EPRI Report TR - 104355, October 1994.
Disks
NDE Training Sourcebook. EPRI Report TR-102105, March 1993.
Automated Scanner for Turbine Disks. EPRI Product Number 7551, April 1994.
Turbine Disk Lifetime Prediction. EPRI Product Number 7550, April 1994.
Proceedings: Fossil Steam Turbine Disk Cracking Workshop. EPRI Report GS-7250, April
1991.
Inspection of Turbine Disk Blade Attachment Guide, Volume 1, Background and
4-80

Steam Turbines
Inspection Principles. EPRI Report TR-104026, September 1994.

Shaft OD
Guide for In-Service Inspection of Boreless Turbine Rotors and Other Solid Shafts. EPRI
Report TR-101836, December 1992.
EPRI Computer Assisted Technologies for NDE and Plant Monitoring Workshop, Conference
Proceedings Manual, August 1013, 1992.
Solid Particle Erosion
McCloskey, T.; Bellanca, C. and Diaz-Tous, I., Solid Particle Erosion Technology Assessment,
EPRI International Conference on Improved Power Plants, Washington, D. C. March 1993.
Erosion-Resistant Coatings for Steam Turbines. EPRI Report CS-5415, September 1987.
Thermal Performance
Burkhart, D.; Fruchtman, I.; Armor, A.F., Combined Use of Turbine Cycle and Input/Output
Heat Rate Tests to Diagnose Thermal Performance at the Ormond Beach Generating Station,
ASME/IEEE Joint Power Generation Conference, October 1989.
4-81
5
GENERATORS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Surprisingly few serious problems occur in the conversion of mechanical power into electrical
power. Large utility generators are two or four pole machines typically cooled by either air or
hydrogen and with water often used for cooling stator windings. The use of water and hydrogen
to directly cool large machines allows higher current densities and hence MVA capabilities, and
reduces the amount of material required to construct the generator. Improvements in the
properties of the core iron and the armature bar insulation have also contributed to these trends.
Large generators consist of the frame or enclosure, stator core and windings, rotor and windings,
bearings, coolers and terminal bushings. Figure 5-1 is an illustration of a direct inner cooled
generator, where the armature bars are cooled internally by hydrogen. Water is an alternate
coolant in many machines. (Ref. 5-1)
The frame includes both the structural components to support the rotor and stator and guides and
baffles to direct the cooling medium to the proper location. Generally the rotor consists of a solid
ingot of high quality steel with had slots milled out along its axis to accept windings made of
copper conductors. These windings may be either solid or hollow depending on the approach
selected for removing heat. Stacks of thin laminations of silicon steel are used to form the core.
Each lamination is slotted to receive the stator windings and is insulated to limit the flow of eddy
currents from one laminate to another. The core laminations do, of course, provide a
circumferential flux path for the magnetic field generated by the rotating field.
5-1

Generators
Courtesy Westinghouse
Figure 5-1
A Large Hydrogen Cooled Generator
The sole purpose of the boiler, turbine and all the heat exchangers in a power plant, is to provide
enough power to turn this large electromagnet. The force needed to drive magnetic flux from the
rotor, across the air gap and across the armature coils to provide voltage and current, is
ultimately realized as high voltage, transmission line current, once past the step-up transformer.
The generator is remarkably efficient, with only rotor and armature ohmic heating, core losses,
windage and bearing losses of significance.
AVAILABILITY
Generators traditionally have been extremely reliable power plant components, ranking far below
the boiler and steam turbine in terms of loss of plant availability. The breakdown by individual
generator components is presented in Table 5-1.
5-2

Generators
Table 5-1
NERC GADS 1995-1999 Generator Availability Data
Hours per Unit Year

per Unit Year
1995-1999
1995-1999
Generator- Overall
83.95
1.06
Generator
32.80
0.16
Miscellaneous
21.45
0.15
Exciter
12.83
0.25
Cooling System
11.41
0.24
Controls
5.45
0.25
Cycling Issues for Generators

Figures 5-2 consists of total of five charts. The first chart, which was previously presented as
Figure 2-20, summarizes by major category, the generator changes made by 48 utilities that
converted 215 units to cycling service. The other four charts provide a breakdown of the changes
that were made in each of the five categories. The major issues that must be dealt with are the
additional stresses, insulation breakdown and wear on components that result from cycling
conditions.
5-3

Generators
Figure 5-2
Generator Modifications to Deal With Cycling
Cycling leads to mechanical issues resulting from centrifugal and thermal stresses developed
during frequent starts and stops. Resolution might require modification of the rotor windings,
wedges and retaining rings, removal of copper dusting in rotors and perhaps upgrading of
insulation.
5-4

Generators
GENERATOR COMPONENTS
Summary of Generator Component Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques
and Corrective Actions
In Table 5-2, the key components of the generator have been listed together with the most
prevalent damage mechanisms for those components, appropriate inspection techniques, and a set
of generally applicable corrective actions that have proved effective.
Figure 5-3
A Rare Catastrophic Failure of a Turbine-Generator Rotor
Such failures are financial disasters for a generation company. Not only faced with the equipment
replacement cost, the unit is lost to the company as a revenue generator for an extended period.
Such failures are preventable by careful attention to inspection and on-line diagnostic monitoring.
This failure began when a turbine blade cracked and broke off.
5-5

Generators
Table 5-2
Summary of Generator Component Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques and
Corrective Actions
Rotor Components
Component
Damage Mechanism
Low cycle fatigue at cooling holes, in
teeth and in slots.
MT and PT of rotor
cracks. PT of cracks in
slots and teeth.VT and
ET of wedges for
cracking
Corrective Actions
Repair or replace
components with
upgraded material.
Fatigue damage of shafts due to

torsional vibration.
VT, ET of journals for

wear, of couplings for
torsional movement,
and for cracking at
boltholes.
Eliminate source of
torsional stimulus.
Seek any feedback
signals from the
electrical network.
Install torsional
vibration detector.
Copper dusting due to winding layers

rubbing against one another. Shorted
turns.
Check slots and end

turns for dusting.
Review time spent on
turning gear.
Lift coils and vacuum

out slots for copper.
Rewind if necessary,
with copper layers
bonded together.
End turn elongation and cracking due

to low cycle yielding of the copper
under compression.
Check end turns at

corners for elongation.
Replace end turns, turn

insulation, blocking, if
elongated.
Generator
RotorElectrical
Problems
Field windings to rotor body shorts.

Turn-to-turn shorts within windings.
Discoloration resulting
from electrical arcing.
Find cause of short

and eliminate. Install
shorted turn detector.
Arcing between retaining rings and

rotor body, rotor slot wedges and
rotor teeth, at the ends of transverse
flexibility (inertia) slots.
VT for scorching of
insulation from
negative sequence
currents.
Calculate maximum
temperatures reached
by insulation, wedges.
Replace if necessary.
Rotor Bore
Problems are less likely than with

steam turbine shafts due to lower
operating temperatures. The major
problems are low cycle fatigue and
link-up of pre-existing flaws.
High cycle fatigue at outer periphery,
more prevalent on shaft extensions.
Torsional damage on smaller shafts.
(see also Rotor-Mechanical)
UT from the bore

surface to a depth of 4
inches
SAFER code can be

used to assess impact
of potential flaws and
operating conditions
MT inspection at stress
riser locations (steps,
corners, etc.)
ET/UT for collector
shaft.
Generator
Body OD
including
Inertia Slots
Cracking at ends of inertia slots due

to high cycle fatigue or overheating.
Couplings
Rare. High cycle fatigue, fretting,

fretting fatigue or foreign object
damage
VT for cracks at end of

rotor body
PT for high cycle
fatigue cracks
VT of keyways and
nominal bore of the
coupling
Repair any detected

crack.
Remove source of
torsional stimulus.
Add torsional monitor.
Repair any detected
crack
Generator
RotorMechanical
Problems
Generator
Shaft OD.
Collector
Shaft
5-6
Evaluate detected
cracks. Eliminate
vibration and other
sources of cyclic
torsional stress

Generators
Component
Retaining
Rings
Damage Mechanism
Fatigue at stress riser locations in
magnetic 4340 and NiCrMoV rings.
VT of high stress
areas. PT or MT for
exposed surfaces of
magnetic rings.
Corrective Actions
Maintain low dew point
hydrogen atmosphere
with austenitic
materials.
IGSCC in non-magnetic 18 Mn -9Cr

rings. 18 Mn-18Cr rings are more
resistant to IGSCC.
PT, ET, MT for

exposed non-magnetic
surfaces. UT for
unexposed, nonmagnetic surfaces.
Gannaloy rings are damaged by SCC

and hydrogen attack.
VT for signs of
movement, fretting, or
discoloration.
Use RRing-Life to
assess impacts.
Avoid moisture
contamination when
the rotor is out of the
stator, or the rings are
off the rotor.
Replace Gannaloy
rings.
Overheating and arcing due to

negative sequence currents.
(see also Rotor-Electrical)
Tooth Tops
Wedges
Rotor
Ventilation
Holes
Zone (Baffle)
Rings
Blower and
Fan Blades
Replace RR insulation
if needed. Check
wedges for burn
marks-replace if
needed. Inspect RR
and poles for damage.
Cracking in corners of wedge support

areas.
Fretting caused by relative motion of
rotor and wedges when rotor is on
turning gear, or starting up.
Wedge damage.
Cracking of axial holes.
Cracking and tearing of ligaments of
radial holes in teeth.
Stress Corrosion Cracking of 18 Mn5Cr baffle rings in same way as
retaining rings.
VT/ET of tooth tops for

cracking.
VT/ET of wedges
Calculate remaining
tooth top life and use
GENLIFE code, grind
out defects, replace
wedges.
VT, PT, MT
Repair axial hole

cracks, assess rotor
tooth life and repair if
necessary.
VT, PT, ET
Rare problems due to fatigue and

foreign object damage
VT
RRing-Life should be
used to predict life of
baffle rings.
Grind out small cracks.
Replace components
that have large cracks
or distortion.
Stator Components
Component
Core Clamping and
Through Bolts
Failure Mechanism
High cycle fatigue due to
alternating magnetic
fields.
Inspection
VT
Repair
Replace cracked bolts.
Repair damaged bolts.
5-7

Generators
Laminations
Short circuiting due to

loss of insulation.
Infrared thermography.
Repair damaged
laminations.
Overheating of end
packages.
Electromagnetic Core
Hot Spot Detector.
Core TCs high.
Replace or re-insulate
laminations if the
problem is severe.
Check for high leading
PF as a cause.
Teeth cracking due to

loose stator bars.
EL CID flux tester for

tooth tips.
Replace laminations.
Replace springs,
blocking, and
wedges.Tighten axial
bolting.
Looseness of
laminations.
Look for melted iron

nodules. Core monitor
alert. Core TCs high.
Insulate keybars.
Remove and replace
laminations. Tighten
axial bolting.
Loss of bond
completeness.
UT
Insulation breakdown.
Hi-Pot testing of bars,

AC and DC.
Maintain a minimum of
75% of bond interface,
re-braze.
Replace bars if needed.
VT of insulation.
Replace springs and

wedges.
Loose bars due to

wedge/spring failure..
End turn vibration.
VT of end turns and

blocking.
Replace end-turn
blocking and ties.
End turn arcing.
VT for evidence of "black

greasing".
Core monitor activity.
Install end turn vibration

monitor, core monitor,
TCs, RTD's if absent.
Stator bar coolant

leakage.
VT for water leakage.

Hydrogen in water.
Helium leak detector.
Refer to EPRI guidelines

on bar leakage fixes.
See list below.
Stator bar coolant

blockage
Inspect strainers.
Perform air test on bars.
Review water chemistry.
Look for H2 or O2 leaks.
Mechanical and
chemical cleaning. See
details below.
Broken strands due to

bar bouncing or
vibrations
Slot RTD temperatures

(upper limit about 194F,
90C)
Re-braze, replace hoses

as necessary.
Install RF monitor for
arcing.
Arcing of leads and

bushings.
VT for arcing.
RF signals for arcing.
Repair or replace
insulation.
Lower lead cracking.
VT, ET for cracking.
Add or repair flux

shielding in box.
Oil in terminal box.
VT for oil or liquid level

alarm.
Detect and fix source of

oil leak from seal oil
system.
Melting of laminations
Electrical Connections
of Bars and Lower
Leads
Stator Bars
Terminal Box, Lower

leads, and Bushings
5-8

Generators
Other Stationary Components

Component
Blower Shroud and
Stationary Blades
Failure Mechanism
Foreign object damage,
or loose bolting
Brush Rings, Brushes
Craze cracking due to

overheating and rubs.
Inspection
VT
VT
Cut to regain smooth

surface, replace
brushes, springs.
UT
Rebabbitting.
Loose brushes
Bearings and Gland
Seals, Babbitt Bond
Overheating and fatigue
Repair
Grinding, rebrazing.
Replace components.
Hard rubs
Shaft turning if needed.
(Ref. 5-2)
Discussion of Major Issues for Individual Components
Generator Rotor
The function of the generator rotor is to:
1. Transfer the torque developed by the turbine into electrical energy, by acting as a rotating
magnetic field within the stationary stator core and windings.
2. Contain the field copper from motion due to the centrifugal force of rotation.
3. Provide forced ventilation to both the stator and the rotor (Figure 5-4).
5-9

Generators
Photo Courtesy GE
Figure 5-4
A Gap-Pickup Cooled Rotor
Cooling of the field copper can be accomplished by scooping hydrogen from the airgap and
circulating it diagonally through the rotor and back to the airgap. Alternate inlet and outlet zones
are shown in this figure. Alternatively the hydrogen can be fed from the ends of the rotor,
traveling axially, then radially through the copper to exit into the airgap. Intense conductor
cooling such as this permits high MVA ratings for the machine while maintaining rotor insulation
temperatures within permitted limits.
The rotor material is high quality, high-strength, low alloy steel. Axial slots are machined to hold
the copper, which is in turn connected to the excitation field through conductors within the
generator rotor. While mechanical failures of generator rotors and their main components are
very infrequent, they can result in very long outages, especially if subsequent damage to the
stator has occurred. One of the normal occurrences, as the unit ages, is insulation deterioration
that might lead to a rewind of the rotor. Often utilities will elect to upgrade the mechanical and
electrical performance of the rotor, as part of the rewinding project. (Ref. 5-2)
Electrical damage to the rotor is infrequent with the most common problem resulting from short
circuits of the field windings to the rotor body (ground faults) and turn-to-turn shorts within the
windings themselves. Occasionally, coil-to-coil shorts occur. Other forms of electrical damage
include arcing between retaining rings and the rotor body at the retaining ring shrink fit, between
rotor slot wedges and the rotor teeth, and at the ends of transverse flexibility slots machined into
the poles. These types of electrical damage occur when the rotor is forced to carry surface
currents from phase unbalance or transient events on the electrical system. Such negative
5-10

Generators
sequence currents can lead to intense heating of the rotor surface where currents are forced to
concentrate. (Ref. 5-3)
Rarely, the ventilation passages within the rotor become partially blocked, leading to overheating
of the windings and thermal unbalance of the rotor. This is often detected by increased vibration
when the generator is loaded. Another uncommon situation occurs when layers of the copper
winding rub against each other (perhaps on turning gear), causing particles of copper to flake off
leading to turn-to-turn shorts, or turn to ground shorts. Rotor end windings can sometimes
elongate in units that cycle a lot. This is caused by the copper, locked by centrifugal force, trying
to expand axially, but yielding in compression. After long term operation in this mode the copper
end turns elongate and this can lead to cracking.
Mechanical problems usually are a result of high cycle or low cycle fatigue of winding
components, (Figure 5-5), shaft extensions and assembled components. Cooling holes that are
machined into the teeth on some older rotor designs can suffer low cycle fatigue cracking.
Fatigue damage to smaller diameter collector shafts can occur due to torsional vibration (Figure
5-6) and bores may be subject to low cycle fatigue and brittle failure. In some designs, rotor
teeth in the area of the retaining ring assembly fit may be subject to low cycle fatigue cracking.
Retaining rings that contain the rotor end-turn windings may be prone to crack initiation and
propagation by low cycle fatigue and/or IGSCC (Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking).
Certain ring materials may also suffer from hydrogen embrittlement.
Photo Courtesy Westinghouse
Figure 5-5
The End Windings of a Generator Rotor
The copper end turns emerge from the rotor slots and turn circumferentially before re-entering a
slot on the other side of the pole. Held in place against circumferential force by the retaining ring,
and spaced apart by wedges, the end turns can yield plastically as heat is applied: they want to
expand but cannot. This could lead to ratcheting, axial growth and crack formation in the copper.
5-11

Generators
Figure 5-6
Collector Shaft Failure
Failures of the relatively small diameter collector shaft have occurred due to torsional stimuli from
transmission line disturbances, fed back into the generator. Such torsional vibrations might arise
from sub-synchronous resonance of the shaft system stimulated from long, series capacitorcompensated transmission lines. Other torsional stimuli of the shaft system can occur from
system faults, and occasionally damage retaining rings, bearings and low-pressure turbine
blades.
Retaining Rings
The primary function of retaining rings is to support the centrifugal force of the winding end
turns. All designs employ high strength steel forgings. The rings are installed by shrink fitting
them onto each end of the generator rotor body with an interference fit to handle the centrifugal
forces. Typically a circumferential key is also used to lock in the ring. In most, an end plate or
centering ring, is used to stiffen the non-shrunk end retaining ring, minimize non-uniform
expansion due to the non-uniformity of the winding weight and accommodate balance weights.
Older machines and numerous smaller generators have magnetic retaining rings. Low alloy steel
rings (4340 and Ni-Cr-Mo-V) were used on older hydrogen cooled machines and are still used
on smaller machines and on some air-cooled generators for gas turbines. Large utility machines
typically have austenitic rings, with the majority being of the 18Mn-5Cr composition. A few
older machines have 8Mn-4Cr or some similar composition, and there was a class of generators
built by GE that were made from an alloy referred to as Gannaloy. Newer retaining rings (on
generators built in the 1990's and numerous rings that have replaced the original rings on older
generators) are made with an 18Mn - 18Cr alloy that is more resistant to intergranular stress
corrosion cracking (IGSCC). (Ref. 5-2, 5-3, and 5-4)
Retaining ring failures are infrequent, and even then a significant portion of the failures that have
occurred have been attributed to abnormal operation, such as overspeed. Magnetic rings can
initiate and grow fatigue cracks, particularly designs that have significant stress concentrations
5-12

Generators
caused by drilled holes, sharp fillet radii, etc. The damage mechanism most critical to
nonmagnetic generator retaining rings is stress corrosion cracking.
Gannaloy retaining rings are an exception and several have failed catastrophically attributed to a
combination of IGSCC and hydrogen embrittlement. The manufacturer has recommended that all
Gannaloy retaining rings be replaced at the first opportunity. (Ref. 5-3)
Additional failure mechanisms can be independent of the type of material used for the retaining
rings. One failure of a generator retaining ring in 1994 was attributed to a fatigue crack resulting
from torsional oscillation of the field caused by electrical feedback from a nearby steel mill. (Ref
5-5) Overheating of the rings and arcing can occur due to negative sequence heating following
phase unbalance of the generator. These episodes can be of short duration, such as sudden phase
faults, or much longer such as prolonged motoring of the generator.
Commonly Asked Questions
An instructive set of commonly asked rotor-related questions and answers (by one vendor) is
shown below. (Ref. 5-6)
1. Q. What is the typical lifespan of a generator rotor?
A. The life is dependent on mode of operation, in-service operating incidents and
misoperation. Generator rotors are typically rewound, upgraded or replaced in the 10-30 year
time frame.
2. Q. What are the most common causes of a generator rotor insulation breakdown?
A. The degradation in insulation is caused by heating and/or mechanical wear and/or
operating incidents. A breakdown in the insulation will cause shorted turns between
conductors or a ground between the conductor, and the field forging or retaining ring.
3. Q. When can a flux probe be performed on a generator rotor?
A. The test can be performed under no-load with the stator short-circuited or during
operation at load. When the test is performed at load, it must be done at various load points to
test all the shorted turns that could exist in the rotor.
4. Q. The design of a generator rotor is conventional, indirect cooling. Can the rotor be
converted to a direct cooled winding?
A. Depending on the design of the rotor, in some cases it is possible to convert to a direct
cooled winding. Converting involves machining sub-slots in the rotor forging below the coil
slots. Because of rotor geometry and size, this modification is not possible on all rotors.
5. Q. Is there asbestos in generator rotor insulation and blocking materials?
A. Yes, each GE generator rotor that is being rewound or modified will have all components
with asbestos identified and new non-asbestos materials will be included in the rewind
materials package.
6. Q. Why should a generator rotor not be operated with a field ground?
A. While a single breakdown in groundwall insulation will not damage the rotor or its
5-13

Generators
components, should a second ground occur, high current will pass through the rotor forging
which can cause melting, wedge and ring damage and in a worse case, a forging failure.
7. Q. Can just changing out a magnetic retaining ring to a non-magnetic retaining ring
uprate my rotor?
A. Yes, for example, for a small air-cooled generator, say 20 MW, 4-5% uprate is possible.
8. Q. Should a field be high speed balanced following a rewind?
A. GE recommends a high-speed balance following a rewind with new copper. If copper is
reused, the field will generally not require a rebalance.
9. Q. Can thermal sensitivity result in a forced outage?
Generally, thermally sensitive fields will exhibit high vibrations that may limit output, but it
is very rare that thermal sensitivity will force an outage.
Stator Bars and Laminations
The most common winding problems in generator armatures are caused by breakdowns of the
groundwall or turn insulation. Aging stresses often gradually decrease the effectiveness of
electrical insulation. Over 40 different mechanisms have been identified for deterioration and
failure. An EPRI developed code, MICAA (Machine Insulation Condition Assessment Advisor),
has been found to be effective in providing guidance to plant personnel responsible for
evaluating insulation. It is used to deduce the most likely aging processes in the stator and rotor
windings, recommend diagnostic tests, indicate what the user should look for in visual
inspections and interpret the results of 50 diagnostic tests and inspections. (Ref. 5-7)
There are two AC and two DC tests for detecting weakness of stator bar high voltage insulation.
Generally carried out on dry insulation (water removed), the four tests are: 60 Hz, AC hipot; 0.1
Hz, AC hipot; DC hipot; and DC leakage hipot. There is a risk in doing these tests and the need
for carrying them out must be weighed against the cost and likelihood of an in-service failure.
(Ref. 5-8)
Partial Discharge Testing
On-line partial discharge testing can track insulation damage and perhaps avert major problems.
These partial discharges, produced when a voltage is applied across a void or via a surface track,
can indicate progressive deterioration of insulation caused by thermal stress, weak stress
upgrading, loose coils, dirty windings or broken copper strands. Typical sensors will be located
at the generator terminals and signals displayed remotely. When alternating voltages are applied
across damaged materials, the electron bursts will occur in the form of positive and negative
discharges with magnitudes of several hundred millivolts. The signals can be tracked
periodically.
5-14

Generators
Loose Bars and Core Overheating

Not uncommon in older machines is a gradual loosening, due to electromagnetic field vibrational
forces, of the stator bar support system. This is particularly of concern in the stator end windings
where forces due to sudden short circuits and low cycle fatigue during loading and unloading can
be damaging. In such cases better wedging and tying of the end turns may be needed. In the slot
regions, overheating of the iron tooth tips, insulation damage due to vibration and weakening of
the bar spring support system can occur. Re-wedging, re-insulation and even bar replacement
may be called for (Figure 5-8).
Figure 5-7
Core Meltdown
The core failure shows several square inches of melted steel extending axially through several
laminations. Such failures may be caused by circulating currents, crossing laminations at high
spots (asperities) and driven by voltages of perhaps 1-2 volts across keybars.
Localized heating of the core may occur where adjacent punchings (laminations) make metal to
metal contact at asperities. Shorted punchings with resistances less than 1.0 ohm, may always exist in
generator cores in spite of rigorous quality control procedures. Given this condition, heat generation at
the short location must be minimized. Two sources of duty are imposed on the dielectric strength
of punching insulation. One stems from interlaminar voltages produced by core iron flux densities and
is greatest in the end packages, which are affected by axial leakage fluxes. The other source is
keybar voltage depending on the contact resistance between keybar dovetail and punchings. This
voltage also tends to be greater in the end packages.
In extremely rare cases, circulating currents in the stator core, of sufficient magnitude to cause
core melt-down, have occurred, the current path being through shorts between laminations and
linked through the keybars on which the laminations hang (Figure 5-7). Such current paths can
5-15

Generators
lead to extreme localized heating, driven by the intense core flux patterns. For this reason,
readings of core temperatures should always be monitored during high loading periods. An offline method of checking for these faults using a low flux density, hand-held device has been
found useful. (Ref. 5-9) However, during normal operation it may not be obvious from
measurement of tooth tip temperatures that an inner core hot spot of several hundred degrees
exists. Such situations result in temperature changes at the tooth tip of only a degree or two.
Often the first indication might be the appearance of small modules of molten iron.
Courtesy GE
Figure 5-8
Stator End Winding Section
A section through the core end and end turn structure illustrates the supporting structure
necessary to contain the steady state and transient forces on the stator components. The end
turns require an intricate pattern of blocking and ties, while the bar portions in the core slot region
are protected by a wedge and spring system. The core laminations that hang off the keybars, must
be firmly clamped with a flange and bolting system.
Water-Cooled Generator Leaks

Beginning in 1995, the number of stator winding failures caused by water leakage in watercooled generators began to increase. The leakage mechanisms include flange porosity in cast
clips, porosity in clip window braze joints, damaged hollow strands and clip-to-braze
connections. In water-cooled generators, the usual root cause of wet stator windings is a leak in
the area of the bar where the clip-to-strand braze connections are located, as shown in Figure 5-9.
Those leaks are often the result of crevice corrosion which has been linked to the reaction
between the phosphorus-rich braze and the strand copper. Typically crevice corrosion can start
after 5-15 years of service and the time from the onset of leakage into the insulation to sudden
failure is about 7-10 years.
5-16

Generators
Figure 5-9
Water Leakage in Generators
Water leakage at the clip to strand braze joint is affecting scores of generators. Caused by
corrosion, perhaps due to oxygenated water, the range of fixes goes from a simple cement
treatment to complete bar replacement.
A Survey of Stator Winding Water Leaks

In 1998 a survey of stator winding leaks in fossil and nuclear generators (Ref. 5-10) showed that
for 32 leaking generators, most were the result of crevice corrosion in the clip-to-strand region.
Other causes included porosity of the clip to window braze, and general plumbing issues. The
most common repair reported was the early epoxying of clip-to-strand leaks (Figure 5-10). Most
of the leak repairs were completed within 7 days (Figure 5-11). In some generators, stator bars
have been replaced, but the problem does not generally produce much insulation damage, and the
wetness spreads slowly through the insulation. Table 5-3 describes the approach to fixing some
relatively simple leak situations. Some approaches might be considered temporary fixes since the
root cause of the problem needs to be dealt with to assure long-term reliability. Particular
attention needs to be paid to recommended water chemistry limits.
5-17

Generators
Repairs on Stator Winding Leaks

Complete rewind
Global clip replace
Global epoxy inject
Bottom bar replace
Top bar replace
Lead connection
Hose/fitting
Replace clip
Epoxy inject
TIG weld window/nipple
Early epoxy clip-strand
10
20
30
40
50
Number of Repair Events
Figure 5-10
Repairs of Leaking Stator Bars
Most repairs on leaking stator bars focused on the clip to strand connection, and were carried out
using an early epoxying process. Epoxy injection, a more extensive approach, is more
commonly done at nuclear plants, while clip replacement is more common at fossil plants.
5-18

Generators
Mean Time to Repair Leaks

Complete rewind
Global clip replace
Global epoxy inject
Bottom bar replace
Top bar replace
Lead connection
Hose/fitting
Replace clip
Epoxy inject
TIG weld window/nipple
Early epoxy clip-strand
20
40
60
80
Time in Days
Figure 5-11
Repair Times for Leaks.
The repair time for leaking bars is often relatively short in duration, though more extensive epoxy
repairs and total bar replacements can last several weeks.
Table 5-3
Some Basic Repair Methods for Water-Cooled Stator Leaks (Ref. 5-8)
Leak Location
Braze joints between fittings
Repair Technique
Surface repair only by rebrazing at temperature
where braze material will flow
Clip-to-strand braze connection
Super glue or anaerobic cement drawn into

leak with vacuum. Avoid brazing here because
of insulation damage
Clip porosity leaks and leaks at clip windows
Tungsten inert gas welding
Inside the clip
Sequential injection of epoxies
Teflon hoses and crimped hose fittings
Replace
5-19

Generators
Water chemistry greatly affects the conditions that lead to leaks (and therefore could be a
solution to the problem). Monthly samples are suggested to monitor for levels of oxygen, copper,
hydrogen, iron, chlorides, silica, sodium and sulfates. See Ref. 5-8 for chemistry limits.
Flow Restrictions in Stator Water Systems Due to Deposition of Copper
The cooling of stator bars with deionized water is a technique that has been deployed on large
generators since the 1960s. Recently a number of units have experienced the deposition of
copper and copper oxides within the windings, filters, and strainers with the effect of reducing
flow and potentially leading to stator bar overheating (Ref. 5-11). The critical regions are the
cooling passages within the strands of the stator bars, typically just a few mm in size.
Such depositions are often first noticed on the strainer where flow passages can be severely
restricted (Figure 5-12).
non-deposited area of the Strainer:
non-deposited area of the Strainer:
magnified
heavy red deposited area:
heavy red deposited area:
magnified
Figure 5-12
Stator Water Strainer Deposits
5-20
~ 89 % smaller opening
due to deposits

Generators
A portion of the stator water strainer of a 600 MW fossil unit is shown to be severely blocked by
copper and copper oxides. This is a possible indicator of more critical blocking within the stator
bars. An observation like this might lead to individual bar flow measurements, detailed stator bar
visual inspections, and perhaps chemical cleaning. For a long- term solution, a careful review of
water chemistry practices will be needed.
Water Chemistry Practices
Water-cooled generators are operated in one of two modes. They are either cooled with aerated
water (high oxygen, dissolved oxygen>2ppm) or with de-aerated water (low oxygen, dissolved
oxygen<50 ppb). Both modes maintain corrosion rates at satisfactorily low levels as long as the
correct oxygen concentrations are maintained. It is generally believed that very much higher
copper corrosion rates result at the intermediate oxygen concentrations of 100-1000 ppb. Strainer
clogging and hollow strand plugging are thought to be associated with these intermediate
concentrations.
The potentially harmful intermediate oxygen concentrations may occur in the normally deaerated
system when air leaks into the system at low-pressure points or during filter or strainer
replacement, or when dissolved oxygen is introduced in the make-up water. Intermediate oxygen
concentrations may occur in the normally aerated system when the air vent on the water storage
tank is blocked or when leaks in the strand-to-clip connections or Teflon hoses allow hydrogen
to leak at a high rate into the cooling water. Some hydrogen-into-water leakage is normal for any
generator. Part of it comes from diffusion of hydrogen through the Teflon insulating hoses, some
comes possibly from leaks through the Teflon to metal connection, and possibly also from
pinhole leaks or fittings. Values of 4 cu.ft. /day are usual, and values up to 20 cu.ft./day are
accepted as normal.
In low-oxygen systems a large hydrogen in-leakage may also introduce oxygen into the stator
water system. Depending on hydrogen purity, this oxygen leakage into the system will cause outof-limits oxygen levels. This is illustrated by a case where a 500-cu. ft./day leak of 99.5% purity
hydrogen (due to a broken tube) caused plugging of the stator coil within a few weeks (Figure 513).
In high oxygen systems large hydrogen in-leakage may displace the oxygen in the system, thus
turning the system into low-oxygen conditions. Such changes in oxidation conditions are
detrimental for the stability of the oxide layers and may lead to local re-deposition and flow
reductions.
5-21
160
440
140
420
120
400
100
380
80
360
60
340
40
320
1
20
Actual Stator Water Flow (gpm)
Stator Pressure Drop (psid)
Generators
300
5
0
04/11/95
10/28/95
05/15/96
12/01/96
06/19/97
280
01/05/98
DATE
DP
DP (@425 gpm)
WATE R FLOW
Figure 5-13
Long-Term Trend of Stator Water Flow and Pressure Drop
A leak of hydrogen at 500 cuft/day caused coil plugging in this unit within weeks. At (1) an
observed drop in flow did not originate in the stator. During the outage (2), and the following
period (3), there was no blockage even though the flow showed variations. At point (4), however,
there was severe fouling of the stator hollow conductors due to the in-leak of impure hydrogen. At
point (5) cooling was enhanced somewhat by adding the standby-pump. Subsequently, the stator
was chemically cleaned.
Inspections and Chemical Cleaning
Access to the stator end windings is going to be needed if water flow circuit plugging is
suspected (Figure 5-14). Initial inspections are valuable in ascertaining the degree of damage.
These might include conductor flow testing and videoprobes of the hollow conductor ends
(Figure 5-15).
5-22

Generators
Figure 5-14
Generator Flow Testing
Preparing for flow testing of a generator that has copper oxide plugging of the cooling system
flow passages.
Figure 5-15
Looking for Strand Blocking
To inspect the hollow strands of the bar ends a video probe ( Everest VIT, Inc in this case) is
snaked through the teflon hose after removing the hose from the manifold.
5-23

Generators
Mechanical cleaning for the ends of the conductors, using a stiff wire, plus chemical cleaning
using chelates or acids, can both be effective in removing copper and copper oxides. The
correct balance of oxidants and chelating agent is important, and it will be important to reestablish a stable oxide layer after treatment (Ref. 5-12). Good success has been seen as shown
in Figure 5-16.
60
Flow distribution
(phase bars ex cluded)
Number of bars in interval
50
before cleaning
40
after mechanical c leaning

after mechanical and
c hemic al cleaning
30
20
10
0
0
Flow
5 interval
6 (l/min)
7
10
11
12
Figure 5-16
Cleaning Stator Bars
The low flow in each of a generators stator bars is re-established back to 8-10 litres/min, after
a combination of mechanical and chemical cleaning.
5-24

Generators
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Generators

ESKOM uses Elevated pH Water Treatment to Prevent the Plugging of Generator
Stator Bars
Stator Bar Water Flow liters/min
Stator Bar Number

Figure 5-17
Stator Bar Cooling Water Flow Rates
The flow rates in the 47 stator bars of the Arnot 2 unit of ESKOM were seriously plugged by
copper oxide deposits, as shown by this before and after flow rate pattern following a chemical
clean. Some bars were more than 50% low in flow rate.
Issues/Goals
Generators with water cooled stator windings, in the U.S. and elsewhere, have recently been
experiencing plugging of the hollow copper conductors that carry cooling water flow through the
stator bars. This has led to reduced flow of the deionized cooling water, and stator bar
overheating. The prime concern is dissolution of copper from the conductors, followed by
localized re-deposition of copper oxides or metallic copper. ESKOM, as early as 1978,
experienced plugging of a hollow conductor at an Arnot 350 MW unit, with a subsequent 12
month outage. Flow testing revealed that 80% of the hollow conductors were partially plugged.
Plugging and flow restrictions were subsequently found at the Duvha, Matla, Lethabo, and
Koeberg power stations.
Stator bar water can operate in either a low oxygen or a high oxygen regime. A way was sought
to eliminate the problem of copper oxide formation and stator bar plugging in both water
chemistry situations.
5-25

Generators
Key Conclusions
At plants where the stator water is conditioned in the low oxygen regime, where air inleakage was a problem, use is made of a catalytic reduction of the dissolved oxygen. In this
case 15-20% of the conventional resins in the mixed bed deionizer was replaced with
palladium-coated, strong base anion resin. This readily permits 10-20ppb oxygen levels.
To track the ingress of carbon dioxide into the system, on-line monitoring of the water
chemistry parameters is necessary. Maintaining low oxygen as well as high purity, low
conductivity (less than 0.2 microS/cm) conditions is essential where a neutral pH (6.8-7.0)
system is used.
The preferred approach at ESKOM is an elevated pH regime (8.4-8.6) using a mixed bed of
strong cation resin in the sodium form, and a strong base anion resin in the hydroxyl form,
leads to correct alkalizing of the water. Using this system at Arnot decreased copper content
by a factor of 10 or more.
ESKOM now has 34 generators under elevated pH/low oxygen, 13 under elevated pH/high
oxygen, and 7 under neutral pH/high oxygen.
18 years of experience shows that the elevated pH method is cost-effective, simple to

operate, and avoids plugging.
Cost of Modifications and Quantified Value
The costs for the elevated pH treatment center around the cost of installing a second
deionizer column, since the technology involves the use of two rather than the normal one.
Essentially one column provides the means of elevating the pH and the second column is
used sparingly to trim the pH and conductivity.
The total cost (in 2001) was about SA Rands 100 000 per unit, and the running costs involve
the change-out of 200 liters of mixed resins every two years The running costs are therefore
not significantly more than for neutral pH systems.
These costs are small compared to the value of avoiding a single unplanned shutdown.
On-line cleaning when necessary using the disodium salt of EDTA has been effective, both online and off-line. Reverse flow flushing to remove deposition in the hollow conductors has not
been successful.
In a low oxygen mode, it is very difficult to avoid air-in leakage with many locations for ingress.
When using a neutral pH scheme, ingress of dissolved hydrogen can cause the protective oxide
film to break loose. Carbon dioxide ingress can adversely affect the anion resins. Two mixed bed
ion exchange units are now used for sodium treatment and for conductivity control, as shown:
5-26

Generators
Figure 5-18
On-line Stator Water-Conditioning System
With the elevated pH form of conditioning, most plants now report copper concentrations in the
rage of 1 to 2 ppb copper. At one plant 6 months after changing to elevated pH, stator winding
temperatures reduced by up to 10C.
Arnot has 6 units of 350 MW commissioned in 1971-1975.

All told, ESKOM has ten 200 MW units, six 350 MW units, six 500 MW units, forty-two 600 to
700 MW units, and two 900 MW units. Total installed capacity is 42,000 MW
(Ref 5-13)
Critical Assessment
The concept of using high pH water chemistry model was developed originally in Germany by
KWU (Ref. 5-14) for the low-oxygen water- cooling system. The elevated pH reduces the
soluble and particulate copper particle release rate and thereby reducing the incidence of
plugging. This concept is generally applicable to all low oxygen systems.
5-27

Generators
Any plant adopting this approach should realize that high pH does not, by itself, eliminate the
threat of plugging during normal operation or lay-up. Keeping the low oxygen content during
operation, detecting and mitigating any air in-leakage, and properly protecting the winding
during lay-up provides the ultimate guarantee of trouble free operation.
For certain high-oxygen systems, specifically in those machines that may be subject to GE
Technical Information Letter (TIL) 1098, the water should continue to be maintained at neutral
pH. This is because higher pH could cause leaking at the bar ends. TIL 1098 (Ref. 5-15)
describes corrosion- induced water leaks that may develop in the brazed joints that seal the water
boxes located on each end of a stator bar.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Generators
TU Electric Deals with Several Leaking Stator Bars
On Tradinghouse unit 2 in 1984 an increase of hydrogen leakage into the stator water cooling
system revealed a leak in the clip-to-stand brazed joints. Plugging the leak with anaerobic
cement appears to have been successful. It is now being monitored for hydrogen leakage as
confirmation. Monticello unit 3 tripped off-line in 1991 due to a phase-to-phase fault. There was
a leak in the turbine end clip-to-strand connection. Again anaerobic cement enabled the unit to
pass a 64 KV hipot. In 1994, North Lake unit 3 had an observed leak in the B-phase lead
connection. Follow-up helium leak detection confirmed the problem and a partial rewind of 2
bars was done. But following a failed hipot of 44KV, the entire stator was rewound. (Ref. 5-16)
Wisconsin Public Service (WPS) Use Epoxy Injection to Repair Stator Bar Leaks
WPS detected a leaking stator bar on Weston unit 3 in 1995. Anaerobic cement did not seal the
leak completely (in the clip-to-strand location), so instead WPS and GE opted to inject an epoxy
onto the face of the strand package. Applied with a surgical-type syringe, the fix requires about a
1-month outage. Seven leaks were found and for security a total of 143 clips were treated. After
fixing two small recurring leaks, the unit went back into service and will be re-tested annually. A
major outage is scheduled for year 2000 when a decision will be made about rewinding. (Ref. 5-17)
Generator Upgrades from a Vendor Viewpoint
One vendor recommends that when a generator rebuild is being considered, the following criteria
must be reviewed: service life, base load or stop start cyclic duty, load requirements (megawatts
and megavars) and reliability requirements. It is also necessary to review the requirements for
the generator coolers, excitation system, auxiliaries and monitoring systems and stator and field
windings. Indications of damage can be obtained by means of inspections done by a robot that
moves through the gap between stator core and field carrying two video cameras. Among the
possible upgrades are replacement of asphalt insulated stator windings with epoxy based
insulation systems, straightening winding support systems, replacement of indirect cooling
arrangements of the rotor with direct cooling, rewinding to isolate top turns, and replacement of
copper with more fatigue resistant alloys.
5-28

Generators
On the positive side, for a conventional hydrogen cooled generator, the uprate potential can
range from 10% with a new armature winding to as high as 35% with a new direct cooled field,
new exciter and new armature winding. Loss reduction, on the order of 10% (0.15 to 0.2%
improvement in efficiency), can be obtained if hydrogen pressure can be reduced. (Ref. 5-18)
Flux Probes Detect Shorted Turns in the Rotor
Florida Power and Light (FP&L) has twenty-one generating units with permanently-mounted
flux density probes in the air gap. As of 1992, four occurrences of shorted turns had been
detected. For example, Riviera 4, a 365 MVA machine, was found to have a decreased field
resistance of 18%, increased vibration with increased reactive power loading, and more
excitation needed for the same load levels as the sister unit. A total of 27 turn shorts were
detected in coils 5, 6, and 7 using the flux probe. Even after rewinding the field, shorted turns
continued to show up. A broken coil-to-coil connector and cracked pole-to-pole connectors were
then discovered. Cutler unit 6 also had shorted turns caused by a broken radial lead to the #1 coil.
Additionally FP&L rewound 4 units for copper dusting and 3 units for tooth tip cracking. All
these problems were diagnosed with the help of the flux probe. (Ref. 5-19)
Eddy Current Techniques Detect Generator Retaining Rings Flaws
Stress corrosion cracking can lead to catastrophic failure in generator retaining rings and is the
leading cause of early retirement of retaining rings. 18-5 Mn-Cr rings are very susceptible to
stress corrosion cracking if exposed to even small amounts of moisture.
In tests at Florida Power and Light (FP&L) (Ref. 5-20) and Con Edison (Ref. 5-21), eddy current
techniques were found to be superior in detecting cracks in retaining rings, which have been
removed from service, in comparison with ultrasonic and liquid penetrant techniques. The reason
for this is that tensile stresses are removed and crack closure occurs when the rings are
disassembled from the unit. However, an evaluation program by TVA concluded that advanced
ultrasonic techniques for crack detection and sizing which recognize faults from component
geometries using time-of-flight and wave conversion analyses, were excellent for use with inservice rings. (Ref. 5-22)
Evaluation of Retaining Rings with RRing-Life Code Results in Extension of Useful Life
A common recommendation from manufacturers is to replace damaged rings with 18 Mn-18 Cr
steel that is more resistant to stress corrosion, but this is an expensive option. Both PECO at their
Eddystone Unit 1 and Texas Utilities for their DeCordova Unit 1 used the RRing-Life code to
assess their options when they discovered flaws in their retaining rings. This code allows utility
engineers to determine the type and frequency of inspections that must be performed to monitor
crack growth, the size of the cracks or pits that represent a threat to ring life, and the costs of
various methods of moisture control. With this information, personnel at both utilities concluded
that changes in plant operating procedures to prevent additional exposure to water were
sufficient to allow continued use of the 18 Mn-5 Cr steel rings. (Ref. 5-23)
5-29

Generators
Retaining Ring Fails at Public Service of Colorado Due to Torsional Stimulus

In January 1994, PS Colorado's Comanche unit 2 suffered a retaining ring burst. The cause was
fretting fatigue due to alternating torsional stresses induced by a nearby steel mill with static
VAR flicker-controlled arc furnaces. Continuous on-line monitoring of the generator and
stabilization of the mill controller should eliminate future problems. Actions should be taken
whenever a machine has a resonant torsional situation near 120 Hz to avoid long term retaining
ring damage. (Ref. 5-5)
REFERENCES
5-1
Volume 1, Electrical Generator, Power Plant Electrical Reference Series. EPRI Report EL5036, ISBN 0-8033-5000-7, 1987.
5-2
5-3
Zaworsky, R. J.; Walker, D. N. and Wagner, T. A., Generator Retaining Rings: A 1993 GE
Perspective, Proceedings: Third EPRI Turbine and Generator NDE Life Assessment and
Maintenance Workshop. EPRI Report TR-103392, January 1994.
5-4
Zayicek, Paul, Ultrasonic Inspection of 18Mn-5Cr Generator Retaining Rings, Proceedings:
Third EPRI Turbine and Generator NDE Life Assessment and Maintenance Workshop, EPRI
Report TR-103392, January 1994
5-5
Retaining Ring Failure at Comanche Unit 2, EPRI Report TR-106640, July 1996.
5-6
Zaworsky, R. J.; Tornroos, K. C. and R Drake,.C,, Generator Rotor Design, Rewinds,
Modifications and Replacements, EPRI Motor and Generator Predictive Maintenance and
Refurbishment Conference, November 1995.
5-7
Utilities Derive Multiple Benefits from EPRI's MICAA Software at Fossil and Hydro Plants,
5-8
Primer on Maintaining the Integrity of Water Cooled Generator Stator Windings, EPRI Report
5-30

Generators
5-9
Sutton, J., History of EL CID and Fundamental, EPRI Motor and Generator Predictive
Maintenance and Refurbishment Conference, November 1995.
5- 10
EPRI 1998 Survey of Stator Winding Water Leaks, Appendix B, EPRI Report 1000069, 1998.
5-11
Detecting, Managing, and Preventing Restriction in Water-Cooled Generator Windings,
Turbine-Generator Users Group Conference, San Antonio, TX, January 22-23, 2002 (EPRI
report to be issued)
5- 12
Guidelines for Detecting and Removing Flow Restrictions of Water-Cooled Stator Windings,
EPRI Report 1004704, July, 2002.
5-13
JD Aspden, FW Matthee, and SP Mellor, Elevated pH Treatment to Prevent Stator Hollow
Conductor Plugging, EPRI Turbine-Generator Users Group Conference, Detecting, Managing,
and Preventing Restriction in Water-Cooled Generator Windings, January 22-23, San Antonio,
TX.
5-14
K.Schleithoff, H.W.Emshoff, Optimization of the Conditioning of Generator Cooling Water,
VGB Kraftwerkstechnik Vol.70, No. 9, pp 1-5,1990
5-15
GE Technical Information Letter (TIL) 1098
5-16
Leach, S.; Floyd, E.; Iverson, A. and Calhoun, R., Utility Experience with Stator Water Leaks,
Texas Utilities Experience and Testing Methods, Primer on Maintaining the Integrity of WaterCooled Generator Stator Windings, EPRI Report TR-105504, September 1995.
5-17
Cholewa, A.; Halpern, R.; Larson, T. and Maki, D. , Global Epoxy Injection Repair of Water
Cooled Stator Windings, EPRI Conference on Maintaining the Integrity of Water-Cooled
Generator Stator Windings, November 1996.
5-18
Halpern, R. A. and Nold, R. D. Generator Upgrades and Rewinds, Volume 13; Pages 157-180
Powergen '96; December 4-6, 1996; Orlando, FL.
5-19
Griffith, G.C., Florida Power and Light's Experience with General Electric Flux Density
Probes in Large Turbo-Generators, Proceedings: EPRI Utility Motor and Generator Predictive
Maintenance Workshop, EPRI Report TR-100952, September 1992.
5-31

Generators
5-20
EPRI Eddy Current Research Enables Accurate Ring Inspections at Florida Power and Light,
EPRI Innovators IN-100214, June 1992.
5-21
EPRI Helps Con Ed Identify Root Cause of Retaining Ring Failure, EPRI Innovators IN100113, November 1991.
5-22
TVA Applies Ultrasonic Testing Techniques to Retaining-Ring Inspections Systemwide, EPRI
Innovators IN-100213, November 1992.
5-23
Utilities Use RRing-Life to Defer Retaining Ring Replacement at Fossil Units, EPRI
Rotors
(See Chapter 4)
Retaining Rings
Guidelines for Evaluation of Generator Retaining Rings. EPRI EL/EM-5117-SR, April 1987.
The Eddy Current Technique for Nondestructive Evaluation of Generator Retaining Rings Feasibility Study. EPRI EL-5814, May 1988.
Proceedings: Generator Retaining Ring Workshop. EPRI EL-5825, May 1988.
Nondestructive Evaluation Methods for Generator Retaining Rings EPRI Technical Brief.
EPRI TB.GS.65.5.89. May 1989.
Generator Retaining Ring Moisture Protection Guide. EPRI Report TR-102949, September
1993.
Evaluation of Nonmagnetic Generator Retaining Rings. EPRI Report TR-104209, October
1994.
Zone Baffle Rings
5-32

Generators
Second EPRI Fossil Plant Inspections Conference: Conference Notebook, November 29 December 1, 1988.
Insulation
MICAA Version 1.0, Volume 1: User's Guide. EPRI Final Report TR-101668, December 1992.
Handbook to Assess the Insulation Condition of Large Rotating Machines. Final Report EPRI
EL-5036, September 1987.
Improved Motors for Utility Applications, Volume 1: Industry Assessment Study. Final Report
EPRI EL-4286, September 1985.
Wedges
Wedge Tightness Detector-Testing of Stator Wedge Tightness in Turbogenerators, EPRI
RN-103467, December 1993.
Leaks
Guidelines for the Procurement of On-Site Clip Replacement and Repairs of Water-Cooled
Generators. EPRI Report TR107680, 1997.
Stein, J.; Helmberger, G. M. and Longwell, R. I.,Water-Cooled Stator Windings: Industry
Experience with Leaks, Presented at 63rd Annual International Conference of Doble Clients,
Boston, Massachusetts, March 1996.
Stanton, C. J., Diagnosing and Repairing Water Leaks in Stator Windings, General Electric Co.
Power Generation Publication, GER-3751.
Inspection of Generators with Water-Cooled Stator Windings, General Electric Co. Power
Generation Technical Information Letter, TIL 1098-3R2, 1995.
Stator Leak Monitoring System, General Electric Co. Publication, GEA-12303.
5-33
6
BALANCE OF PLANT EQUIPMENT AND AUXILIARY
SYSTEMS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The operation of an efficient and reliable fossil-fired steam power plant requires careful
observation and maintenance of many integrated auxiliary components. These auxiliaries,
designed with sufficient flexibility and durability to meet the challenges of thirty years or more
expected life, will be subjected to changing operating regimes, fuels and environmental
demands. Care of the balance-of-plant requires vigilance, though in terms of maintenance it is
often subordinate in importance to the boiler, turbine, and generator. This chapter is divided into
sections covering boiler auxiliaries, steam turbine auxiliaries, pollution control equipment, and
supporting systems. After discussing the issues in broad terms, each section describes case
studies where auxiliary problems have been effectively solved.
AVAILABILITY
The reliability data for the balance-of-plant, Table 6-1, shows that condenser and feedwater
components dominate the outage picture, together responsible for 7-8 outages on average for
each unit, each year. This results in about 100 hours downtime per year for each unit, both forced
and scheduled. This might be misleading. Often maintenance of auxiliary equipment is carried
out during major boiler and turbine outages, where the auxiliary work is hidden in outages
charged to other components. It is important to note that problems discussed in this chapter are
commonly seen, often chronic, draining on manpower and often handled at convenient, rather
than scheduled times.
6-1

Balance of Plant Equipment and Auxiliary Systems
Table 6-1
Balance Of Plant Equipment and Auxiliary Systems
Forced and Scheduled Outages and Deratings
NERC GADS Data 1995-1999
Hours per Unit Year
Average Number of
Outages per Unit Year
1995-1999
1995-1999
Balance of Plant-Overall
185.74
12.55
Feed Water
46.75
2.92
Electrical
30.90
0.85
Condensing
24.76
3.64
Circulating Water
24.23
1.20
Precipitators
18.83
1.16
Miscellaneous
14.31
0.71
Condensate
10.98
0.73
Wet Scrubbers
7.41
0.74
Auxiliaries
4.54
0.30
Extraction Steam
1.33
0.08
Heater Drains
1.33
0.15
Dry Scrubbers
0.37
0.07
BOILER AUXILIARIES
Table 6-2 summarizes problems and inspections for boiler auxiliaries. Included in this section is
coal handling equipment and components downstream of the furnace. Pollution control
equipment is discussed separately. These components are generally reliable but require periodic
maintenance to obtain satisfactory performance. Catastrophic failures are rare. This table gives
an overall assessment of problems, and more detailed information follows in specific sections.
6-2

Table 6-2
Summary of Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques and Corrective Actions for
Boiler Auxiliaries
Component
Damage Mechanisms
and Fixes
Pumps
Cavitation
Erosion
Rubs
Shaft Fatigue
VT for surfaces
MT/PT for welds
(see following section)
Fans
Erosion
Weld Fatigue
Creep and Thermal Fatigue in gas
recirculation fans
VT for surfaces
MT/PT for welds
Air Heaters
Rotors- Fatigue cycles, thermal fatigue

and acid attack
MT, PT, UT
Ductwork
Erosion by particles
Corrosion by acid gas
Thermal fatigue by cycling
VT, UT
Grind out and weld repair
cracks
Coal Bunkers
Erosion
VT, UT
Repair cracks and replace or
repair liners
Silos
Wall thinning by erosion and/or corrosion
VT, UT
Repair cracks and liners
Pulverizers
Erosion
Shaft fatigue
VT
MT, PT
Erosion at locations where velocity

changes
VT, UT
Grind out and repair cracks
Stacks and
Stack Lining
(Ref. 6-1)
Boiler Feedpumps
Although boiler feedpumps are commonly designed as horizontal, centrifugal, and multi-stage
units, they vary in that the inner casings can be volute or diffuser types. This determines the
magnitude of axial thrust forces, clearances between rotating and stationary components and
thrust bearing designs. In turn, this directs the focus of maintenance, since failure modes may be
different.
Feedpump Operation: Key Concerns
In the operation of the feedwater system, a key objective is to avoid cavitation of the feedwater
pump. This undesirable situation will degrade pump performance, and ultimately damage the pump
blades and affect reliability. To avoid the formation and collapse of vapor bubbles, characteristic
of cavitation, that can ultimately erode vanes, shrouds, and hub, sufficient head must be available
at the inlet of the pump. Transient conditions can reduce this head. If the deaerator is not
sufficiently elevated to supply this inlet head, a booster pump may be used between the deaerator
6-3

and feed pump. The loss of a booster pump, as well as a unit trip, can severely affect the inlet
head and possibly lead to cavitation. A second major concern stems from the speed of the pump
and possible vibration-related issues. Operating speeds range from about 3500 to 7000 rpm
depending on the drive. Booster pumps run at about half that speed, 1700 to 3600 rpm.
Courtesy Pacific Pumps
Figure 6-1
Boiler Feedpump, Driven By Main Steam Turbine
Main turbine-drive improves efficiency, but a pump failure in this situation might immediately
restrict power generation. Feedpumps are subject to instability, cavitation, blade rubbing, and
shaft fatigue. Because of their importance, two oversized feedpumps are often provided to ensure
reserve capacity.
A 1977 survey (Ref. 6-2) of pump failures, still valid today, ranked failure causes in feed,
booster and other power plant pumps.
1. Seals
2. Vibration of piping and foundation
3. Axial balancing device
4. Journal bearing
5. Cavitation
6. Impeller breakage
7. Rapid wear of the wear ring
8. Unstable head curves
9. Broken or damaged shafts
10. Thrust bearing damage
Subsequent studies over the following 15 years have indicated that the prime causes remained
the same. The most common feedpump problems continue to be: breakage of pump shafts,
6-4

impellers, diffusers, and volutes; major damage to balancing-disks, thrust- and journal-bearings
and excessive cavitation, erosion and/or wear of rotating and stationary hydraulic parts, seals and
rings. The most common operating problems involve high vibration or system instabilities at
part or low-load conditions. These studies reveal that major problem areas are common to all
feedpump manufacturers, and often repeat in nature. Typical operating problems include
vibration at a number of different sub and super synchronous speeds, pressure pulsations,
decrease in flow at constant pump speed, changes in balance, leak-off, and seal flows, and
increases in seal flow temperature and pressure. (Ref. 6-3)
Specific steps that plant operators can use to improve the reliability of their feedpumps are listed
in Table 6-3. (Ref. 6-4)
Reasons for poor pump performance include:
Low-load plant cycling operation that greatly decreases the time interval between element
overhauls and increases the amount of upgrade work and part replacement work during
overhauls.
Failure to monitor a few parameters that provide plant operators with valuable information
on the hydraulic and mechanical condition of their feedpumps.
Overhaul of removed feedpump elements carried out without detailed written procedures.
This leads to future problems because of the failure of maintenance personnel to perform the
functions correctly.
Excessive internal wear in the feedpumps, aggravated in most cases by plant cycling
operation. The causes of this wear include:
inadequate design of the feedpump system or the feedpump,
excessive misalignment between pump and driver,
inadequate or ineffective feedpump warm-up,
inadequate wearing part materials,
inadequate bearings,
worn couplings,
excessive pump vibration,
inadequate recirculation system,
incorrect seal type and/or seal injection controls,
inadequate rotor balancing.
6-5

Table 6-3
Eleven Recommendations to Improve Reliability of Feedpumps
Action to be Taken
Specific Tasks
1. Monitor pump
operating
parameters
Monitor pump flow, pump speed, shaft vibration,

balance leak-off, bearing temperature
2. Prepare and use

proper operating
parameters
Use guidelines for pump warm-up, startup, low load

operation, hot standby.
Cover the procedures for removing and installing

3. Detail the
overhaul procedures impellers, couplings, and bearings; weld repairs;
balancing; quotation requests.
Cost to
Implement,
1994$
$25k
100-1000
man hours
100 man
hours
4. Install vibration
monitoring system
Install shaft proximity probe, key phasor, and control

room monitor.
$25k
5. Periodic vibration
analysis
Search for unbalance, misalignment rubs, rotor

dynamics problems, cavitation, recirculation,
resonance
6. Put four
thermocouples on
the feedpump barrel
Monitor temperatures during startup and cycling.

Eliminates bowing.
7. Carefully balance
the rotor
Ensure adequate balance of machine, temperature

controlled area, precise balance weight removal
8. Measure balance
line leak-off flows
Add flow orifice and P readout. Important to track

wear.
9. Convert to drain
temperature control
on seal injection
Prevent inflow of cold seal injection into the pump. Set

at 170F-180F (77-82C). Prevents bowing and
rubbing.
$15k
10. Align feedpump

and driver
Optical alignment to check cold to hot movement of

feedpump and driver.
$25k
11. Insulate barrel to

maintain even
temperature, retain
heat, provide safety.
Conduct temperature survey of barrel to decide on

insulation location.
$2k
$25k/year
$10k
Include in
overhaul
quotation
$4k
The solutions to these problems involve the processes listed in Table 6-3. In addition, it is
appropriate for plant personnel to:
Utilize available upgrades developed by the manufacturers as part of their design

improvement programs.
Properly adjust "A" and "B" gap in all pumps. (Ref. 6-4)
Optimizing the radial clearances (gaps) between the feedpump impeller and diffuser (commonly
called gap A and gap B) substantially reduces the hydraulic/system interactions that can lead to
feedpump failure. Since feedpumps often don't have spares, significant savings to the utility
6-6

industry result from improved availability, reduced O&M costs and avoided equipment
replacement cost. In a remarkable demonstration of how to overhaul a fleet of pumps, over 1050
pumps were modified between 1985 and 1995. It is estimated that this avoided 50 pump
replacements, 860 pump repair costs, and 780 instances of failure where replacement power
would have been purchased. (Ref. 6-5)
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Boiler Feed Pumps
Boiler Feed Pump Modifications by Pennsylvania Power & Light
Operation of boiler feed pumps at low loads can result in cavitation and hydraulic instability,
leading to excessive internal wear. An investigation at PP&Ls Montour plant indicated that
pump reliability could be improved by modifying the pump impeller blade-diffuser clearances
and overlap to reduce vibration and wear, installing tilting pad bearings to increase rotor
stiffness, tightening balancing specifications, and revising startup and normal operating
procedures. After these changes were made, availability losses were reduced to a fraction of what
had been experienced previously. (Ref. 6-6)
Draft Fans
Induced and forced draft fans, and primary air fans, require periodic inspection and monitoring.
Traditionally fans have not been a major cause of forced outages, but the occasional failure of
the rotor can cause considerable damage to equipment and is a safety hazard. Fans are of the
axial or centrifugal design, with the axial design more efficient but less frequently deployed.
Fans are usually motor driven, but steam turbine drives have been used. (Ref. 6-1)
Photo Courtesy Mitsubishi
Figure 6-2
Axial Flow Draft Fan
High efficiency for axial flow draft fans is obtained by careful design of the airfoil blades,
adjustable blade angles to match changing air/gas path resistance, and often guide vanes to
6-7

recover swirl velocity as useful static pressure. Recently, variable speed motors have been
introduced to save energy at part loads.
Fan Maintenance
A survey of thirteen utilities revealed that the most prevalent practice is to inspect fans on an
annual basis and clean, inspect, and lubricate components including the rotor, bearings, motor,
guide vanes and actuators. A number of utilities however opted for longer intervals. (Ref. 6-7)
Experience has shown that during normal operation, careful observation can help an operator
identify potentially serious fan problems that could cause a future shutdown (Table 6-4) or
decline in overall unit efficiency (Table 6-5).
Table 6-4
Root Causes of Fan Availability Problems
Observed
Equipment
Malfunction
Sources of the Problem
Vibration
Fan Wheel, Structure, Expansion Joints, Bearings, Couplings, Vibration

Sensors, Shaft/Hub, Motor, Dampers: All possibly sites for damage
High Bearing
Temperature
Sensor, Bearings, Circulating oil system, Lubrication,

Air/Water cooling system
Noise
Bearings, Couplings, Dampers, Fan Wheel:

Clearance with cut-off or vanes too small
Poor Fan
Performance
On-line checks of balance of system to eliminate system root cause, off-line

checks to determine fan condition (See Below)
Fan Pulsation
Mechanical causes, Acoustical causes (vibration, surge, vortices, stall,

resonance), Axial Fans in parallel
Fan Erosion
Particulate removal system, particle flow paths.

Poor erosion resistance of materials requires shielding
6-8

Table 6-5
Fan Problems That Reduce Unit Efficiency
Item
Problems
Comment
Fan Wheel
Excessive clearance between

the rim of the fan impeller and
the housing.
Excessive clearance will cause

recirculation to develop; thereby
increasing the HP requirements to deliver
the required flow.
Dampers/vanes
Improper setting or
synchronization
Improper setting or synchronization cause

pressure drop losses in the system.
Variable Speed
Drives
Improper operation
Verify that the variable speed drive has

been "tuned" to deliver the ordered
output.
Electric Motor
Alignment, dirty filters,

inadequate lubrication of
bearings.
All problems increase horsepower

required.
Seals
Excessive wear, improper

installation
Seals that have excessive wear permit

air/gas stream leakage. Improper
installation can cause friction losses.
Air/Gas
Distribution
Ducts
Leakage
System leaks increase the horsepower

required.
Fan Housing
Expansion
Joints
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Draft Fans

Armoring Public Service of Colorado Cherokee Station Fans
Design modifications were identified to improve fan erosion tolerance, increase fan efficiency,
and extend the usable flow range. A low-loss, constant-velocity inlet box with optional particle
scalping vanes increases fan efficiency 2-4%, and impeller splitter rings extends a fan's usable
flow range. Erosion and leakage control rings raises a fan's efficiency by 2%. Other
improvements include changes in blading and scroll design changes to discourage particle
recirculation.
A centrifugal fan with hollow airfoil blading and replaceable armoring system--at the Cherokee
station of Public Service of Colorado--proved to be the most effective fix for erosion. Holes
eroded in the blade skin can cause the air foils to fill with dust, unbalance the fan, and lead to
failure. Six major components in the armoring system can ameliorate this problem: cast-steel
replaceable blade noses armored with a tungsten carbide coating; cast-steel blade-nose endpieces
armored, if necessary, with tungsten carbide; a centerplate blade-nose protection liner armored
with a high-chromium iron weld overlay; main blade liners with a high-chromium iron weld
overlay; a triangular liner endpiece; and a tungsten carbide-coated centerplate protection strip.
Tungsten carbide-coated flathead screws fastened all replaceable elements. Components of the
armoring system were successfully replaced in the field. (Ref. 6-8)
6-9

Air Preheaters
By utilizing the exhaust gas to preheat the combustion air, the airheater (Figure 6-3) greatly adds
to overall combustion efficiency. In general, the more heat that can be transferred the better the
overall efficiency. But there is a reliability concern if cold end temperatures drop below the dew
point for sulfuric acid, since this can precipitate on airheater components and lead to corrosion
and excessive fouling. This is of particular concern with high sulfur coals or where upstream
injections of conditioning additives are employed for NOx control or precipitator improvements.
Figure 6-3
Three Types of Airheaters
Of the three types of airheater, the most common is the regenerative type, with rotating baskets
that absorb and then reject heat. This type requires periodic cleaning, is subject to some leakage
between hot and cold sides and can display cold regions where acid deposition and resultant
corrosion can occur. The non-rotating tubular heater totally separates the fluid streams but
requires much greater space. Also non-rotating is the heat pipe airheater with clear size
advantages over the tubular type.
Air preheaters preheat incoming air to the boiler by recovering energy from the flue gas leaving
the boiler. In fact, fuel consumption can be reduced by 7-8 % by preheating air to 400 F (204
C) and 10-12 % by preheating air to 700 F (371 C). Tube and shell recuperative heaters and
rotary regenerative heaters are the leading systems in use today. In the tubular system, flue gas
flows vertically down through 2-2.5 inch (50-63 mm) tubes, giving up heat to the air flowing in
the volume surrounding the tubes. (Ref. 6-9) The warmed air can go straight to the burner
windbox as secondary air, or utilized as primary air that transports coal.
6-10

Courtesy B&W
Figure 6-4
Regenerative Air Preheater
This type of heater is generally more compact than tube and shell exchangers because of the
higher heat transfer coefficients that are obtained with extended metal surface area. A key
concern is corrosion and pluggage of the baskets. Burning high sulfur fuels, and low gas outlet
temperatures are prime causes of this.
Regenerative heaters most commonly utilize steel plates that are contained in rotating baskets to
absorb heat from the flue gas and reject it to the air entering the boiler. Corrugations and other
surface area increasing treatments are used to increase the heat transfer coefficients. The baskets
rotate slowly at 1-3 rpm, through the zone in which the flue gas is flowing, past the seals,
through the zone in which the air is flowing, past the seals and continuously through the same
cycle. (Figure 6-4)
In both types of air heaters, corrosion problems can occur in the low temperature, flue gas zone.
Coatings and low alloy steels can be used to address this problem, which increases in severity as
the sulfur content of the fuel increases and the flue gas outlet temperature decreases. While
design life is in the range of twenty to twenty five years of service, the actual life is influenced
by operating conditions and maintenance programs. The most common cause of mechanical
damage to rotors is fatigue accumulated during cycling operation. (Ref. 6-1)
Air Heaters: Key Concerns
The key concerns in air heater operation are air heater fouling and corrosion. Severe fouling,
which is not uncommon, reduces heat transfer, and increases air and gas pressure drops. Also
6-11

sulfuric acid, formed from the combination of moisture with sulfur trioxide (SO3) can condense
out at temperatures of 250-320F (116-160C), suggesting control of the cold end temperature as
a possible solution. However, since cold end temperatures are often held at 200F (93C) or even
below, corrosion is frequently a concern, because efficiency benefits exceed the cost of additional
maintenance. Increased cold end temperatures can be obtained by locating pre-heating coils in an
air duct between the forced draft fan and the air heater. Another operational method of avoiding
this problem is to increase the flue gas exit temperature by bypassing some of the flue gas around
the exchanger to the cold end. In addition, moisture must be controlled. It can enter the gas path
from steam sootblowers, rainwater through forced draft fans, boiler tube leaks, and air heater washes.
SNCR (Selective Non Catalytic Reduction) can add ammonium sulfate and ammonium fluoride
to air heater deposits. Sootblowing and water washing can remove deposits and on-line washing
is ideally done through the air-side to avoid moisture entering downstream gas path components.
Tubular or heat pipe air heaters are less common than regenerator types but are less affected by
corrosion (Figure 6-5).
Figure 6-5
Heat Pipe Airheaters
The use of heat pipes for heat transfer in airheaters has been deployed in a few instances. The
small size relative to tubular airheaters, the non-rotational design, and the complete separation of
air and gas streams has definite appeal. The working fluid for the pipes is usually water, since this
fits well with the evaporating and condensing temperatures needed, and leads to no potential
corrosive fluids in the event of a leak. But structural questions related to heat pipe-casing
attachments, and the need to provide finning of the pipes for better heat transfer, with attendant
cleaning needs, have hindered broad application
6-12

Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Air Heaters

Air Heater Performance Improved by Reducing Cold End Temperatures
Potomac Electric determined that it could improve the economic performance of its 600 MW
Morgantown 2 unit, by reducing the stack exit gas, and increasing the number of water washes of
the air preheater baskets from two to three per year. This conclusion presumed that the washes
were done during outages for other purposes. More washes were necessary to compensate for the
additional fouling of the heater baskets at a lower cold end temperature. Lehigh University
assisted PEPCO in this work by performing an economic analysis that quantified tradeoffs
between performance improvement and air preheater maintenance costs. The important variables
included inlet air humidity level, SO3 concentration, and power replacement costs. (Ref. 6-10)
Coal Handling Systems
Coal is delivered to power plants by rail, barge, and truck. Plant coal handling systems unload
the coal, move it to outdoor areas for long-term storage, maintain the coal while in storage, and
then transport it to the pulverizer storage bins immediately before use. As the power industry
becomes more competitive with additional pressure to reduce costs, companies are looking at
reducing their fuel costs while meeting emission requirements. They are also looking at ways to
safely and cost-effectively reduce the labor and maintenance costs of their coal handling systems.
Some plants have changed their primary fuel to lower sulfur coal. Others use blends of a number
of coals to meet emission requirements at various loads at minimum cost. These lower sulfur
coals or coal blends are likely to have different properties than the coals that the coal handling
systems were originally specified to handle. Changes in equipment and handling practices are
often required. One of the biggest transitions in coal use has been the shift from eastern
bituminous coals to Powder River Basin subbituminous coals. These low sulfur coals are used to
substitute for high sulfur coals, and their mining costs are low. However, they are much more
friable, generating much more dust than the eastern coals that they replace. Dust collection
systems must be upgraded. Often the transfer rate of conveyors can be increased by appropriate
modifications with bottlenecks eliminated by re-engineering existing systems.
6-13

Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Coal Handing

Systems
Magnetic Couplings Reduce Maintenance Costs at the 821 MW Coronado Generating
Station of Salt River Power District
Figure 6-6
Magnetic Coupling on 72-inch Coal Conveyor Belt Drive Unit
Issues/Goal
The plant had difficulty in obtaining a replacement at reasonable cost for a hydraulic coupling in
the drive unit for the plants 72-inch coal conveyor belt.
Key Conclusions
The plant installed a magnetic coupling to replace the hydraulic coupling after an
evaluation of available new coupling styles
After some shakedown problems were resolved, the plant is well satisfied with the new
magnetic coupling coal conveyor application and has ordered a second unit for another
conveyor
Magnetic coupling initial cost was less than that for the mechanical coupling
6-14
Installation time for the magnetic coupling was one shift

Estimated monthly maintenance person-hours for the coupling portion of the drive unit
have been reduced from 10 hours/month to 1 hour/month
After initial adjustments, the coupling has not required any additional care

Magnetic couplings entered the market in 1995-6. They have been used in a variety of industrial
applications including copper mining. The type of magnetic coupling used in this plant is a
newer type that became available in 1999-2000. It is differentiated from earlier offerings by
other vendors because it automatically disengages when a problem develops with either the
driver or the load. Among other current utility applications are coal conveyor couplings at a San
Antonio City Public Service plant and a pump coupling at Texas Utilities Rockdale plant.
The coupling at Coronado serves as an automatic clutch between a 700 horsepower drive motor
and a gear reducer. The magnetic clutch consists of a copper disk mounted to a drive shaft and
permanent magnets mounted on the drive shaft. The motor starting torque is adjusted by
increasing the spacing between the drive and drive components. The advantages of the magnetic
coupling over the original hydraulic coupling are:
No physical contact occurs between the drive motor and the gears, thereby minimizing
the need for maintenance
Liberal alignment tolerances also reduce maintenance time
Vibration can no longer be transferred across the coupling because there is no contact
Magnetic coupling initial costs were less than for the mechanical (fluid) coupling
The estimated life of the magnets far exceeds the life of the plant
An initial problem with noise of the coupling was abated by the installation of a guard. There
were some trips during post-installation operation that were caused by over-current. This
problem was resolved by increasing the length of the drive spacers to decrease the starting motor
torque.
The Coronado Generating Station is owned by the Salt River Project Power District and located
in St. Johns in northeastern Arizona. It has two 411 MW coal fired units, Units 1 and 2, that
were built in 1979 and 1980, respectively. The fuel is a low sulfur subbituminous coal.
(Ref.6-11)
Critical Assessment
Magnetic couplings are a relatively new product that are targeted at 20-1000 hp motors in
constant speed applications that require overload and failure protection and benefit from reduced
vibration and maintenance.
6-15

As was done in this case, these couplings are available to replace a failed component where the
original component may no longer be available or when an appropriate mechanical coupling may
not be cost effective. The lower maintenance requirements can contribute to lower plant
operating costs, which is an important driver in todays competitive electricity market.
New Crusher System for Breaking up Frozen Coal Improves Cold Weather Productivity
at the 1000 MW Cayuga Plant of Public Service Indiana
Figure 6-7
Crusher Installation Used to Break Up Frozen Coal
Issues/Goal
Prior to the installation of the new crusher system, workers at the plant on paid overtime used
long handled shovels and poles to break up 5-6 foot clumps of frozen coal as they dropped from
the coal storage hopper onto the conveyors during up to four months each winter. Furthermore,
jamming the mechanical feeders and transfer points with frozen coal clumps caused wear and
tear on the equipment. It was also necessary to break up frozen coal clumps in the coal reclaim
system. The approach to both problems was obviously very manpower intensive and reduced
productivity at the plant. Frozen coal crushers are not typically used in power plants in this
region.
6-16

Key Conclusions
The major justification for this project was to improve the safety aspects of dealing with
the movement of frozen clumps of coal through the conveying system
Installation of a pair of new coal crushers in the hopper system that unloads 2.5-3 million
tons/year eliminated the problem with the large frozen clumps of coal that were unloaded
from the rail cars by breaking the clumps up into 3-4 inch pieces.
Two smaller, 1000 ton/hour crushers that handle a total of 300,000-400,000 tons/year
were installed to eliminate frozen coal problems in the reclaim system
The cost of the crushers for breaking up frozen coal as it passed through the hopper system after
unloading was approximately $300,000 excluding the electrical work. The cost of the crushers
for breaking up frozen coal from the reclaim system was approximately $250,000.
The major challenge to the installation of the new crushers was access to the preferred location in
the hopper pit. All structural steel and crusher components had to be disassembled so that they
could pass through a 6 foot by 7 foot opening in the unloading docks cement slab. The overall
installation and construction time totaled three months. One unique feature of the crushers in the
hopper pit is that the steel roller drums, which are five feet long and three feet in diameter, can
be removed during the summer months when they are not needed. This reduces wear. Removal
or reinstallation of the rollers takes only four hours.
The crushers in the reclaim system do not have removable rollers since they are only used
intermittently. Their placement is unique in that that ware located inside the skirtboards of the
conveyors, just below the discharge of the mechanical feeders.
The Cayuga plant of PSI Energy has two 500 MW coal fired CE boilers that were placed in
service in 1970 and 1972 respectively.
(Ref. 6-12)
Critical Assessment
The crusher system at Cayuga described here deals with coal already unloaded from the train,
and worked well in breaking up big, frozen clumps of coal into smaller pieces. The disassembly
of the crushers and installation into the hopper pit was clearly a major task that took considerable
time, but the system solved key safety issues for this company.
6-17

In general, dealing with the problems caused by frozen coals has plagued coal plant operators for
years. As long ago as 1980, EPRI held a broad conference on coal freezing (Ref.6-13)
particularly related to coal car unloading. Mechanical methods then in use included air hammers,
water jets, air cannons, vibrators, coal breakers, back hoes, car shakers, and thaw sheds using gas
jets, or infrared heaters. These were described, with capital costs, in a later report (Ref.6-14).
Freeze conditioning agents, to reduce ice strength, essentially chemical agents such as glycols,
oils, or calcium chloride, were widely used. De-icing of rail cars for PRB coals, using diesel fuel
based de-icing agents, seemed to work well at the Black Thunder mine in Wyoming.
The issue can be costly. Generating companies reported reductions of plant output up to 50%
because of frozen coal, as well as excess labor costs up to $300K for the winter period.
AmerenUE Installs a 4000 T/H System at the Meramec Plant for Unloading and
Transshipment of Powder River Basin Coal to Reduce Transportation Costs
Figure 6-8
Coal Handling System Flow Scheme
6-18

Issues/Goal
Previously, PRB coal for the Meramec plant was delivered to St. Louis by unit train, and then
unloaded into barges that brought the coal to the plant site. AmerenUE decided to invest in new
rail unloading facilities to reduce the overall transportation cost of delivering PRB coal to the
Meramec plant. An additional investment was made in a transshipment facility that would allow
PRB coal to be shipped from Meramec by barge to other users and to other interested utilities.
Several innovative features were used in the design to reduce costs and increase operating
flexibility.
The location of the plant on the western bank of the Mississippi River offers a cost effective
transshipment location. It is below the last size-constrained lock, allowing large barges to be
loaded there and then towed into eastern US. This approach avoids the higher costs involved in
crossing the Mississippi River and delivering coal by rail to plants east of the river.
Key Conclusions
The first trainload of coal was unloaded on September 24, 2001. The system to supply
coal to the Meramec plant was turned over to the plant on October 15, 2001 and has
operated successfully since. The transshipment facility is undergoing start-up testing.
The innovative high-speed unloading system has performed as expected.
The cost savings have been significant resulting in an estimated pay-back time for this
investment of between two and three years
The design for the system was the same as used in other Ameren plants that use PRB coal
featuring rail loops and large capacity unloading hoppers. The system is the largest constructed
in the US prior to 2001 with 4050 ton-miles of conveying capacity. It unloading rate is 4000
T/H, which allows a 150-car unit-train (15,000 tons of coal) to be unloaded in about 4 hours.
Unique Conveyor Designs
To ensure that the plant would be designed to operate with maximum flexibility and reliability,
Meramec personnel were involved in reviews of operating and maintenance issues, examining
design details and equipment selections. The design of this plant is atypical incorporating three
unique features in the C21 conveyor and the reclaim conveyors design. The C21 conveyor is
fitted with a vertical gravity take-up which avoids the belt tension uncertainties of screw take-up
used at other plants, a self-cleaning magnet that is located at the head discharge of the conveyor
to avoid downstream tramp iron problems, and a flop gate valve that is installed next to the tramp
iron container, that allows coal to be directed either to the Meramec coal yard or transshipment
system. The reclaim area for transshipment consists of two groups of three ganged feeders. The
belt feeder has a ganged opening so that there is in essence a 42.5 foot slot for coal flow that
eliminates feed problems in the 4000 TPH reclaim system. Each feeder is a 60 inch wide belt
6-19

operating at 200 fps, double that of most conventional feeders and four times that of vibratory
feeders
Since the dumper was on the critical path, detailed engineering was completed and bid
solicitation was initiated nine months before the other work. The rail-unloading hopper is 1.5
times the length of the cars and nearly four times the capacity of any car. Six 1000 TPH variablespeed vibrating feeders were fitted below the hopper discharge to a collecting conveyor.
Operators run all six conveyors at a reduced rate to achieve to achieve the 4000 TPH unloading
rate. All of the new conveyors are 72 wide. Feeder belts have extra heavy high-grade covers to
maximize belt life.
Segregating the Coal Piles
There are two identical seven-story stackers - one for the Meramec plant and one for the
transshipment terminal. Coal can be stacked in two piles at each stacker. This is important in the
plant area since the PRB and Illinois coal piles are segregated. In the transshipment area,
different grades of PRB coal can be stacked separately. The new radial stackers can stockpile
much larger piles of coal over a wide area. This reduces the amount of bulldozing that is
required.
Barges are loaded at the transshipment facility at a rate of 4000 TPH using only two conveyors,
the longest of which is 3000 feet. A pant leg chute with a gate fitted to the end of the large
loading boom and the ability that the loader has to switch on the fly from one barge to the next
are two features on the transshipment facility will help to maximize delivery. The transshipment
system can blend two coals by reclaiming different coals in a predetermined ratio.
The Meramec Plant is a fourunit pulverized coal plant that was originally built to fire Illinois
coals. PRB coal is now the dominant fuel. Illinois coal is used primarily as a blend coal to
increase average fuel BTU content. The four units, totaling 800 MW in capacity, range in size
from 125 to 300 MW, were commissioned between 1953 and 1961.
(Ref.6-15)
Critical Assessment
Switching or blending coals to reduce operating costs is being employed by many utilities to
improve their operating margins. One of the most common approaches in recent years has been
for coal fired generating plants to switch their fuel supply, either partially or totally, to lowercost Power River Basin coal. This strip mined coal, which is transported by unit train from the
mine sites in Wyoming, can be delivered to a large number of power plants at significantly lower
cost than the original design-basis coals for those plants. The reduced fuel costs are offset to
some extent by increased in-plant coal handling costs. However, the net savings are usually
sufficiently large to support the change to Powder River Basin coal. Several other utilities
located east of the Mississippi River that use Powder River Basin coal have recently adopted
6-20

rail-to-rail and barge-to-barge unloading and transshipments to lower the delivered cost of coal
to their own plants.
The transition to using Powder River Basin Coal in a specific plant that was originally designed
for another coal usually involves changes to both coal handling equipment and local coal
handling practices. One of the key issues is the additional dust that is produced when handling
and moving PRB coal within plant boundaries, due to its inherently more friable nature.
Modifications to existing dust containment systems, dust suppression chemicals, and mechanical
dust collectors are required to accommodate both the additional amount of dust as well as the
changes in the physical and chemical properties of that dust. One of the major objectives of these
efforts is to reduce the potential for dust explosions. Plant housekeeping must also be increased
with more frequent wash-downs of dusty surfaces and strict adherence to coal conveying
equipment maintenance schedules.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Coal Handling Systems
Coal Handling and Distribution Issues Resolved at PECO
PECO Energy had experienced periodic interruptions of coal flow to the pulverizers at the
Eddystone Station. By monitoring low level vibrations that result from continuous coal flow
through the feed chutes, plant personnel were able to detect flow stoppages more quickly than
with previous methods. (Ref. 6-16)
Pulverizers
Pulverizers consist of four key components:
Grinding mechanisms, which pass the coal between stationary grinding rings and moving
components, either tires or balls;
Central shafts to drive the moving components of the grinding mechanism and classifiers,
that separate the fine coal constituents from the coarser constituents, which are recycled
through the grinding mechanism;
Primary air inlet pipes, which carry the air used to dry the coal particles and carry them to
the coal pipes, where they are then sent to the burners, and
Housings to contain the coal/air mixture.
Several different types of pulverizers are used in utility service. Selection criteria are dependent
on coal characteristics and boiler particle size requirements. Pulverizers are high maintenance
items and for that reason, a large coal-fired plant is usually designed with more than enough
pulverizer capacity so that one or two may be out of service while the plant still maintains full
load. The major problem with pulverizers is wear of the grinding components (Table 6-6).
Among the important approaches to keeping pulverizers in service are maintaining seal airflow
to protect seals from burn-up, and monitoring of lube-oil cleanliness to avoid shaft problems.
(Ref. 6-17)
6-21

Table 6-6
Pulverizer Damage
Generic Pulverizer Problems
Common Solutions
Excessive wear of grinding

components
Hard facing of rolls, harder grinding

surfaces
Shaft breakage
Proper settings of components that

stress shaft
Lube oil contamination
Improved lube oil filtration, increased

seal air flow
Classifier wear
Ceramic lining application
Fires and Explosions

The fine coal-air mixture is combustible and coal fires are a constant danger in pulverizers. Table
6-7 describes actual causes of mill fires and explosions and subsequent modifications to prevent
recurrences. A constant feature is that of coal accumulation, therefore, vigilance is essential to
avoid a dangerous situation.
Table 6-7
Reported Fire and Explosions in Bowl Mills and Solutions
Location
Causes
Modifications to Reduce
Fires
Separator liner
Small size causes excessive

wear; hot air mixes with coal
Larger separator liner installed
Primary air inlet
Temperature monitor may be a

problem
Lowered mill outlet temperature

to correct value
Burner line
pluggage
Low velocity (primary

air limited)
Increased primary air to avoid

plugging
Coal accumulation
on flat surfaces
Ignition
Eliminated flat surfaces inside

the mill
Coal accumulation on
separator body liners
Ignition
Liners removed, reduced fires

resulted
Coal accumulation
in pyrite chamber
Low primary air flow
Increased exhauster draft to

avoid coal dust piles
Accumulation of pyrites and

coal in pyrite chamber
Maintenance practice
Improved maintenance practice

to prevent accumulations
Pressurized/Suction
6-22

Courtesy Combustion Engineering
Figure 6-9
Bowl Mill
Pulverizers are high maintenance items, and typically redundancy is built into the number
installed in coal-fired units. If the unit is down for a long boiler or turbine outage, an opportunity
exists to inspect pulverizers for badly worn grinding wheels, fatigue cracking of the shaft, and
erosion of piping and ductwork. The coal handling system should be checked regularly and coal
dust accumulations removed to avoid fires and explosions.
6-23

Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Pulverizers

New Design for Coal Mill Exhauster Reduces Wear at Mirants 510 MW Potomac River
Station
Figure 6-10
Backward Curved Fan Blades Minimizes Contact With Abrasive Coal Particles in Pulverizer
Exhauster Extends Expected Life to Two Years
Issues/Goal
The most common fans used in conventional bowl mill pulverizers are the paddle wheel (or
whizzer wheels) type. Their purpose is to provide the motive energy to lift coal-air mixtures from
the top of the pulverizer and move that mixture through piping to the burners. A common
problem is that contact between the fan blades and the coal particles results in rapid wear. Hard
surface weld overlays are sometimes used to improve fan blade wear resistance, but this
approach increases rotor weight that can cause mechanical problems with the fan.
Key Conclusions
Based on a 20-week test, the supplier (Robinson Industries Inc. Zelienpole, PA) expects that the
redesigned fan will last at least two years without excessive wear as required by Mirant.
Previously, the fan required major maintenance at intervals of six months to a year.
6-24

Mirants key objectives were to:
Maintain rated load on the unit throughout the year including periods when coal moisture
was high
Increase mill capacity
Reduce the number of forced outages due to wheel failures
Mirant requested that an improved wheel be designed to increase both capacity and efficiency.
The new wheel uses a narrower, shrouded wheel design to replace the traditional paddle wheel.
A volumetric flow of 16,000 cfm at 21-inch static pressure rise was measured compared to the
original wheel output of 13,000 cfm at 28-inch pressure rise.
The key features of the fan design are:
A backwards-curved fan design that minimizes contact between the coal particles and the
blade surfaces
Installation of replaceable inlet dust deflectors that are placed between the primary blades
to direct particle rich gas along the path between the primary blades
Light-weight ceramic (alumina) tiles on surfaces of the blades, shrouds, web, dust
deflector and housing for protection against wear
Tungsten carbide tiles at the points of highest predicted wear
Improved fan efficiency that provides significantly more air flow at the same horsepower
Little or no wear was detected during the 20-week test. The supplier expects that the fan will
meet or exceed Mirants requirement for energy efficiency and will last two years without
excessive wear.
There are four coal-fired units at the 510 MW Potomac River Station in Alexandria, VA. that is
owned by Mirant Corp., of Atlanta, GA. Four pulverizers have been modified.
(Ref.6-18)
6-25

Critical Assessment
Historically, exhauster fans in Raymond mills have been high maintenance items. This is
especially true when they are used to process highly abrasive coals. Previous efforts by power
generators to extend the intervals between repairs involved armoring the existing fans with
abrasion resistant materials. The increased weight of these materials sometimes resulted in
vibration problems with this fix however.
If the new exhauster fan is cost-effective there would be a good market for it, since CE boilers
(that use exhauster fans) comprise more than 50% of the market. This more efficient design
(using backward-curved blades) is an engineered solution that will help the abrasion problem,
and is best applied to units using abrasive coals such as Texas lignite. It would not, for example,
have as much value for PRB coals. The use of ceramic tiles has been successful in other plant
applications and avoids the significant extra weight of armored jackets for fan blades that have
been troublesome in the past.
In summary, the new fan design may prove to be an attractive approach to reducing pulverizer
maintenance costs.
Coal Bunker/Silos
Coal bunkers are typically constructed from carbon steel lined with refractory to protect the
internal surface from erosion damage. Bunker failures can be caused by erosion, corrosion, or
possibly bunker fires. Failure of the refractory can lead to erosion caused by sliding of the coal,
and corrosion caused by trapped moisture. (Ref. 6-1)
Stacks
From time to time catastrophic failures of stacks have occurred and it is appropriate to carry out
periodic inspections. This is particularly the case if pollution control equipment reduces flue gas
temperatures and increases the risk of severe corrosion. As pointed out in Ref. 6-19, flue gas
being acidic, wet, and chloride-rich can penetrate porous concrete and corrode rebar. One utility,
Ref. 6-20, in inspecting its stacks came up with a list of problems and causes for damage to
shells, caps, liners, pilasters, buckstays, and other stack components.
Erosion by the particles entrapped in the gas flow can be found at the stack entrance, necked
down regions and other areas where the direction and velocity of the gas changes. Corrosion by
the gas is also a serious damage mechanism, often requiring the use of a corrosion resistant liner.
(Ref. 6-1) Also see the section on scrubbers for gas corrosion issues.
6-26

STEAM TURBINE AUXILIARIES

The steam turbine cycle, considered as a system, includes feedwater heaters, condenser, and (if
used) the cooling tower. These components are designed to operate as an integrated package and
mis-operation of one component can effect the performance of the others. The linking medium,
often called the plant life-blood, is the water-steam system. So the maintenance of fluid
chemistry is also an essential element in turbine cycle optimization. In this section we look at the
feedwater heaters and condensers in some detail, and study the mechanisms that might lead to
failure or poor performance. Included in discussions related to the turbine auxiliaries are the
different water chemistry treatments, including the most recent oxygenated treatment process
where oxygen is added rather than subtracted, from the water. This results in a protective
magnetite/ferrite surface on pipes and tubes. Of course the boiler performance is very dependent
on water chemistry also, and these aspects are covered in Chapter 3. Maintenance of the heat
exchangers associated with the turbine cycle is one of the most intensive of all plant activities,
vital in keeping a unit running efficiently and reliably.
Table 6-8
Summary of Damage Mechanisms, Inspection Techniques, and Corrective Actions for Heat
Exchangers in the Steam Turbine Cycle
Component
Feedwater
Heaters
Damage Mechanisms
Tubing corrosion.
Inspection
Techniques
VT, MT, PT
Low cycle fatigue of welds.
Corrective Actions
Plug leaking tubes.
Steam impingement erosion.
Crack growth analysis to determine if

repair is required before next outage.
Flow induced vibration.
Inserts to prevent inlet erosion.
Tube inlet erosion.
Proper level control.
Drain cooler inlet erosion.

Condensers
Air in-leakage.
UT, ET
Plug leaking tubes.
Biofouling.
Leak testing
Chemical treatment for biofouling.
Plugging by sediment, scaling,

marine debris.
Mechanical cleaning for biofouling and

debris.
Corrosion of tubes due to

water chemistry problems.
Change tube materials.
Erosion at tube inlet.

Deaerators
Corrosion of internals.
Corrosion fatigue cracking of
girth and seam welds.
Cooling
Towers
Corrosion.
VT of
internals
Grind out and weld repair cracks.
MT, PT welds
VT
Chemical treatment of water.
Freezing.
Maintain circulation to avoid freezing.
Fouling by marine/other
organisms.
Manual cleaning for biofouling.

Replace packings.
Clogging of water distributors.
(Ref. 6-1)
6-27

General Comments About Power Plant Heat Exchangers

The most frequent problems with heat exchangers involve tube leaks, or tube fouling. Typical
failure locations are shown in Figure 6-11 below. (Ref. 6-21) As individual feedwater heaters can
often be removed from service with only a minor impact on efficient plant operation, leaking
tubes can be plugged without causing an outage. For condensers it is usually possible to remove
a section from service in order to clean or plug the tubes or clean the waterbox.
The importance of good heat transfer in these auxiliaries is undeniable. In a competitive environment
for electric power sales, any advantage in heat rate and in availability can make the difference in
how, or whether, a unit is dispatched. Feedwater heaters, condensers, and cooling towers, properly
maintained, ensure that the turbine cycle operates at peak efficiency. Great strides have been made in
tracking and dealing with tube fouling. Water and steam chemistry has markedly improved with
closer control of additives and on-line monitoring of chemistry. Materials of construction can be
chosen to optimize life. Titanium condenser tubing is one example of this. For all power plant
personnel, heat exchanger maintenance is therefore an on-going and vital part of daily activities.
Figure 6-11
Damage Locations in Heat Exchanger Tubes
In spite of many possible damage locations, it is often possible to minimize any downtime by
sealing a leaking or corroded tube. Older plants often have many such plugged tubes, but at some
time the performance loss becomes significant. The most common maintenance actions involve
tube cleaning to remove scale and deposits and inspection of the tubes, using eddy current or
ultrasonic methods when the unit is down for an extended maintenance outage. Great care must
be taken if a condenser uses brackish or seawater, to avoid prolonged leakage into the boiler
feedwater train. Adequate chemistry instrumentation must be present to detect this. Heater level
control is crucial to proper drain cooler operation and longevity.
6-28

Feedwater Heaters
Feedwater heaters use steam from the turbine expansion cycle, extracted at either superheated or
saturated conditions. The more conventional type, in widespread use in the United States,
consists of a shell and tubesheets that support the tube bundle containing the feedwater.
Functionally the feedwater heater has three zones to accomplish the extraction of the steam heat:
desuperheating, condensing and subcooling.
Header feedwater heaters have recently been introduced into the United States after development
and satisfactory service in Europe. (Figure 6-12) Cylindrical headers rather than flat plate
headers are used which results in significantly reduced stresses and fewer leaks for cycling
service. (Ref. 6-22)
Figure 6-12
Header Feedwater Heater
A European development now finding application in the United States, the header feedwater
heater is superior in resisting cyclic thermal stresses. Instead of thick, flat tubesheets, the thinner
cylindrical headers provide great strength against forces that can severely damage conventional
feedwater designs.
Feedwater Heater Operation: Key Concerns

The high-pressure feedwater heaters, located downstream of the feedwater pump can be
tubesheet or header types. The first important design feature occurs in the desuperheating zone
that removes much of the sensible heat of the steam, but not so much that the condensing zone
does not see inlet dry steam, to avoid droplet erosion. In fact if condensation occurs in the
desuperheating zone due to improper design or operation, tube failures will eventually result
from erosion by water droplets, typically traveling at 100+-feet/sec (30+-m/sec)-steam velocity.
6-29

Such problems can be overcome by using more resistant tube materials, or by reducing velocities
through redesign, though with a likely performance penalty (Ref. 6- 23).
In the desuperheating zone, the steam impacts the impingement plate that protects the tubes from
direct contact with the inlet steam flow. If this plate is damaged or broken, then the tubes can be
impacted also. As condensate collects in the condensing zone, the level of this fluid must be
monitored and controlled, so this key instrumentation must be carefully observed. Another key
area, the drain cooler that subcools the condensate, is fed from an inlet nozzle that leads from the
condensate pool. For good performance steam must be kept from leaking into the drain cooler
through the end plate or the subcooling zone shroud. Venting is also an important function,
removing non-condensable gases continuously. If this is inadequate, then poor heat transfer
exists. Tubes sometimes leak and to prevent turbine water induction damage, emergency drains
will send any excess directly to the condenser, so valves for emergency drains must be always
operational. Clearly, liquid levels play a key role in feedwater heaters, so these should be
carefully monitored. In rare cases, slugs of water can make their way back into the turbine
resulting in water induction damage to turbine blading. (Ref. 6-24)
Stress corrosion failure can be from operation of from stresses built in during manufacture.
Figure 6-13 shows stress corrosion tube failures in a low-pressure feedwater heater at the Ubends. The bends had not been stress relieved during manufacture.
Figure 6-13
Stress Corrosion Cracks in a Low-Pressure Feedwater Heater
As pressures in feedwater heaters have increased, so has the thickness of tubesheets leading to
high thermal stresses on tubesheets. This can lead to crack development, particularly at tubesheet
welds (Figure 6-14). Austenitic steel claddings are commonly used over the carbon steel to
protect the tubesheet and to facilitate the welding of tube joints. The tubes are also subject to
significant inlet erosion/corrosion and here the tube material may be a factor. Carbon and
stainless steel, Monel, and 70/30 copper nickel are all used.
6-30

Figure 6-14
Tubesheet Cracking
Particularly of concern in cycling units is the possibility of thick tubesheets developing thermal
stresses beyond the strength of the tubesheet material to withstand crack development.
Tubesheet cracking, particularly at tubesheet welds, is not uncommon and is one reason why
header-type heaters are preferred in some high temperature units with rapid ramp rates and
frequent on-off duty.
The lower weight and cost of the tubesheet heater is attractive, but life is often shorter, and in
cycling duty more failures are expected than with the header-type heater. Only carbon steel tubes
are used in header heaters, and these tubes are bigger diameter (~1 inch, (25 mm.)), with lower
velocities and less vibration, but need to be very carefully welded because of their more complex
shape with more bends. In general the tube to tubesheet weld is the prime area of concern. As we
have seen, the weld area is subject to damage and should be inspected visually and by dye
penetrant.
As indicated in Figure 6-15, the tube failure rates over the life of a feedwater heater can vary
markedly, but in all cases the failure rate rises exponentially near the end of useful life.
6-31

Figure 6-15
Carbon Steel Tube, High Pressure Feedwater Heater Life Cycle
Feedwater heater tubes are characterized by very high total surface area and thin walls and as a
result are susceptible to failure. It has been observed that tubing failures accelerate at an
exponential rate as those tubes approach end of life. Condition monitoring, through periodic
inspections, or perhaps through on-line acoustic leak detectors, can provide advance warning of
impending high failure rates.
Detailed Case History Of Feedwater Heater Refurbishment and Upgrade

Monitoring Feed Water Heater Performance Uncovers Efficiency Losses at Georgia
Powers 845 MW Plant Hammond
80
60
Terminal
Temperature
Difference,F
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
Days of Operation
Figure 6-16
Failure of Expansion Joint in 500 MW Unit 4 Indicated by Increase In Terminal Temperature
Difference
6-32

Issues/Goal
Plant performance declines with time as individual components fail. A feedwater heater
monitoring program was initiated in the spring of 2000 at Plant Hammond to identify problems
and eliminate performance degradation. Southern Company has recommended that all plants in
their system follow a feedwater performance monitoring program.
Key Conclusions
A simple fundamental approach to heater performance monitoring can improve heater

reliability and maintain plant heat rate.
Observation of Terminal Temperature Differences (TTD), Drainer Cooler Approach

(DCA) and Temperature Rise in feedwater heater systems provided important diagnostic
information that was used to pinpoint equipment malfunctions.
The relatively simple repairs to the feedwater heater system components were done by on-site
personnel and did not require any capital expenditures beyond the minor cost replacement parts.
Value of Modifications
The heat rate savings that resulted from discovering that a partition plate was leaking in the
highest pressure heater in Unit 1 was estimated in value at $25,000 for the first year. Other
modifications described below improved heater reliability.
Under this program, the heater pressure, inlet and outlet feedwater or condensate temperatures,
and drain temperatures were monitored. From these raw data, Terminal Temperature Differences
(TTD), Drain Cooler Approach (DCA), and Temperature Rise were calculated and plotted to
highlight deviations from normal operations. Examples of the problems that were uncovered
using this approach were:
A sudden increase in TTD indicated that a partition plate was leaking in the highest
pressure heater in Unit 1
A sudden increase in DCA indicated that a tube in the highest pressure heater in Unit 3
was leaking
A sudden increase in TTD led to the discovery that an expansion joint in the next to
lowest pressure heater in Unit 4 had completely failed
An increase in DCA led to the discovery that a control valve positioner in Unit 4 was not
functioning properly
6-33

Plant Hammond has three 115 MW and one 500 MW coal fired units. The three 115 MW Units
(1-3) have five-heater turbine cycles. The closed heaters are the vertical type. The 500 MW Unit
4 has a seven-heater turbine cycle. The closed heaters in Unit 4 are the horizontal type
(Ref. 6-25)
Critical Assessment
Feedwater Heater TTD and DCA are very simple and effective indicators of heater performance.
The TTD is the difference between saturation temperature corresponding to the entering
extraction steam and the feedwater outlet temperature. The value could be either positive or
negative. Clearly the entering extraction steam and the feedwater outlet temperature must be
monitored. TTD can be calculated manually or automatically. Larger than design TTD indicates
a heater performance problem. Such a performance problem can be due to several factors
including but not limited to a venting problem, shellside and/or tubeside fouling, too high a
shellside liquid level, a desuperheating zone shroud leak, and a pass partition leak or cover
gasket leak.
The DCA is the temperature difference between the drains leaving the shellside of the heater and
the entering feedwater on the tube side. Clearly the drains outlet temperature and the feedwater
inlet temperature must be monitored. DCA can also be calculated manually or automatically. A
larger than design DCA indicates a heater performance problem. This performance problem can
be caused by several factors including but not limited to steam leaking into the drain cooling
zone due to too low a shellside liquid level, a shroud or end plate leak, shellside and/or tubeside
fouling, a tube leak, or too much drain flow. A pass partition plate or cover gasket leak can also
increase DCA but to a lesser degree.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Feed Water Heaters
Central Hudson Gas and Electric Detect Feedwater Heater Tube Leaks Acoustically
After multiple leaks at the Roseton station of Central Hudson G&E, an advanced acoustic
monitoring system (AMS) with solid metal waveguides was installed to detect ultrasonically
leaks at a very early stage. In a prior incident, the heater flooded and the turbine was shut down
to avoid consequential damage. Since the AMS was installed leaks have been detected about 6
times a year with a lead-time of 10-25 days over previous detection methods. The system shows
trending displays, spectrums, and a journal of alarms over a 24 hour period. (Ref. 6-26)
Header Feedwater Heaters Installed by LILCO and Union Electric
Tubesheet feedwater heaters have a strong tendency to develop leaks in the tubesheet/channel
area, when utilized in cycling service. Long Island Lighting demonstrated the first header
feedwater heater in the US in their 100 MW Glenwood unit 5 in 1991. (Ref. 6-27) Based on the
6-34

positive experience at LILCO, Union Electric installed a unit in their 505 MW supercritical
Sioux unit 2 in 1995. (Figure 6-17). Header units replace the very thick tubesheet in a
conventional design with internal cylindrical headers that are contained within the pressure
vessel. Feedwater enters the header and feeds the tubes, while steam bled from the turbine
surrounds the tubes. Wall thickness of the cylindrical headers is about 1/5 to 1/10 of the equivalent tube
sheet thickness, which reduces the stresses developed during temperature transients caused by rapid
startups and shutdowns. These headers are expected to have a service life of 35-50 years, compared to
the 12-15 years typically experienced with tubesheet headers in cycling service. (Ref. 6-28)
Figure 6-17
Header Feedwater Heater for the UE Sioux Unit 2
Steam and water temperatures in this supercritical unit differ by over 100F at the inlet but the
difference can be much greater during startup, leading to great thermal stresses.
Feedwater Heater Tubing Upgrade by LILCO

Based on a careful analysis of life-cycle costs in 1989, LILCO retubed the Glenwood Unit 5 unit
high-pressure heater and the E. F. Barrett Unit 1 seventh stage heater with 16 BWG AL-6XN
(Fe-Cr-Ni-Mo) tubes. Previously 304 stainless steel had been used in this service, but the
susceptibility of that material to pitting, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking created
concerns. These units use seawater for condenser cooling and are used in peaking and cycling
service and there was a history of chloride intrusions into the feedwater cycle because of the poor
condition of the condensers. In their analysis, LILCO staff presumed that the time to initial tube
failure with the AL-6XN tubes would be ten years in comparison to five years with 304 SS and
that the annual failure rate would be reduced from 1.0% to 0.7%. (Ref. 6-29)
6-35

Condensers
Condensers preserve the high purity water for reuse in the steam cycle and provide a low
backpressure to the turbine to maximize plant efficiency. The majority of the condensers in
power plants are of the water-cooled surface type, consisting of tube bundles containing the
cooling water, encased in an air-tight casing to prevent contamination of the condensing steam
(Figure 6-18). Associated equipment consists of condensate pumps, tubesheets, expansion joints,
valving, and circulating water pumps, inlet pipes, and filters for the cooling water. LP feedwater
heaters may be included with the condenser. If a cooling tower is used, its performance clearly
also affects the condenser.
Figure 6-18
Typical Steam Surface Condenser
A condenser tube leak does not always result in a forced outage, so leaks are perhaps less critical
than boiler tube failures, but a clear exception to this is where the condenser is seawater cooled.
When a leak is detected, usually by monitoring the boiler water chemistry, the leaking water box
is isolated to permit the inspection and the offending tube is plugged. (Ref. 6-1) Such chemistry
upset signals should be responded to immediately to avoid downstream damage to boiler and
turbine.
Condenser failure causes can be related to design, fabrication practices, construction materials,
abnormal operating modes, cycling, methods of operation, and maintenance procedures. As
noted above, a compounding consequence of any tube failure is likely upset of the plant water
chemistry. Quick detection and plugging of leaking tubes is important to avoid damage to other
system components.
6-36

Condenser tubing material selection is a factor in the type and quantity of tube failures. A
summary of damage mechanisms related to material is shown in Table 6-9. (Ref. 6-1)
Table 6-9
Typical Defect Types Found in Condenser Tubing of Different Materials
Material
Copper
alloys
Stainless
steel
Titanium
All
Defect
Location
Damage
Mechanism
Pitting corrosion
ID Pitting
All around tube
Stress corrosion
OD cracking
Throughout the
length; inlet end
De-alloying (e.g.
dezincification)
Erosion
Leaks from tube

ID
Ring of worn
material
ID pitting
Throughout the
length
Inlet end
Damage at the
tube-to-tubesheet joint and
at the inlet
Tube-to-tube sheet
joint
Inlet end
OD wall loss
Top of tube bundle
OD wall loss
Mid-span between
support plates
Top of tube bundle
Pitting
Corrosion
Crevice
corrosion
Mechanical
damage
(fretting, steam
impingement
and vibration)
Hydriding
Erosion (steam
impingement)
Vibration
Mechanical
damage
Galvanic
corrosion
Dents,
punctures
Metal loss
Throughout the tube

Tube to tube sheet
joint
Tube, tube sheet,

water box
Root cause
Decaying organic material or
sulfides in water, silt
Combination of residual
stress and high levels of
ammonia/oxygen in
condensate
Metallurgy
Suspended solids, polluted
water, or entrained air
Attack by chloride containing
water at inclusion and other
microstructural
inhomogeneities
Titanium is vulnerable
because the tubes are
thinner than copper-based
tubes
Failure of cathodic protection
system
High velocity steam and
drains
Flow-induced vibration
Falling debris
Dissimilar metal
Condenser Fouling and Biocorrosion

Biological fouling of water lines and structures remains a constant concern and frequently is a
source of performance loss, particularly in condensers. Fouling by macroscopic organisms such
as clams, mussels, barnacles, and other invertebrates, can clog intake structures, piping, and heat
exchangers producing a definitive and often dramatic reduction in cooling water flow. Fouling
by microscopic organisms is not as obvious but is much more prevalent as virtually all surfaces
are subject to formation of biofilms. This microfouling can lead to microbiologically influenced
corrosion (MIC) and significant degradation of heat transfer.
Oxidizing biocides such as chlorine have often been used to control biofouling, both from
macroscopic and microscopic sources. A major disadvantage of oxidizing biocides is their
toxicity to humans and to other life forms such as fish and amphibians. Toxicity concerns affect
6-37

storage, handling, and delivery systems within a plant as well as the concentrations that may be
discharged to the environment. Increasingly stringent environmental requirements significantly
reduce the economics and practicality of oxidizing biocides in general and chlorine in particular.
Oxidizing biocides can also produce periods of accelerated corrosion, due exclusively to the
oxidizing power of the biocide.
A number of technologies have been studied in the search for more environmentally sound and
more economically acceptable biofouling control methods. These technologies include heat
treatment, ozone exposure, ultra-violet (UV) exposure, sonics, electric and magnetic field
exposure, and galvanic action.
Pulsed Acoustics
Pulsed acoustics, using short pulse, high frequency acoustic waves, has been shown (Ref. 6-30)
to provide an effective method for cleaning surfaces covered with calcareous coatings,
macrofouling, and microfouling. Inhibition of fouling at lower energies, using simple, lower
power equipment has also been demonstrated in seawater tests in the laboratory. Both methods
appear effective for the elimination of fouling on piping surfaces and are completely non-toxic to
the water column. So the pulsed acoustics approach appears to offer a potentially attractive, nontoxic alternative to oxidizing biocides for the control of biofilm formation on piping and heat
exchanger surfaces, though the method is a few years from full commercialization.
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when dissimilar metals immersed in a conducting solution such as
seawater are in electrical contact with each other. Due to a potential difference between
dissimilar metals, electrons flow from anode (least noble metal) to cathode (most noble metal).
Typically, the cathode does not corrode but the anode can corrode rapidly. The rate of galvanic
corrosion depends on the potential difference between the two metals and Table 6-10 lists the
galvanic susceptibility of some commonly used materials in condensers, when seawater is the
cooling medium.
Since the metals used for condenser tubes tend to be nobler than those in other condenser
components, a cathodic protection system is sometimes installed to protect the more vulnerable
tubesheets and waterboxes from galvanic corrosion.
6-38

Table 6-10
Galvanic Potential Differences Among Condenser Metals and Alloys
Metal or Alloy
Comparative Voltage
Titanium
0.00
316 Stainless steel
-0.18
70-30 copper nickel
-0.25
Aluminum bronze
-0.26
90-10 copper nickel
-0.28
Admiralty brass
-0.40
Carbon Steel
-0.61
Cast Iron
-0.61
Zinc
-1.03
Aluminum
-1.60
Photo Courtesy Delas-Weir
Figure 6-19
Condenser Tube Sheet
The design of condensers and the arrangement of tubing differs according to manufacturer, as
seen from the "flower" pattern of these tube holes. Areas to keep check of: tube leaks at the tube
sheets due to "crevice" corrosion, erosion at the water box/tube entrance, poor condenser
performance due to pockets of air in-leakage, and tube fouling causing poor heat transfer.
6-39

Condenser Performance Issues

Rankine cycle efficiency is determined in part by condenser pressure, with cycle efficiency
decreasing as condenser pressure increases. An increase of one inch of mercury in condenser
pressure can reduce output by as much as 2% at full-load. Condensers can lose 15-25 % of their
heat transfer because of fouling due to inorganic and microbiologic deposits. (Ref. 6-31) This
can clearly have a serious impact on the peak MW developed, since fouled condenser tubes, with
diminished heat transfer capability increase condenser operating pressure. Macrofouling can
occur due to large objects adhering to the tube face which blocks the inlet flow to some of the
tubes. (Ref. 6-32) Common fouling organisms include Asian clams, blue mussels, zebra mussels
and debris. Tube cleaning to remove fouling deposits, is a necessary periodic activity and can be
extremely effective. (Ref. 6-33)
Condenser performance can be adversely affected if air and non-condensables are permitted to
gather in pockets inside the condenser. Tubes affected by these air pockets are unable to effect
good heat transfer. Since this is often caused by in-leakage through casing fissures, a helium or
SF6 leak detection system might be deployed to search for such openings. Operation of the
condenser air ejector can also be deficient. (Ref. 6-34)
In general, turbine performance improves as the condenser pressure decreases because of the
increased energy recovery at lower condensation temperatures. However, there are exceptions.
For example, when the main condenser has larger-than-required capability to reject the heat of
condensation, sensible heat is removed from the condensate. This results in reducing the
condensate temperature below the saturation temperature corresponding to the condenser
pressure. The added heat rejection must be made up by increasing the steam extracted from the
lowest pressure turbine, which reduces power output. Sub-cooling can be monitored by
comparing the hot well temperature against the condenser saturation temperature.
Most low-pressure turbines exhibit supersonic flow within the last blade row. If exit pressure is
further reduced, a point is reached where the decease in backpressure does not result in any
additional stage work (or turbine output). Similarly, a low-pressure turbine exhaust hood can
experience flow choking when the inlet Mach number and pressure drop are sufficiently high. At
this point, the backpressure becomes independent of condenser pressure, and any further
reduction in condenser pressure does not increase turbine output (Ref. 4-1). So for turbines
operating at lower-than-optimum condenser pressure, further reductions in pressure provide no
increase in power. For such turbines, it is often possible to reduce the circulating water flow,
thereby saving pump power and improving unit heat rate.
Tube Cleaning
Of prime concern though, are the maintenance of good heat transfer and the periodic cleaning of
condenser tubes. (Figure 6-20) One recent device that has been very effective is the on-line
fouling condenser monitor (Figure 6-21) that uses signals from temperature and flow detectors
located in one or more tubes to track fouling. Data from the Northport generating station of Long
Island Lighting (now KeySpan), and from the Brayton Point plant of New England Power
Company have clearly shown the benefits of this monitor. (Ref. 6-35)
6-40

Figure 6-20
Condenser Tube Cleaning
Periodic tube cleaning of a condenser is one of the most cost-effective activities in a fossil power
plant. The impact of condenser backpressure on turbine performance is so strong that tube-bytube cleaning, though tedious, should be a part of a periodic maintenance program.
6-41

Figure 6-21
An On-Line Condenser Fouling Monitor
By utilizing three temperature signals and one flow signal, increased fouling of condenser tubes
can be accurately tracked. At the appropriate time, the condenser tubes can be cleaned. Such a
diagnostic device gives direct evidence of the impact of cooling water system anomalies on tube
fouling, by tracking fouling against time.
Simple methods of cleaning tubes, off-line, involve propelling brushes or scrapers through each
tube in turn. Brushes, propelled by water or water/air (Figure 6-22) have nylon or metallic
bristles and the debris is ejected from the end of the tube. Alternatively a brush may be driven by
an electric motor, the brush rotating as it moves down the tube. Other objects used for cleaning
include plastic or metal scrapers. High-pressure water can be injected at pressures up to 10,000
psi as an alternative cleaning procedure. (Ref. 6-36)
Figure 6-22
Air/Water Propelled Brush
6-42

This is one of the simplest off-line cleaning methods. A brush is propelled through a tube by
pressurized water or a mixture of pressurized water and air. Brushes may have nylon or metallic
bristles. Any fouling material or scale removed is flushed out by the propelling medium as the
brush moves down the tube.
Mechanical On-Line Cleaning Systems

On-line systems provide continuous methods of scouring the inside of the cooling water tubes.
One of the most common of these involves circulating balls with rough surfaces that are collected
and re-injected after each pass. Typically, a charge of balls equal to 10-15% of the number of
tubes is adequate, leading to a ball passing through a tube about every 5 minutes. There is a
relatively high installation cost and also replacement ball costs as they wear. (Fig. 6-23)
Figure 6-23
Continuous Sponge Ball Cleaning System
Plugging Tubes
Several methods are used for plugging leaking tubes. A tapered plug is the oldest design and can
be made of various materials. The simplest ones are made of wood, a somewhat compressible
material, which makes a good fit when driven into the tube with a hammer. Further the plug
swells when wet, making it a tight fit. Tapered dowels can also be made of various fibrous
materials. The taper has an angle of 5-6 degrees and is designed for an interference fit between
the plug and the tube end and the tube sheet. The intention is to drive the plug hard enough to
close both the tube leak and any tube joint leak.
Pin and collar type plugs (Figure 6-24) use the tapered dowel concept to force a collar into the
tube or tubesheet hole. The collar outer diameter is parallel to the tube inside surface and its
6-43

length is approximately the full length of the tube sheet. This plug is designed to limit damage to
the tubesheet.
Figure 6-24
Pin and Collar Type Plug
Alternatively a compression-type plug seals by expanding a flexible material such as rubber,

silicone, or plastic. Similarly, a plug whose normal diameter is larger than the hole can be
stretched longitudinally, making it slender for insertion into a tube. After insertion, the plug is
allowed to slightly relax to fill the hole, while still remaining under some compressive stress.
Elongation type plugs are available in two types. In one design the plug is hollow and a tool is
fitted into the hollow portion to elongate the plug for insertion. In the other design the hollow
portion contains a screw mechanism, which can be turned to elongate the plug.
6-44

Detailed Case History Of Condenser Refurbishment and Upgrade

Reducing In-Leakage of Air to Condenser at the 520 MW Northside Unit 3 of the
Jacksonville Electric Authority Saves $200,000/year
Figure 6-25
Step-Wise Reduction in Air Leakage Following Modifications Confirms the Value of the
Approach
Issues/Goal
In-leakage of air into the condenser, in excess of the plant design specifications, reduces both
plant capacity and efficiency. It also contributes to heat exchanger and boiler corrosion
problems. Unit capacity can be reduced by 2% by an increase of one inch of mercury in
condenser backpressure.
Prior to a series of plant modifications that were implemented beginning in January 2001, Unit 3
experienced up to 40 scfm air in-leakage at full load compared to a design specification of 15
scfm. At low load, in-leakage ranged up to 100 scfm.
6-45

Key Conclusions
The air in-leakage was reduced to 10-15 scfm as a result of the following changes:
Replacement of the total of five water traps on the boiler feed pumps, feedwater booster
pumps, and the steam packing exhauster with a single receiver tank
Repairing the LP turbine rupture disks
Repairing the turbine-to-condenser expansion joint
Future repairs to the LP turbine steam seals and housings during the next major outage are
expected to lower the air in-leakage to the 5.2 scfm target goal that has been established. This
goal is based upon the EPRI recommendation of limiting the amount of air in-leakage to less
than 1 scfm per 100 MW.
The cost of these modifications was approximately $60,000, which was expended primarily for
piping changes. This did not include an estimated $120,000 for the equipment to measure the
amount of air to be removed, which was donated for this project.
The savings from reducing the air in-leakage and reducing the turbine backpressure by 0.33
inches of mercury has an annual value of approximately $200,000. Further annual savings from
an additional reduction in turbine backpressure of about 0.5 inches of mercury resulting from the
planned LP turbine repairs could be in the range of an additional $300,000.
The staff of JEA had carried out an analogous program that had reduced the in-leakage of air into
the 250 MW Unit 1 condenser to 2 scfm. Based on the knowledge and experience of the staff at
the plant, analysis of the problem indicated that reducing air leakage in Unit 3 was identified as
the parameter that would have the most impact on improving plant productivity. Other things
that were considered were circulating water inlet temperature, circulating water flow, condenser
cleanliness, and make-up water quality. In addition, it was necessary to improve the installed
instrumentation so that more accurate data on the amount of air in-leakage plant that was fed to
the vacuum pump and the turbine backpressure were available to plant operators.
In the near future a program will be initiated to upgrade the thermal performance of the waterside of the condenser. Improvements will be made in providing much more accurate
measurement of the condenser outfall temperature and the circulating water flow. The cost of
this improvement program is estimated at approximately $200,000. Optimizing the performance
of the condenser system is extremely important to JEA because of very tight restrictions on the
discharge temperature and temperature rise for the condenser cooling water during the summer.
These limitations can cause the output of the unit to be curtailed to meet permit requirements.
6-46

Unit #3 at the Northside Generating Station of Jacksonville Electric Authority is a 520 MW

gas/oil fired unit with a Westinghouse steam turbine and a De Laval steam condenser. It was put
into service in 1979.
(Ref. 6-37)
Critical Assessment
Air in-leakage reduction would be beneficial to nuclear and fossil power plants of all sizes. Air
in-leakage reduction may or may not improve condenser back-pressure and therefore affect unit
heat rate and productivity. However, air in-leakage reduction will always be beneficial in
reducing problems caused by corrosion due to excessive oxygen, and by reducing oxygen
scavenging chemical usage.
Air in-leakage reduction begins with identification of the air in-leakage location. Detection by
tracer gases, such as helium or SF6, is the most effective method. Since the tracer gas method is
extremely sensitive, potential tracer gas contamination of the zone not being tested must be
avoided. It is preferable to conduct leak testing at partial load because at partial load the vacuum
will be higher and so there will be more equipment, such as LP feedwater heaters and associated
system, under vacuum and therefore under test.
A methodical procedure, which starts at the turbine deck and proceeds to ground level must be
followed. Ref. 3-38 is a valuable tool for this purpose. This report includes an air in-leakage
checklist that identifies all potential leak locations in a power plant. It also includes a
recommended test procedure. This procedure is also applicable to using helium as the tracer gas.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Condensers
TVA Redesign of Condenser Hoods
CFD modeling of steam turbine exhaust hoods has indicated that the performance of older units
with small exhaust flows and high volumetric exhaust steam flows can be improved by reshaping
exit geometry. The changes involve replacing flow guides, adding flow splitters, and
streamlining struts. Typical changes of this type can be made for about $150-200,000 for a 500
MW unit. Annual fuel savings of 0.3 % or about $340,000 can result. In 1998, TVA began a
program to retrofit a total of twenty units, beginning with Westinghouse turbines at Allen unit 1
and Gallatin units 2 and 4. A GE turbine at Colbert Unit 4 was also scheduled for revamp in
1998. In contrast, Carolina Power and Light Company and Salt River Project concluded that a
revamp of their more modern units, which have relatively large exhaust hoods and low
volumetric steam flows would not be cost effective. (Ref. 6-39)
6-47

Alabama Power Replaces Tubes and Deals with Fouling

At the Gorgas coal-fired plant, unit 9 had excessive condenser leaks after 17 years of service. The
copper-nickel tubes were replaced with 304 stainless steel but cleanliness significantly decreased,
increasing backpressure. Even cleaning the tubes with mechanical scrapers every 1-2 months
was not too successful. It was found that water velocities, at 5.9 ft/sec, were 18% below design
so one circulating pump was upgraded to increase the speed. Condenser tube samples showed
that the fouling mechanism was caused by manganese oxide deposits, that provided an environment for
microbiological growth on stainless steel tubes (but not on the original Cu-Ni alloy tubes). Several
options for cleaning were tried including tube scrapers, high pressure washing, and a film forming
amine together with a chlorination process. However, a sponge ball system appears to be the
most acceptable choice (Ref. 6-40).
Nevada Cogeneration Associates Re-tube Condenser and Solve Erosion-Corrosion
Problem
The 85 MW NCA 1 plant north of Las Vegas had 3558 tubes originally copper-nickel. Multiple
leaks were caused by pitting and erosion-corrosion attack at the tube ends. There was additional
erosion of the aluminum-bronze tubesheet in the ligament between adjacent tubes. At a velocity
of 8 ft/sec, erosion continually removed any protective oxide film. Further, there was a combined
effect of erosion and galvanic action between the metal surface exposed by erosion (anode) and
the large area of metal oxide (cathode). Water analysis revealed high concentrations of chloride,
sodium, and sulfate ions together with concentrations of calcium and magnesium. To resist the
high chloride environment and erosion potential, the condenser was retubed with 6Mo-superaustenitic
stainless steel tubes with no indications of further damage, saving lost revenues of $128,000 per
day (Ref. 6-41).
City Water, Light & Power Find Copper-Nickel Better than Stainless Steel
The condenser of the 200 MW unit 33 at Springfield, IL, tubed with 304 stainless steel developed a
vast number of pinhole perforations. When retubed with 90-10 copper-nickel the problem, at
least for this unit appeared to be overcome. Conclusions by corrosion experts were that (a)
copper-nickel has better heat transfer characteristics than stainless steel and better corrosion
resistance than admiralty brass, though stainless steel better resists ammonia corrosion, added
often to boiler feedwater systems for pH control, (b) titanium is often used for seawater applications
because of improved resistance to chloride pitting, (c) 304 stainless is good for fresh water but
poor for sea water, again because of the chlorides, (d) copper-based tubes are unsuitable in water
containing sulfides, but (e) copper-alloys better resist microbiological fouling than stainless steel.
(Ref. 6-42)
TU Electric Uses On-Line Mechanical Condenser Tube Cleaners
In 1994, Wolf Creek Nuclear Generating Station found silt throughout the condenser. Any
unscheduled outage would cost more than $500,000/day. Using an on-line cleaning method,
17,000 tube cleaners known as "rockets" were circulated through the 60,000 tubes. After five
passes per tube, gross generation increased from 1144MW to 1203MW, resulting in a
6-48

$78,000/day increase in power sales. This system uses a 55-gallon tank to introduce the cleaners
by gravity to a submerged gpm solids-handling pump. Other applications were at four lignite
plants: Martin Lake, Monticello, Big Brown, and Sandow. (Ref. 6-33)
In-Situ Condenser Tube Recoating at Florida Power Corp.
A side-by-side evaluation of the Bartow 2 unit of Florida Power Corp showed that coated tubes
remained cleaner for longer periods of time than uncoated tubes. Subsequent reductions in the
frequency of tube cleanings resulted in manpower savings. After three years of service the coated
tubes offered more efficient heat transfer than uncoated tubes and showed no sign of
deterioration.
Two coatings were identified that had suitable heat transfer and wear resistance properties for
seawater service. The total recoating cost for this specific job was $0.60/linear foot ($0.18/m) or
$18 per tube, lower than the cost of retubing. Other advantages include elimination of retubing
downtime until it is coincident with the 5 year major steam turbine outage for inspection and
repair, condenser life extension, reduction in the amount of copper that is discharged, and
extension of waterbox life. (Ref. 6-43)
Instrumentation and Modeling for Condensers
Properly installed instrumentation that supplements normal plant instrumentation have revealed
the cause of poor condenser performance, CFD modeling used to check the potential
improvements from condenser modifications. Major problems found in a 700 MW coal fired
plant were air binding in large areas of the condenser and an unacceptable ratio of vapor to air
concentration being handled by the liquid ring type vacuum pumps. (Ref. 6-44)
Improved Condenser Tube Cleaning at LILCO
An alternate method of cleaning condenser tubes was developed by Long Island Lighting and
applied at their four 375 MW Northport and two 175 MW Barrett units. The technique combines
chemical treatment with brush cleaning. A small quantity of treatment chemical was added to the
small amount of water used to push the cleaning brush through the tube. The resulting relatively
high chemical concentration kills biota, removes mineral scale and passivates the cleaned tube.
The result was a considerable improvement in condenser cleanliness and heat rate. Ref. (6-45)
New England Power Finds Condenser Leaks with Tracers
Using a gaseous tracer leak detection program at the four units at Brayton Point, NEP was able to
identify in-leakage sites and initiate repairs to all the leaks. This was so successful that the air
ejectors' discharge decreased 30-40% after the program. The whole process has been developed
into an organized approach to problem solving for the Brayton Point staff. (Ref. 6-32)
6-49

Deaerators
Deaerators generally consist of two types, vacuum and steam deaerator. Steam deaeration is used for
hot boiler feedwater, while vacuum dearation is sometimes used for raw cooling water dearation. In
the past ten years, dearators have received particular attention during inspections, as accidents
involving cracking and leaking of welds have caused the deaerator to become a safety-based issue
particularly when positioned near- high traffic areas. Corrosion of internals and corrosion fatigue
cracking of girth and long seam welds are two major damage mechanisms for dearators. Much of the
damage found in deaerators in recent years has been due to original manufacturing (welding) defects
that have grown in service. (Ref. 6-1) Deaerator trays are also a source of problems.
Water Cooling Systems
The condensing of steam in Rankine cycles requires large amounts of cooling water, supplied
typically from the ocean, from rivers, or from lakes and ponds. The most demanding in terms of
freshwater withdrawal is once-thru cooling, where the water is extracted from a river or lake and then
returned to the water source, somewhat warmer and perhaps with a trace of residual chlorine. There
is a little water loss due to evaporation to the atmosphere from the warm discharge water plume.
Re-circulated and cooled water, from a pond or via a cooling tower, has more evaporation than a
once-thru system, though much less water used and returned (via blow-down) to the source.
Freshwater consumption (evaporation) by power plants for the entire United States totals about
3000 millions of gallons per day (Figure 6-26).
Millions of Gallons Per Day
U.S. Freshwater Consumption By Power Plants

(DOE EIA Generation Projection)
4000
3500
Biomass/MSW steam
Nuclear
Gas/oil steam
Gas combined cycle
Coal
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2000
2020
Figure 6-26
Fresh Water Use for Cooling Power Plants
Total freshwater use for power plant cooling (through evaporation) totals about 3000 million
gallons per day. Once through cooling systems use much more water but mostly this is returned
to the source. (Ref 6-46)
6-50

Once-Through Cooling
Figure 6-27 describes a once-through cooling system for a typical Rankine steam plant, that uses
about 50,000 gal/MWh for about a 12 F water temperature rise. In using river water, care must
be taken to avoid significant biological micro and macro-fouling of the intake and exit piping,
and of the condenser tubes and plates. Micro-fouling and associated corrosion is common and
typically requires removal using chemical treatment. Chlorine is a commonly used biocide.
Macro-fouling, often due to mollusks, is a frequently occurring issue, typified by the deposition
of blue mussels (in salt water) and zebra mussels (in fresh water). Treatment for zebra mussels
can include various biocides, as well as the use of hot water that kills the mussels and their larvae
form (veligers) at temperatures of about 100 F in a few hours. Often it is possible to re-circulate
the hot condenser water past the affected areas. Blue mussels can frequently be dealt with using
barrier coatings on the intake channels and water pipes that inhibit the attachment of the mussels.
Macro-fouling can be a very serious issue for power plant operators and has been responsible for
blocking cooling flow passages to the extent that power output has been severely reduced.
o
Boiler or
Reactor
Condenser
Ambient River Water
Temperature +1230F
Increased River Evaporation

(from warm plume)
~300 gal/MWh (fossil) or
~400 gal/MWh (nuclear)
20,00050,000
gal/MWh (fossil)
or
25,00060,000
gal/MWh
(nuclear)
River Flow
* High flow value corresponds to low T value, and vice versa
Figure 6-27
Water Withdrawal and Evaporation Rates in Steam Plants With Once-Through Cooling
6-51

Re-Circulated Steam Plant Cooling

Use of a wet cooling tower, or of a cooling pond, for condenser cooling results in much less
withdrawal of water from a river source (Figures 6-28 and 6-29). It is necessary only to supply
the evaporated water to the tower or pond as makeup. Make-up water requires about 500 to 600
gal/hour while blow-down of concentrated dissolved and suspended solids, to the water source
might be 40 to 100 gal/MWh. The cooling tower might be a natural or forced draft design,
depending on the size and climatic conditions. In severely restricted water-short regions, it is
possible to avoid the evaporation of water by using dry cooling, where the heat is rejected not to
water but to the ambient air blown over water coils, either located within the tower, or as
separate heat exchangers outside the main plant structure (Figure 6-30). These dry cooling
designs are substantially larger but permit the generation of power in areas that are essentially
without a source of cooling water.
Boiler or
Reactor
Heated Water
~480 gal/MWh
(fossil) or
Cooling ~720 gal/MWh
(nuclear)
Tower
Condenser
Cooled
Water
Blowdown
(510 cycles of conc.)
40100 gal/MWh
(fossil) or
60200 gal/MWh
(nuclear)
Makeup to Tower
500600 gal/MWh
(fossil) or
8001100
gal/MWh
(nuclear)
River Flow
Figure 6-28
Re-Circulated Steam Plant Cooling Using a Wet Cooling Tower.
Additional water required from the source, only for evaporation, is 500 to 600 gal/min for a typical
fossil-steam plant.
6-52

Boiler or
Reactor
270500 gal/MWh (fossil) or

450900 gal/MWh (nuclear)
Heated Water
Cooling Pond
Condenser
Cooled
Water
30-100 gal/MWh
(fossil) or
Blowdown
(510 cycles of conc.) 50-200 gal/MWh
(nuclear)
Makeup to Pond
300-600
gal/MWh (fossil)
or
500-1100
gal/MWh (nuc.)
River Flow
Figure 6-29
Re-Circulated Steam Plant Cooling Using a Cooling Pond.
Much reduced make up water from the river source is needed to replace that lost due to
evaporation. Only 300 to 600 gal/MWh make-up is typical for a fossil steam plant with a cooling
pond.
HRSG
Fan Cooling
Heated Water
Condenser
Cooled
Water
No water use for condenser cooling!
River Flow
Figure 6-30
Dry Cooling Systems
6-53

Cooling Towers
Cooling towers are used in approximately 800 plants in the United States with a total capacity of
over 210,000 MW. The efficient operation of these power plants clearly depends on excellent
thermal performance from these towers. Major operating issues that must be dealt with include
fouling of the tower fill, fill shifting, maldistribution of warm water caused by plugging of water
distribution nozzles, collapse of the fill in individual cells, corrosion, and tower fan coupling
damage. There can also be problems related to cold weather operation, with avoidance of
freezing being the main issue. Ice build-up and fallout can severely damage tower fill.
A survey carried out by TVA and EPRI concluded that, in the sample of cooling towers studied,
50% were inadequate in thermal performance, with a net cost to the industry of over $50
million/year (Ref. 6-47). In terms of improving performance, it has been suggested that
upgrading of towers should focus on (a) increasing air flow by upgrading fans, (b) improving
distribution by installing better spray nozzles, and (c) enhancing heat transfer using cellular fill.
The latter, it is claimed, might increase tower capacity by up to 50%. (Ref. 6-48)
Figure 6-31
Cooling Tower
Degraded cooling tower operation can often limit plant output particularly at peak summer
demand periods. In today's competitive environment the financial losses can be significant.
Improvements in fill, airflow, and fouling potential can often restore performance to design levels.
Several modifications can be made to improve the performance of existing, older crossflow
cooling towers or combined tower systems, (Ref. 6-49), and these are noted in Table 6-11.
6-54

Table 6-11
Improving Cooling Tower Performance
Modifications
Changes in Performance
Installing additional cells of the same kind in an

existing tower to reduce the load on the
existing cells
Depends on the number of additional cells

added but can be significant
Installing an auxiliary mechanical draft

counterflow cooling tower (helper tower)
Depends on the size of the helper tower but

can be significant
Replacing crossflow with counterflow

mechanical draft cooling towers
Depends on the size of the replacement tower

but can be significant
Replacing existing fill with higher efficiency

material
Can be very significant if original fill is very

deficient
Installing higher efficiency fan assemblies to

improve air flow and enhance capacity
1-5% capacity increase
Installing larger fan motors and repitching

blades
1-3% capacity increase for fans
Installing improved drift eliminators to improve

airflow dynamics.
Generally carried out along with fan

modifications
Replacing fan stacks
Supports improvements resulting from fan

modifications
Redistribution of water sprays into the fill
Improves water distribution and reduces

temperature of cooled water up to 3F (1.7C)
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Plant Water Systems

Capacity Losses Restored at Entergys 480 MW Sabine Unit by Overhauling the Steam
Turbine, Feedwater and Cooling Systems
95
90
IP Section
Efficiency, %
85
HP Section
Efficiency,%
80
75
0
50
100
150
200
Service Hours, 000
Figure 6-32
Sandblasting Improves Turbine Efficiency
Sandblasting to remove turbine deposits after 150,000 service hours resulted in a 2.8% increase in
the HP section efficiency and 2.0% increase in IP section efficiency.
6-55

Issues/Goal
Entergy developed a comprehensive plan to restore the Sabine plant to its maximum capacity and
efficiency to meet 2001 summer peak demands. In 1999, this plant, with a total capacity of 1854
MW, produced more MWh of power than any other gas-fired US power plant. Eight years of
around the clock demand had reduced output and efficiency of the 480 MW Sabine Unit 5 since
its last major overhaul in 1993. In 2000, performance testing indicated that a significant amount
of lost capacity could be recovered by conducting specific overhaul activities. A ten-week outage
on Unit 5 was scheduled to begin in February 2001. The major efforts on Unit 5 included
overhaul of the steam turbine, repair of the boilers vertical air heater gearboxes, rewind of the
three boiler feedwater pump motors, and replacement of 95% of the fill, and 10 of the 16 fans
with higher efficiency units, in one of Unit 5s two cooling towers.
Key Conclusions
All five generating units at Sabine were overhauled during an eight-month period in 2000
and 2001. All of them made it through the 2001 summer without a major problem or
shutdown.
20 MW of capacity was restored to Unit 5
Sandblasting increased Unit 5 HP turbine efficiency by 2.8% and IP turbine efficiency by

2.0%. The steam throttle flow increased by 10%. Turbine backpressure was reduced by 0.5
inches of mercury.
Condenser inlet water temperature averaged 2F lower after the cooling tower upgrade.
Cost and Value of the Modification
The pay-back period for the overhaul (which cost approximately $4.5M) was estimated to be less
than two years. Overhaul costs were about $1.5M (cooling tower), $1.5M(turbine), $0.75M
(boiler), and $0.75M (auxiliaries).
Sandblasting with an aluminum oxide/air mixture removed the HP and IP deposits of phosphorus
compounds from water treatment chemicals, iron compounds from boiler tubes, and copper
compounds from the condenser. This treatment recovered about 75% of the lost efficiency. The
remaining 25 % loss was related to condenser air leakage and a boiler feed pump recirculating
valve leakage. Some repairs were completed, including the lower pressure boiler hood at the
horizontal joint. The others were to be completed during the next major outage.
The bearing, fluid drive coupling, and lubricant were changed on the air heater gear box.
Significant upgrading of the Unit 5 B cooling tower, which was built in 1979, was accomplished
by replacing the fill with Omega splash bars, installing new fiberglass grids and hangers,
installing new fiberglass drift eliminator panels, and replacing 10 of the 16 fans with higher
efficiency units. These fan blades were replaced because of leading edge erosion.
6-56

The Sabine Plant of Entergy Corporation is located near Bridge City, TX. It has five natural gas
fired units-one supercritical and four drum type boilers totaling 1,854 MW. Unit 5 rated at 480
MW is equipped with a 3,325,000 lb/hour Combustion Engineering sub-critical boiler and a GE
G-2 frame steam turbine.
(Ref. 6-50)
Critical Assessment
This is an important demonstration of what could be achieved in the upgrade of a 1979 gas-fired
unit, primarily from turbine and cooling tower renovations. It is notable that a recent report from
the National Coal Council to the Secretary of Energy (Ref.6-51), addressing the capacity
restoration of U.S. older plants, concluded that about 20,000 MW could be regained across the
U.S. coal-fired fleet using approaches described in this upgrade of Sabine 5. In addition about
10,000 MW could be recovered through improved unit availability, by attention to the reliability
of boilers, turbines, and auxiliaries. The Sabine upgrade is therefore an important benchmark for
power plant restoration.
Particularly notable in terms of regaining MW are turbine blading upgrades and further
optimization of the turbine steam path. The NCC report noted above describes similar gains from
turbine improvements made on two 400 MW units (25 MW gains each with no additional steam
needed), and a 500 MW unit (25 MW gain with additional boiler steam required).
The work at Sabine also emphasized the importance of cooling tower improvements so as to
lower condenser inlet water temperature, and turbine backpressure. Several opportunities exist
to maintain the cooling water system in an optimum condition. Clearly tracking of condenser
fouling and periodic cleaning of the tubes is one essential. Another technique that has been
effective in adding additional MW has been to improve the steam flow aerodynamics into the
condenser. The velocity of the exiting steam from the turbine is so high that any streamlining of
the flow, as it makes the turn from the last stage exhaust, is likely to have a beneficial effect. Up
to 1% gain in capacity has been reported from this re-design.
On the combustion side of the unit, particularly for coal-fired units, other capacity regain
approaches include washing of the coal to reduce opacity limitations, upgrading fuel handling to
handle low sulfur coal if coal switching has reduced capacity, control system improvements to
optimize the combustion process, and reduction of back end temperature through regular air
heater maintenance
Extra capacity from older plants is often an important objective for a generating company and
EPRI has reviewed in-depth the possible ways of achieving this in a two-volume publication
(Ref.6-52). These documents cover capacity improvement options from the perspective of a
broad range of industry suppliers and users.
6-57

South Carolina Electric and Gas Uses Hydrogen Peroxide to Keep the Cooling Tower of
the 218 MW Unit 3 at the Canadys Generating Station Free of Biofilms
Figure 6-33
Cooling Tower Fill Before and After Treatment with Hydrogen Peroxide
Issues/Goal
New clog-resistant fill in the 218 MW Unit 3 cooling tower at the Canadys Generating Station of
South Carolina Gas and Electric contained zones that were allowed plugging and biofilm
accumulation to occur. Non-oxidizing biocide, a quaternary amine, was successful in keeping
algae levels under control, but not bacteria. These bacteria form biofilms, which trap silt that
leads to plugging.
Key Conclusions
Monthly treatment of the cooling tower with a solution of hydrogen peroxide at a

concentration of 1000 ppm in the total volume of water in the cooling tower keeps the tower
free of biofilms
A quaternary ammine, a non-oxidizing biocide, has kept the algae under control. A revision
to this procedure will be tested that uses liquid bleach (sodium hypochlorite) to supplement
the biocide. A dechlorinating chemical will be added to the blowdown to satisfy regulatory
discharge limits.
The major value of these change in procedure is that it is much easier to maintain a system biofilm free than it is to clean up a system after biofilms have been established.
Cooling water make-up for the plant is drawn from the Edisto River, which has a high loading of
organic matter and silt. New clog-resistant cooling tower fill was installed in the Unit 3 cooling
tower in 1998. After a short while, load cells indicated that the tower was plugging as a result of
silt attaching to a glue-like substance secreted by sensile organisms.
Treatment with a 50% hydrogen peroxide solution was initiated to clean the tower. The solution
was introduced into each of 14 risers for 10 minutes. This resulted in a concentration of 1000
6-58

ppm in the cooling tower water. The first peroxide injection was done in August 1999 and
liberated a large mass of material. The treatment was repeated after one week and additional
material was liberated. After several additional treatments, the treatment frequency was reduced
to a monthly cycle in October. The tower has remained clean.
218 MW Unit 3 at the 470 MW Canadys Station owned by South Carolina Electric and Gas,
Charlestown, SC. The total capacity of the station including Units 1 and 2 is 470 MW. All of the
units can be fired with coal or natural gas.
(Ref. 6-53)
Critical Assessment
The main advantage of hydrogen peroxide is that it has a high degree of environmental
acceptability. The by-product of hydrogen peroxide is oxygen and water. However hydrogen
peroxide is highly unstable and can easily release its oxygen with potential for violent reaction
including explosion. Therefore transport and storage in large quantities is not recommended. Onsite generation may be an alternative. Also, the dosage required to control biofouling organisms
may be relatively large. So its economic impact needs to be considered. In addition, since
hydrogen peroxide is an oxidant, its potential for damage to metallic and non-metallic
components needs to be studied.
Cogentrix Uses HRA (Halogen Resistant Amine) to Reduce Copper Corrosion at its 250
MW Whitewater Combined Cycle Cogeneration Plant
Copper, ppb
200
178
150
100
50
120
50
20
0
HRA
TTA
Total Copper
HRA
TTA
Soluble Copper
Figure 6-34
HRA Reduces Total Copper Concentration in Plant Water Discharge to Levels Below
Permit Requirements of 66 ppb
Issues/Goal
Various azole chemicals, including tolytriazole (TTA), benzotriazole (BZT), and

mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) are traditionally used to inhibit corrosion of copper alloys in
power plant cooling systems. Unfortunately, these compounds are degraded by oxidizing
biocides, including chlorine and bromine. When these halogens are present for microbiological
6-59

growth control, the corrosion inhibiting effectiveness of the azole is greatly reduced, resulting in
an increase in corrosion as indicated by spikes on the on-line corrosion meters.
Key Conclusions
The use of a HRA (halogen resistant azole) provided by Betz Laboratories, Trevose, PA
reduced copper in the plant wastewater effluent outfall by 70%, allowing it to meet
environmental regulations, and reduced copper corrosion in the water system to a negligible
level.
The HRA approach was evaluated as less expensive than the alternatives of ion exchange,
filtration and retrofit of the condenser with stainless steel tubes to achieve the required reduction
in copper emissions. The cost of the HRA treatment is about the same as the TTA treatment
approach that it replaced.
With the original corrosion prevention program based on TTA and a halogen for microbiological
growth control, the daily average concentration of copper in the outfall was 178 ppb (including
120 ppb of soluble copper) well above its permit limit of 66 ppb.
To solve the compliance problem, HRA was used at a dose rate of 1 ppm with the following
results:
Soluble copper levels were reduced from to 120 ppb to 20 ppb, and a total copper level of 50
ppb, which met which met permit requirements
On-line corrosion measurements during halogenation registered spikes of only 0.1 mils per
year, a drop from over 2 mpy
Nearly 100% recovery of HRA compared with 50% recovery of TTA
This facility, located at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, is owned by Cogentrix Energy

Inc. of Charlotte, NC. In addition to the electricity that is produced, the unit supplies steam to the
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater and hot water to a local greenhouse. The 250 MW plant is
equipped with Siemens Westinghouse 501F gas turbine, Siemens Westinghouse steam turbine,
and a Nooter Erickson HRSG. The condenser was supplied by Ecolair (now Alstom). It contains
tubes composed of a 90/10 copper/nickel alloy with over 78,410 ft2 of surface area.
(Ref 6-54)
6-60

Critical Assessment
HRA treatments can effectively reduce corrosion and copper discharge as indicated in this case
study. As with any other chemical treatment program, the cost of the treatment has to be
evaluated against the cost of other options, such as condenser retubing. In this case study, HRA
treatments were found to be the least cost option. In other cases, it may not be. As an example, in
once through systems, it may be difficult to sustain adequate protection for the same cost as in
re-circulated systems, and yet treatment options such as ion exchange for copper reduction are
impractical.
As with any other chemical treatment program, monitoring and control are critical to maintaining
protection long term. A program to maintain vigilance is essential to the long term success of any
water treatment program. These costs should also be considered in the economic evaluation.
Sprayable Ceramic Coatings Prevents Circulating Water Pump Casing and Impeller
Corrosion at 2 X 642 MW Constellation Energy Brandon Shores Units
Figure 6-35
Two Layer Sprayable Ceramic Coating Remains in Excellent Condition After Four Year
Service With Brackish Water
Issues/Goal
Each one of the four identical single-stage, double suction, split casing, horizontal circulating
water pumps circulate 126,000 gallons/minute of brackish water from the Patasco River.
Brackish water typically erodes and corrodes cast-iron casings, impeller blades and other
circulating cooling water pump components relatively rapidly.
6-61

Key Conclusions
The use of a two-layer system of ceramic coatings (supplied by Devcon Corp., Danvers, MA)
markedly reduced the pitting and rust that is typically found in pump casings of this type
after similar service.
Changing the impeller material from nickel aluminum bronze to stainless steel eliminated the
cavitation problem that had eroded the original material. Coating the impeller with the same
ceramic coating as the casing avoided the potential for galvanic corrosion.
Coatings of this type should avoid the need to open up the pumps for inspection during every
scheduled outage at this plant.
The sprayable ceramic is somewhat more expensive than other coatings that were previously
used, but cost effective.
The plant staff was quoted as follows: Sprayable ceramic has outperformed all the other
coatings weve tried for these circ-water pumps. And applying it doesnt require much training.
It saves us money, so we stick with it.
After four years of operation of pump No. 12, since the last recoating with the sprayable ceramic,
some areas of the upper layer of the coating had been worn away and a in a few spots bare metal
was observed. This was a marked improvement over previous experience. It was decided to
recoat the system. However it was not necessary to blast the entire casing prior to recoating with
the same sprayable ceramic. Only where the lining was worn away, high-pressure water blasting
was used to prepare the surface for the recoat.
The first step of recoating was to roll and brush on a first coat of the sprayable ceramic and the
entire surface including those areas where the old coating was intact. After a 24-hour interval, a
second layer of coating was added.
It was decided to also coat the new, stainless steel impeller, which replaced the previous nickel
bronze-aluminum impeller with the same material to avoid the possibility of galvanic corrosion
between the cast iron casing and the stainless steel impeller and sleeves. The remaining nickel
bronze impellers will be replaced with coated stainless steel impellers during future scheduled
turnarounds.
6-62

Coal-fired, two-unit, 1370 MW (total) Brandon Shores Plant near Baltimore, MD. Owned by
Constellation Power Source Generation, Baltimore, MD.
(Ref. 6-55)
Critical Assessment
Pumps are an integral part of many systems in electric power plants Reliable operation and
maintenance of these components is vital to sustained plant operation and availability. Raw or
brackish cooling and service water can erode or corrode pump impeller vanes and diffusers,
typically constructed of cast iron and/or bronze components. This directly impacts pump
performance and efficient operation of the water system. Such damage can necessitate costly
maintenance downtime and expensive repairs. With todays shorter duration maintenance outage
durations, time that had been historically available for such maintenance is no longer available.
The coatings described here offer the potential to reduce the frequency of pump maintenance.
Ceramic coatings have been utilized in several power plant pump applications, both nuclear and
fossil with mixed results. In some instances, improved wear characteristics and increased
component life have been achieved. Experience has shown that areas that can affect coating
performance and life expectancy center around the application process, and include critical steps
such as material preparation, adhering to the precise application procedures and processes, post
application heat treatments, and careful handling. Users are advised to carefully monitor the
coating preparation and application processes. Potential areas of concern due to inexact
application include premature wear and erosion, changes in flow performance and
characteristics, and fouling of critical condenser and heat exchanger tubes.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Plant Water Systems
Union Electric Upgrades Thermal Performance of 1233 MW Calloway Plant
Inadequate cooling tower performance at the Calloway plant had required significant load
reductions during each summer peak since 1984. Union Electric analyzed the performance of the
system, developed a detailed model of the tower and reviewed several upgrade possibilities to
determine which would be most cost effective. The root cause of the problem was poor water
distribution that resulted in many sections of the tower having areas with inadequate water
loading on the packing. This was resolved by adding 428 additional nozzle positions, installing
longer-than-normal full cone sprays at the ends of pipes that service the outer boundary of the fill
system, and installing turning vanes at the entrance to those pipes that were fed from high
velocity flume sections. These modifications reduced cooling water temperature 3F (1.7C) at a
cost of $300,000. Projected savings were estimated at $171,400 per year. (Ref. 6-56)
6-63

ComEd Converts Cooling Tower from Crossflow to Counterflow

Byron Station originally installed two natural draft crossflow cooling towers to cool the two
1175 MW PWR units at the site. Over the years, significant ice damage to the fill in the two
towers since start-up in 1981 and 1985 respectively, had caused a drop in capacity. During peak
summer operation, high cooling water temperature resulted in a 5-7 MW derating. The cost of
replacing damaged fill during each refueling outage approached $1,000,000. Analysis of the
potential options led to the conclusion that the most economical option was to convert the towers
to counterflow operation including a system to protect the fill from ice damage. Testing,
following completion of the work on the unit 1 tower in 1996 indicated that the design
performance had been restored. (Ref. 6-57)
Entergy Upgrades Cooling Tower by Controlling Air/Water Problems
Over a 4-week period, Entergy upgraded the Arkansas Nuclear One cooling tower and improved
performance 6.7% (from 94.3% to 101% of design). Total cost was $215,000 for a payback
period of 14 months. Changes made included 766 new water nozzles (added to 12,666 nozzles),
addition of 178 full cone spray nozzles, installation of 12,450 cubic feet of PVC fill pack along
sides of all water distribution flumes and modification of flume water flow velocities. (Ref. 6-58)
Dairyland Power Removes Zebra Mussels with Hot Water at the J. P. Madgett Station
Hot water treatment for one hour at 110 F was effective in achieving 100% mortality of the
zebra mussels in the plant. Intake water was heated by steam injection for a period of four hours
before reaching the desired temperature. The major advantage of this system is that it is biocide
free and no clean up of residual chemicals is required to meet water quality specifications. The
specific project encountered difficulties with heavy sediment deposits, installing piping and
eductors underwater, and portable boiler start-up and operation problems. (Ref. 6-59)
Chlorine Dioxide Control of Zebra Mussels Tested at Illinois Power's Wood River
Station, Central Illinois Power Service's Meredosia Station, and PSI Energy's Gallagher
Station
Chlorine dioxide is an attractive candidate to use instead of other biocides for zebra mussel
control since levels of chlorine in the plant effluent are extremely low and below typical permit
limits. The results of this evaluation program indicate that periodic chlorine dioxide treatments
can be effective in controlling zebra mussel infestation. An effective continuing program would
require two to three treatments per year preferably during the warmer months. Typical induced
mortality rates during this program ranged between 70 and 100% at Wood River during six
treatments, 87 to 92% at Meredosia during two treatments, and 30 to 100% at Gallagher during
three treatments. An outside contractor, who installed and operated a portable chlorine generator,
conducted the treatments. (Ref. 6-60)
6-64

Illinois Power Successfully Uses Molluscicide for Zebra Mussel Control

A commercial product, Clam-Trol 2 (alkyl dimethylbenzylammonium chloride) was evaluated
in 1995 by Illinois Power at the Wood River plant for eradication of an existing zebra mussel
population. The conclusion was that this method was more effective, faster, and cheaper
compared with the use of other non-chlorine chemicals. One or two treatments per year,
preferably in warmer months, should be effective in controlling zebra mussels. (Ref. 6-61)
Coatings for Blue Mussels at LILCO
Non toxic, foul-release coatings proved effective for LILCO at their power plants along Long
Island Sound. These plants had experienced rapid fouling of cooling water inlet systems with
blue mussels and other marine organisms. After painting intake bays, tunnels and trash racks, the
annual costs of cleaning and disposal were significantly reduced. (Ref. 6-62)
Non toxic, silicone-based foul-release coatings were painted on to intake pipes and flumes to
successfully reduce the frequency of water box cleaning and condenser tube shooting that had
been necessary prior to the surface treatment. (Ref. 6-63)
Brayton Point Units Incorporate Redesigned Condensate Systems to Increase Output
and Reduce Heat Rate
At the 1600 MW Brayton Point Station, New England Power Company added a booster pump
between the last low pressure feedwater heater and the deaerator to avoid the limitations imposed
by the pressure drop experienced across the feedwater heaters during full load operation. Prior
operating practice had been to bypass flow around the heaters so that full boiler capacity could
be maintained. By adding the booster pump, the capacity of each 400 MW unit was increased by
1MW and heat rate reduced by 38 Btu/kWh. The value of these changes exceeded
$250,000/unit/year. Addition of the new pump to develop more head was a lower cost solution
than modifying the existing pumps, or replacing those pumps with new pumps that would
perform as desired.
In addition, variable speed drives were installed on the feedwater pumps to reduce auxiliary
power consumption at low loads. The economics of this approach were superior to shutting down
one of the existing pumps and throttling the flow on the others. (Ref. 6-64)
Northeast Utilities Upgrade Traveling Water Screens
Northeast Utilities Millstone Point Unit 3 intake structures had experienced macrofouling
problems with their traveling water screens (TWS) in the spring and fall when large amounts of
algae combined with high energy storm events. Significant design and operation changes
eliminated the problems. The changes included increasing the TWS capability from 2 speed to 4
speed, increasing the maximum speed from 20 to 32 feet per second, increasing motor
horsepower, replacing carbon steel baskets with non-metallic baskets, replacing the carbon steel
frame with a 316L stainless steel frame and increasing head capacity from 5 to 10 feet of water.
(Ref. 6-65)
6-65

Improved Cooling Water System Reduces Auxiliary Power Losses at Cardinal Plant
Operators at the three unit, 1830 MW, Cardinal plant of AEP utilize an On-line Performance
Monitor (OPM) to optimize the performance of the cooling water system at the plant. With this
tool, they identify and implement the most desirable options for minimum cost operation.
Among the specific areas that can be accessed for evaluation are the cooling tower, condensers,
and circulating water system. For example, an increase in heat rate of 30 Btu/kWh (32 kJ/kWh)
can result from condenser fouling and poor distribution of hot water in the cooling tower.
Comparisons were made of actual operation versus design operation. Optimization calculations
for the circulating water system help the operator decide which pumps to run and the best
combination of control settings for those pumps. (Ref. 6-66)
POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS

Compliance with current environmental regulations requires power plant operators to install
systems to reduce their emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and particulates. Future
anticipated regulations may result in reductions in trace element (mercury) and fine particulate
emissions. Each emission control system that is added to a power plant complicates its operation
and reduces both efficiency and the net output of electricity. The electricity industry of the
United States has risen to this challenge and now successfully operates such systems without a
significant negative impact on reliability. NOx control systems were discussed previously in
Chapter 3-Boilers. This section of Chapter 6 covers flue gas desulfurization and particulate
removal systems.
Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems
The need for removal of sulfur dioxide from flue gases led to the installation of flue gas
desulfurization (FGD) units in more than 70,000 MW of coal fired capacity in the US by 1990.
(Ref. 6-67) Additional retrofits have since resulted from the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments
(CAAA), so considerable experience in operating and maintaining FGD systems has been
gathered. Recent activities in the FGD area have focused on improving the efficiency of SO2
removal, especially for existing units. Value for this work is seen in the ability to increase the
emission reductions, measured in terms of the cost of SO2 allowances. The focus is now on
improving process chemistry to decrease O&M costs, selecting limestone reagents to improve
options for utilizing by-products, selecting materials to alleviate corrosion and modifying designs
to achieve very high (98%), SO2 removal efficiency.
About 200 coal-fired units in the United States use wet or dry scrubbing to remove sulfur. Of
these, the majority use wet lime or limestone scrubbers with perhaps between 20 and 30 using
dry scrubbing where the sulfur content of the coal is generally lower.
Those units using lime or lime- based sorbents are shown in Figure 6-36. Lime may be used
alone or in combination with magnesium, carbides, or with alkaline fly ash if the boiler burns
sub-bituminous coals or lignites.
6-66

Subbituminous/Bituminous
Sub-bituminous/Lignite
Bituminous
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Bituminous
Number of Units
U.S.Wet Scrubbers using Lime Sorbents
Mg Lime
Lime
Lime/Fly ash
Carbide
Lime
Sorbent and Coal Types

Figure 6-36
Wet scrubbers using lime compounds are particularly common on bituminous coal units.
Of the wet limestone scrubbers, most are deployed on boilers burning the higher sulfur
bituminous coals (Figure 6-37), although a substantial number operate on units burning
subbituminous coals or lignites with less than 1.0% sulfur. These scrubbers are designed to
remove up to 95% of the SO2 in the flue gas, the actual removal depending on what other
options might exist to satisfy environmental regulations.
U.S. Wet Scrubbers using Limestone
Number of Units
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Bituminous
Sub-bituminous
Lignite
Coal Type
Figure 6-37
Wet scrubbers using limestone are the most common form of FGD unit, widely deployed
on Eastern-coal burning units.
6-67

Dry scrubbers typically operate on units burning western, low sulfur coal (Figure 6-38) and
remove 60-90% of the generated SO2. However spray dryers and other dry injection designs
have been deployed even on bituminous coal units, where the coal sulfur content is often over
2.0%. One spray dryer in South Carolina, burning bituminous 2.4% sulfur coal, operates at 95%
removal efficiency.
U.S. Dry Scrubbers
Number of Units
15
10
5
0
Sub-bituminous
Bituminous
Lignite
Coal Type
Figure 6-38
Use of spray dryers is mainly, though not exclusively, confined to Western subbituminous, low sulfur coalburning units.
The most common wet systems (Figure 6-39) bring lime or limestone slurries into contact with
flue gases in a spray tower. SO2 in the flue gas is absorbed in the slurry and collected in a
reaction tank, where it precipitates to produce calcium sulfite or calcium sulfate (gypsum)
crystals. A portion of the slurry is then pumped to a thickener where the crystals settle out before
going to a filter for final dewatering. Calcium sulfite and/or sulfate are typically disposed of in a
landfill. FGD gypsum can be sold for use in wallboard, cement or agricultural products.
Dry FGD systems employ calcium or sodium reagents that are either injected as dry powders or
in spray drying systems as slurries that dry on contact with flue gas. Dry injection systems are
most economical for space-constrained sites or applications that require only moderate emissions
reductions. Spray drying systems, which can achieve higher SO2 removal efficiencies, have
mainly been applied at units burning low-to-medium-sulfur coals.
6-68

Figure 6-39
Wet Limestone Flue Gas Desulfurization System
In typical wet limestone scrubber systems, a slurry of limestone is sprayed into the absorber
where it reacts with SO2 in the flue gas. Calcium sulfate is produced which can be disposed of as
a solid, turned into gypsum wallboard or mixed with flyash and landfilled.
Maintenance Issues in FGD Systems

Removal of sulfur from flue gas streams, though relatively simple in principle, requires a
remarkable assembly of components for handling materials, moving solids, liquids, and slurries,
and dealing with chemical reactions. All told, a wet limestone scrubber might deploy hundreds of
equipment items that work together to extract more than 90 % of the sulfur originally buried in
the coal matrix. It is not surprising that continued attention to maintenance is required, or that
from time to time the efficiency of extraction or the mechanical behavior of the equipment
becomes a concern. On the positive side, a full unit outage due to FGD mis-operation is rare, but
certainly not unknown. As discussed in Ref. 6-67, maintenance needs in the early wet limestone
scrubbers were traced to one or more five basic operational issues:
1. Limestone must be ground to a very fine size to be effective, causing relatively high wear of
grinding equipment.
2. Liquid in the absorber and dewatering equipment is an erosive slurry, impacting several
components in the liquid path.
6-69

3. pH is relatively low throughout the system, causing corrosion on wetted surfaces, often
extreme.
4. Poor control of system chemistry can promote scaling, affecting performance and requiring
maintenance.
5. A very large amount of sludge is produced, which must be pumped to a pond or a treated
landfill. Smooth operation of this is sometimes impaired.
Operating experience gained over the past two decades has resulted in solutions to most of the
problems in these five areas.
Maintenance of Materials
In the corrosive and erosive environment of the scrubber, materials maintenance needs special
mention. Lined carbon steel or alloys are broadly used to head off problems, but continued
attention is needed. Ducts, scrubbers, and tanks may have linings of polymer resins, rubber, glass
blocks, ceramic tile, or cement. While chemically resistant, they suffer periodic damage and
interiors of vessels should be frequently inspected. The outside surfaces also corrode through
leakage of flue gas and condensate. Preventive maintenance is the solution, with recoating and
repainting as needed. Where alloys are used (more resistant physically than linings but can
corrode), wall thickness should be periodically checked using ultrasonics, eddy currents,
thermography, or methods based on electrical resistance or galvanic corrosion. Care should be
taken when doing welding repairs to avoid damage to organic linings. More information is
contained in Ref. 6-68.
Specific Materials Problems in FGD Systems
Flue gas paths in wet FGD systems can be extremely corrosive environments: pH levels of 1 to 2
are common, and chlorides can build up to attack even high-alloy steels. Deposited and dissolved
solids (from mist eliminator carryover) can also cause or exacerbate corrosion and erosion.
Failure of materials in FGD systems has thus been a recurring problem resulting occasionally in
expensive repairs and reduced availability.
A wide variety of construction materials has been used and new materials are continually being
tested and applied with varying degrees of success. Among the most significant findings cited in
a report that summarized industry experience with FGD materials selection and corrosion
protection, both in the United States and abroad are:
The FGD outlet ducts present the most aggressive environment for materials of construction.
In this zone, residual SO2 and SO3 condense, forming acidic condensate that attacks all
surfaces. Operating with flue gas bypassed around the absorber modules, whether for
emergency bypass or for flue gas reheat, can accelerate the degradation of materials in the
mix zone, where the scrubbed gas encounters the bypassed gas. Even the high-grade nickel
alloys are subject to corrosion in this environment.
A wide variety of organic liner materials have been applied to the ducts in these high
corrosion areas, including polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, natural rubber, chlorobutyl,
6-70

neoprene, fluoroelastomers, and fiber-reinforced plastic. Proper selection and application are
critical to their longevity. Improper cure or seaming of joints are typical failure modes.
Organics have a relatively low tolerance to temperature excursions.
Inorganics are better able to handle temperature upsets and are insensitive to chlorides.
Inorganics include acid resistant brick, borosilicate glass block, ceramic tile, concrete and
mortar. Often membranes are applied under the blocks and tiles for increased permeation
resistance. Inorganics generally are better able to handle temperature upsets and are
insensitive to chlorides.
Alloys generally last longer than organics, but a few failures have been reported in which
chloride limits were exceeded. Stringent quality control of welding is required. Alloys used
in FGD include the 300 series stainless steels (commonly 316L, 316LM, 317LM, and
recently, 317LMN); "super-austenitics" such as AL-6X, AL-6XN, and 20Mo-6; the nickelgrade alloys, including 625, 825, G, C276, and C22; and titanium. To get around the high
cost of alloys, many utilities are using either mill-clad carbon steel plate or "wallpapering"
thin alloy sheets on carbon steel. The NACE has recommended wallpapering procedures.
(Ref. 6-69)
Some manufacturers of expansion joints are offering less expensive joints by mixing
reprocessed fluoroelastomer scrap with virgin fluoroelastomer. There is some evidence to
indicate that the reprocessed material may adversely affect the performance of the joint in hot
acidic environments. Substitution of the reprocessed material is difficult to detect.
On-line corrosion monitoring has been successfully employed to help operators avoid unit
operation in a critical corrosion regime. (Ref. 6-70)
Data collected by the Department of Energy (Ref 6-71) and reported in Form EIA 767, describe
O&M costs for operating scrubbers in the U.S. Costs tend to increase with increasing sulfur
content as shown in Figure 6-40.
6-71

Figure 6-40
Effect of Coal Sulfur Content on Total O&M Costs, for Scrubbers Using Limestone (Forced
Oxidation and Inhibited Oxidation) and Mg-Lime Sorbents for High Sulfur Coal
Spray Dryer Problems
Spray drying has major advantages over wet FGD systems: 1) simple equipment, 2) absence of
wet surfaces that can corrode or erode, and 3) lack of wet scale buildup. In general, a smaller
maintenance staff is required. Areas of potential trouble are as follows:
Most systems use a rotary atomizer, a more sophisticated piece of equipment than usually
found in wet FGD systems. Space should be provided in the spray dryer penthouse for local
maintenance of the atomizer. Facilities for dynamic balancing of the machine and for acid
cleaning of the wheel should be provided. The atomizer assembly should be inspected
frequently. If heavy-duty drive systems (motors, gear drives, bearings, and shafts) are not
specified, the maintenance requirements may be high.
Nozzle type atomizers are simpler, since they have no moving parts. The maintenance needs
are less, but erosion is more of a problem both in the nozzles and the control valves. Also,
poor distribution of flue gas and reagent to each nozzle can lead to wet solids buildup and
reduced S02 removal efficiency.
Lime slurry control valves must operate under adverse conditions. Even with the best design,
such valves are likely to erode at a high rate. Frequent inspection is needed, and valves may
have to be replaced often.
6-72

If sodium-based solution is used as the absorbent, the problem of feed valve erosion is
minimized, as well as difficulties in the lime-slaking step. However, the sodium solids tend
to retain moisture and solids buildup may occur.
To get the best performance in regard to removal efficiency and lime utilization the
temperature in the dryer should not be much above the water dew point, which increases the
danger of condensation downstream in the fabric filter or precipitator. A dew point meter is
desirable, but an accurate, dependable design does not presently exist. The usual practice is
to measure the temperature in the spray dryer exit and use the reading to estimate the dew
point. Thus, temperature measurement is very important; the thermocouples and
instrumentation need frequent maintenance. Since steam soot-blowing in the boiler and
changes in moisture content of the coal and combustion air can change the dew point several
degrees, there is little room for error in temperature measurement. Therefore, a reasonable
margin for the approach temperature is recommended.
Although the flue gas is supposed to be dry, there has been some structural corrosion of
fabric filters. Therefore, frequent inspection is desirable. Remedial measures to prevent
condensation and subsequent corrosion include the addition of insulation to eliminate cold
spots.
Solids buildup can occur if reagent spray impinges on spray dryer walls. At several units,
solids buildup has been a problem caused by poor operation or process upsets.
Mechanical Equipment Maintenance
We have seen that FGD systems are collections of equipment for gas handling, materials storage
and handling (bulk solids, liquids and slurries), and chemical reaction processing. (Figure 6-41)
A typical utility FGD system consists, as noted earlier, of several hundred pieces of equipment
with several thousand components. Because of the large number of pieces of equipment,
maintenance plays an important part in ensuring reliable operation. However, the only items of
equipment that fail on average at intervals of one year or less, are pumps, absorber, mist
eliminator and sludge tank. (Ref. 6-68)
6-73

Rotating atomizer for spray drier. Nozzles

should be removed for erosion check, strainers
for plugging, chambers for deposits (Source Niro
Atomizer)
Emergency diesel generator for FGD system.

Lube oil, levels, vibration, valves should all be
checked periodically) (Source Stewart and
Stevenson)
Centrifugal compressor for oxidizing slurries.

Keep oil levels up and drain/flush yearly. Clean
filters and check rotor for erosion/ corrosion
(Source Dresser Industries)
Ball mill for wet grinding limestone. Spare liners

should be on-hand. Routine checks of auxiliaries
such as pumps, cyclones, gears are needed.
(Source Kennedy Van Saun Corp.)
Figure 6-41
Some Key Equipment Selected from the Hundreds of FGD System Components
6-74

Common FGD equipment problems that can be solved or prevented by routine maintenance are:
Solids deposits on fans
Torn rubber linings in pumps and pipes
Corrosion of carbon steel (and some alloy) ductwork, dampers, and fans
Pinhole failures in absorber linings
Plugged or scaled mist eliminators and other absorber internals
Internally plugged spray nozzles
Torn conveyor belts and plugged conveyor tracks
Corroded damper seals and inoperative drive mechanisms
Leaky pump stuffing boxes
Of all equipment items in FGD systems, some of them require more attention than others and
Table 6-12 lists these components and potential problems. For needed maintenance actions, see
detailed descriptions in Ref. 6-69.
6-75

Table 6-12
FGD Components That Need Special Attention
Component
Function
Agitator (Recycle Tank)
Keeps solids in suspension
Atomizer (for Spray Drier)
Mix slurry and compressed

air
Grinding limestone, slaking
lime
Ball Mill or Slaker

Conveyors
Transport materials
Dampers (Isolation)
Control, isolate flue gas

flow
Electrical equipment
Fans (Booster)
Heat exchanger
Motors, transformers,
controls, emergency diesel
Help ID fans
Heat flue gas
Instruments and controls
Monitor flow, SO2 and pH
Mist eliminators
Prevent liquid carryover
Prescrubbers
Remove flyash, saturate

fluegas
Pug mill mixers
Stabilize sludge
Pumps (Recycle)
Move slurries, other fluids
Thickener Mechanisms
Separate solids and liquids

by gravity
Dewater slurry
Vacuum filters
Observed Problems
Difficulty in removing solids
Poor pH control
Reduced SO2 removal
Poor quality reagent product
Loss of reagent supply
Loss of reagent supply
Loss of waste treatment system
Safety hazard
Decreased ability to process flue gas
Loss of mechanical equipment or
controls
Loss of ability to process flue gas
Ductwork corrosion
Visible plume
Process upsets
Reduced SO2 control
Increased pressure drop
Increased droplet carryover
Ductwork corrosion
Poor quality by-product (if salable)
Erosion or corrosion of downstream
equipment
High pressure drop
Poor stabilized product
Reduced SO2 removal
Damage to module liners
Loss of entire FGD system (unless
emergency pond is used)
Cost Reduction Strategies for FGD Systems

A recent EPRI publication (Ref. 6-72) has reviewed existing FGD systems to identify ways to
benchmark system costs and identify potential cost savings measures. A list of 18 cost reduction
strategies is shown in Table 6-13, and includes the areas where gains are to be found. Also
included in the report are detailed cost estimates of the savings to be gained from each strategy.
6-76

Table 6-13
List of Cost Reduction Strategies and Their Impacts
FGD Cost Control Strategies
SO2
Control
Auxiliary Reagent
ConPower
sumption
Consumption
Use performance enhancing

additives
Add sulfur/inhibit oxidation
Modify/improve mist eliminator
wash system
Increase/decrease absorber
recirculating slurry percent solids
Modify pH set point/control
Optimize makeup water use
Modify reagent preparation
Change liquid to gas ratio (L/G)
Wet stack operation
Close bypass damper
Use spare module in normal
operation
Add tray/packing
Convert to forced
oxidation
Install pump suction
screens
Change reagent type
Optimize venturi
contactor delta P
Add polymers/flocculents to
improve dewatering
effectiveness
Upgrade materials of
construction/equipment
design
Byproduct
Operating/ MainDisposal
tenance
MainMaterials
tenance
Labor
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Mist Eliminators
Historically, plugging and scaling of mist elimination systems (MESs) have been leading causes
of outages and high maintenance costs in wet FGD systems. Further, under certain conditions,
poor MES performance may result in liquid deposition in the outlet ductwork and stack, and lead
to corrosion and localized acidic fallout. EPRI's published MES troubleshooting and design
guides present the best information available on the variety of issues faced when specifying and
operating MESs. Particular attention should be paid to management of the mist eliminator
cleaning process, especially ensuring full coverage of the mist eliminators by the wash sprays.
(Ref. 6-73 and 6-74)
6-77

FGD Performance Monitoring

Though not as critical as monitoring of the plant prime mover systems, performance monitoring
of FGD systems does help to (a) maintain SO2 emission rates, (b) avoid chronic plugging and
scaling, and (c) minimize operating costs. (Ref. 6-75) Of the many performance problems that
could be tracked, those that are related to the flue gas stream itself are probably the most
significant. Table 6-14 describes those that have an important impact on the efficiency and
reliability of the whole FGD system. Ref. 6-75 gives details of monitoring methods for
subsidiary streams.
Table 6-14
Lime/Limestone FGD Process Performance Indicators
Parameter to
Measure
Suggested Monitoring Method

and Frequency
Flue gas flow rate
Continuous, on-line, total flow

instruments recommended. Can be
estimated from indirect
measurements such as coal feed
rate, boiler load, and fan amps.
Gas flow distribution
Gas velocity traverses using pitot

tube. Measurements normally made
in conjunction with compliance.
System pressure drop
Continuous indicators generally

used; recommend separate
absorber, mist eliminator, reheater,
and fan measurements.
Continuous monitors generally used
(and recommended). A single
executive monitor may be used for
both inlet and outlet
Continuous measurements normally
required by law. Both in-stack and
extractive type-type instruments are
available.
Not normally needed for wet
systems. Continuous measurement
of flue gas wet bulb temperature is
common for spray dryer systems.
On-line estimates generally made
using opacity monitors. Direct
measurements normally only
required for compliance tests.
SO2 Concentration
Diluent (O2 or CO2)

concentration
H2O concentration
Particulate loading
What is This Used For?

Individual module
measurements can be used to
control distribution. Used in
material balances. Used to
calculate reagent utilization for
spray dryer systems. Can be
used in feed forward control of
reagent addition
Used to determine if
maldistribution may be causing
SO2 removal shortfall or mist
eliminator plugging.
Increases in pressure drop are
an indication of plugging and /or
scaling
SO2 emission compliance
monitoring; SO2 material
balances; computing reagent
utilization for spray dryer systems.
Used for normalizing outlet SO2
emissions. O2 is a good
indicator of boiler and excess
air levels/leakage
Wet bulb measurements used
to control slurry addition rate in
spray dryer systems.
Used for compliance
monitoring. Generally, not
otherwise useful.
Wet FGD Process Chemistry
In wet FGD systems, gaseous species are being absorbed by, or desorbed from, the scrubbing
liquor at varying rates, depending on mass-transfer coefficients and chemical concentrations, and
6-78

reaction products are crystallizing while reagent is dissolving in both the absorber and the
scrubber reaction tank. In fact, wet FGD involves not only these major chemical reactions but
numerous minor reactions that also affect the process. By understanding, monitoring and
controlling process chemistry, operators can avoid plugging and scaling in the absorber, increase
system reliability, improve SO2 removal and by-product quality, and reduce water requirements
and energy use. (Figure 6-42)
Figure 6-42
Environmental Severity Varies with Location in FGD Systems
Environmental severity levels in wet FGD systems as designated by ASME codes. The first digit in
a code represents temperature, the second chemistry, and the third abrasiveness. The mildest set
of conditions is coded 1-1-1, the most severe 3-3-3. A zero indicates that the factor is not
applicable. Components or zones marked by an asterisk are optional.
Managing Chemistry
An important tool for managing FGD chemistry is EPRIs FGDPRISM, a personal computer
program that models lime and limestone FGD systems as a series of independent unit operations
connected by process streams, and uses equilibrium, mass transfer, and thermodynamic
principles to simulate chemical reactions and evaluate performance. With FGDPRISM,
engineers can investigate mechanical and chemical operations for avoiding scaling and other
system problems, reducing O&M costs, and improving reagent utilization to boost SO2 removal.
EPRI is preparing to offer an on-line chemistry monitor (OLCM), to assist operators to optimize
6-79

FGD performance and avoid maintenance issues by providing real-time process chemistry
measurements.
Increasing Total SO2 Removed
Options for reducing SO2 emissions from existing sources include fuel switching, repowering,
retrofitting FGD systems to unscrubbed plants and increasing the removal efficiencies of existing
scrubbers. Increasing removal efficiency can be especially cost-effective because the cost of
additional SO2 removal will often be less than $50/ton - significantly lower than the cost of other
control options, including the purchase of emissions allowances.
Generally, wet lime and limestone scrubbers have been designed with a maximum SO2 removal
efficiency of about 90%, and many pre-1977 FGD systems have a design efficiency of 85% or
less. Therefore, methods for upgrading the efficiency of existing systems or installation of new
high-efficiency (95-98%) FGD systems can be an important component of CAAA compliance
strategies for utilities. Companies can also increase total SO2 removed at a plant where not all
units are scrubbed, by directing some of the flue gas from the unscrubbed units to the FGD. This
is made possible by new slurry spray designs and process understanding that allows FGD
operators to raise gas velocities in the absorbers. High velocity FGD can improve the
performance of new units and limestone clear liquor scrubbing can reduce O&M costs while
improving the quality (hence salability) of the gypsum by-product. (Ref. 6-76)
Detailed Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Air
Heaters/Scrubbers
Heat Recovery from the Flue Gas Increases Output and Efficiency at Three European
Power Plants
Figure 6-43
Recovering Flue Gas Waste Heat Upstream of Scrubber Increases Power Output by 1.5 %
and Overall Efficiency by 0.5 % at the 2 x 800 MW Schwarze Pumpe Power Plant
6-80

Figure 6-44
Air Preheater Bypass System Increases Power Output by 3% and Overall Efficiency by
1.5% at the Niederaussen 950 MW Unit K
Issues/Goal
Power plant output and efficiency can both be increased by recovering energy that is normally
rejected in fossil plants. At three European power plants, Schwarze Pumpe, Voitberg 3, and
Niederaussem K, different technical approaches have been used to capture and utilize this heat.
At the Schwarze Pumpe power plant, the flue gas is cooled by heating low-pressure condensate
in a U-tube heat exchanger. Bleed steam normally used as the source of heat for the low-pressure
condensate is fed to the steam turbine, increasing both power plant output (by 1.5%) and
efficiency (by 0.5%).
A similar system was installed as a retrofit at the Voitsberg lignite fired plant in Austria to
recover additional energy to supply an additional 10 MWt to district heating customers. The
overall increase in power plant efficiency is 0.2 percentage points.
At the Niederaussen plant, which will begin operation in 2002, 25% of the flue gas bypasses the
APH and is used to heat high-pressure and low-pressure feed water. A U-tube heat exchanger
following the ESP indirectly pre-heats the fresh combustion air, replacing the energy transferred
to the high-pressure and low-pressure feedwater. As a result, the overall efficiency is increased
by 1.5 percentage points.
6-81

Key Conclusions
The Schwarze Pumpe power plant has maintained greater than 95% availability over the last
four years since the heat recovery system was installed. Electrical output has increased by
almost 25 MW (1.5%) and efficiency by 0.5 percentage points.
Water consumption in the scrubber is reduced
No additional personnel are necessary for operation
The specific capital investment costs ($/kW) for these heat recovery systems are less than the
specific investment cost ($/kW) for a new power plant
The return of investment period is (3 - 6 years), based on the value of the efficiency increase
A summary table is presented below for these three energy saving applications. Two (Schwarze
Pumpe and Niederaussem K) are on new units. Voitsberg 3 is a retrofit.
Table 6-15
Improving Efficiency in European Plants by Modifications in Back End Heat Recovery
Power Plant
Schwarze Pumpe 2 x Niederaussem K, 950 MWe

800 MWe
Source of Recovered Heat
Flue gas upstream of

scrubber
a) Flue gas upstream of scrubber Flue gas

and b) Boiler exit gas upstream upstream of
of the main preheater
scrubber
Utilization of Recovered Heat
Feed water heating
a) Combustion air and b) High

pressure feedwater heating
District heating
loop
Heat recovery, MWt
2 x 64
77.9
10
Increase in Electrical Output,

MWe (%)
2 x 12.3
28
(1.5)
(3)
Increase of Power Plant

Efficiency, points
0.5
1.5
0.2
Reduction of CO2 Emissions, 2 x 94,000

Tonnes/year
175,000
6750
Reduction of Scrubber Water

Consumption, t/d
6200
330
2 x 4200
Voitsberg 3,
330 MWe
At the Schwarze Pumpe plant, the flue gas is cooled down by the low pressure feedwater
preheating approach from 187 to 138C by preheating the condensate from 87 to 130C. Since
the flue gas temperature in the cooler falls below the acid dew point, a mixture of sulfuric,
sulfurous, hydrochloric, and hydrofluoric acids is condensed from the flue gas. To resist this
corrosive mixture, the tubes in the heat exchanger are made of the specialty plastic, G-Flon, with
high corrosion resistance. This material can operate up to 260C and has a non-stick surface. The
6-82

heat exchanger is built of smooth plastic tubes arranged in a U-tube configuration. These are
bundled in compact individual modules and fitted into a rectangular casing from above. An acid
resistant plastic sheet protects protect the sides and floor of the casing, and the inner parts of the
scrubbers inlet hoods from corrosion.
The Schwarze Pumpe plant has two 800 MW lignite-fired supercritical units that began service
in 1996 and 1997 respectively. The main steam temperature is 1017F (547C) and the reheat
steam temperature is 1039F (565C). The main steam pressure is 3800 psia (262 bar) with a
reheat steam pressure of 775 psia (52.8 bar).
The Niederaussem K generating unit, located near Cologne and owned by RWE Rheinbraun, is
scheduled to begin operation in 2002. It is a supercritical 4040 psia (275 bar), 1076/1112F
(580/600C) 1000 MW unit, the largest lignite unit in the world. It incorporates new concepts in
lignite drying and advanced environmental controls for SO2 and NOx.
The Voitberg unit in Austria is a 330 MW lignite-fired district heating unit that began operation
in 1994.
(Ref. 6-77)
Critical Assessment
As described in this case study, recovering energy from flue gas has been successfully applied in
Europe to improve efficiency and add capacity in both new plants and in existing plants.
Modifications of this type have not been commercialized in the United States as yet for a number
of technical and non-technical reasons.
Very few coal-fired power plants have been built over the last decade in the US, and the
materials used in these European applications were not available during the 1960s and 1970s
when most of the current fleet of U.S. coal fired plants was being built. In addition, the relatively
low cost of coal in the Unites States has worked against new investments to upgrade older plant
efficiencies.
The application of these technologies for retrofit requires significant evaluation since those
applications are always very site specific. The questions that must be considered are whether
there is physical space available to accommodate the additional equipment, whether the existing
plant components are capable of handling the changes in mass and energy flows, and whether
there is an attractive market for any additional power produced.
There are several technical differences between power plant requirements in the United States
and Europe that have focused the commercial application of heat recovery from flue gas in
Europe. In the U.S., reheat is not required after FGD and wet stack exhausts are common.
Typical European standards though require that effluents from stacks be above 70C to provide
the required gas buoyancy. That is one reason the stack gas effluent is not discharged directly to
6-83

the atmosphere from the Schwarze Pumpe and Niederaussem plants, but is sent instead to the
cooling tower. As a result of the draft in the cooling tower, the cooling tower effluent has
sufficient buoyancy. If a cooling tower is not available for this purpose, heat recovery is not
possible or is greatly reduced.
Recovery of heat from fossil power plants, so as to improve overall efficiency, is seen as a
valuable way to reduce emissions such as CO2, and improve overall cost effectiveness. In the
U.S., a number of heat recovery options have been applied. A recent example of the use of
recovered waste heat to increase overall power plant efficiency is the CBO (Carbon Burnout
Process). In this process (Ref. 6-78), high carbon boiler ash is burned in a fluidized bed to lower
the amount of residual carbon in the ash to a level that a makes it acceptable for reuse and sale.
At the Wateree plant of South Carolina Electric and Gas, heat recovered from the CBO process
is used to preheat boiler feedwater. This allows the first feedwater heater to be bypassed and the
steam normally used there to be sent instead to the steam turbine, thereby increasing plant
efficiency.
At the Coal Creek plant of Great River Energy, the heat in the circulating condenser cooling
water is being investigated to pre-dry lignite before combustion. (Ref. 6-79). Additional
opportunities for heat recovery have been investigated (Ref. 6-80) and may be usefully applied in
the future as the search for optimum plant performance continues.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of FGD Systems
Redesigned Mist Eliminators Improve Performance at Kansas City Power and Light and
Cincinnati Gas and Electric
Kansas City Power and Light at the La Cygne unit 1, and Cincinnati Gas and Electric (now
Cinergy) at the Zimmer plant, redesigned the mist eliminator in the wet flue gas desulfurization
system. The objective was to eliminate a number of problems that included poor elimination of
mist, plugging of the mist eliminator and outlet duct, reheater failure and high pressure drop. The
approach that was successfully utilized was to use a lower pressure drop design. In addition, the
mist eliminator washing system was changed. These changes resulted in reduced energy, alkali,
and maintenance requirements, longer equipment life, and reduced particulate and SO2
emissions. (Refs. 6-81 and 6-82)
Indianapolis Power and Light Reduce FGD Duct Corrosion
Indianapolis Power and Light experienced severe corrosion in the mixing zone of the FGD unit
at their Petersburg Station. In this zone, scrubbed gas is reheated with a combination of indirect
air and direct bypass gas. High-grade nickel alloys, C-22 and C-276, used in this zone had very
high corrosion rates compared to other FGD installations. The root cause of the problem was
determined to be a highly acidic and corrosive film that results from liquid condensate that clings
to duct surfaces and absorbs acidic species from the untreated bypass gas. Installation of a false
floor with built-in drainage paths inside the duct was effective in minimizing corrosion. (Ref. 683)
6-84

First Energy Tests Limestone-Based, ForcedOxidation Process

A full-scale limestone-based forced-oxidation process has been installed and tested at the Niles
station of First Energy. With high velocity (to 18 ft/sec) operation, two-stage mist eliminator,
smaller absorber, high-energy agitators, and vertical shaft centrifuges for secondary dewatering
the system achieved 95% SO2 removal efficiency. A pure gypsum product is produced and
incremental operating costs are well below the market value of SO2 allowances. (Ref. 6-84)
AES Beaver Valley Station Converts FGD to New Forced Oxidation Process
The magnesium-enhanced lime FGD system at the Beaver Valley130 MW co-generation system
has been converted to a new forced oxidation system known as Thioclear. Added were oxidation,
regeneration and solids separation equipment. Problems encountered included gypsum scaling
and liner and impeller coating failures on some of the centrifugal pumps. It is reported that
considerable operating cost savings have been realized. (Ref. 6-84).
Precipitators and Baghouses
There are about 1200 electrostatic precipitators (ESP) and 110 baghouses in operation at power
plants in the US. They meet local, state and EPA regulations for control of particulate emissions
from boilers. Selection of a specific device depends on the coal that is used in the plant and the
emission regulations that the plant must meet. New challenges are expected in the future as ESP
units age, and as emission requirements become more severe.
The precipitator (Figure 6-45) works on the basic principle of charging the ash particles using
negatively charged electrode wires. The charged particles then migrate towards slightly charged
positive plates that are grounded. Once the particles are collected on the plates, they form a layer
of ash particles that bond together due to the electrical field and molecular and mechanical
cohesive forces. Periodically, the positive plates are struck with mechanical devices (rapping) to
loosen the accumulated ash layer. This falls from the plates and is collected in hoppers located
below the plates. Precipitator efficiencies can be greater than 99% in removing particulate matter
from the exhaust gas. (Ref. 6-1)
Precipitator Performance
ESP performance depends on ash resistivity, which increases as the sulfuric acid content of the
flue gas declines. As a result, units that use low sulfur fuel or inject sorbent for sulfur capture,
typically have problems with ESP performance. Among field-proven solutions to the resistivity
problems are SO3 conditioning, intermittent energization and wider plate spacing. Wider plate
spacing, that increases typical spacing from 9 to as much as 16 inches, has the potential to reduce
the cost of a new or refurbished unit by 10 to 20 percent. It also allows the use of more durable
rigid discharge electrodes in place of weighted wire electrodes resulting in elimination of wire
failures. This improves reliability and reduces maintenance costs. Units with low NOx burners
can also develop ESP problems as a result of changes in particulate emission loadings and
characteristics. If the unburned carbon increases above 10%, the ash can become so conductive
that it loses some of its charge on contact with the collecting plate. This reduces the forces
6-85

holding the ash onto the plate, allowing some to be re-entrained by the flue gas (Ref. 6-85). On
occasion a resistivity change can be used to advantage. The presence of moisture, that changes
ash resistivity, is often indicative of a boiler tube leak. By tracking this parameter, tube leaks can
often be caught at an early stage.
Courtesy CE
Figure 6-45
Electrostatic Precipitator
ESP units that came into use in the 1960's in the US, accomplish the bulk of particulate removal
for the electric power industry. Early units utilize weighted wire electrodes that electrically charge
gas ions. These attach to neutral particulate matter. The resulting charged particles move to the
collecting electrode from which they are dislodged by rapping.
Improving Precipitators
To improve under-performing precipitators, specific techniques that have proved useful are:
1. Use flue gas conditioning, including sulfur trioxide, ammonia, triethylamine, and others. This
is particularly of value for lower sulfur coals with high resistivity ash. Agentless conditioning
using a ceramic honeycomb substrate has also proved viable. (Ref. 6-86)
2. Humidification of the flue gas, which reduces resistivity, increases cohesivity, and might
enhance air toxics control. (Ref. 6-87)
3. Intermittent or pulse energization that can reduce emissions of particulates 85% or more for
high resistivity ash. (Ref. 6-88)
6-86

4. Equipment changes such as wider plate spacing, better rapping, or addition of a

supplementary fabric filter device.
Tracking Precipitator Problems
The measurement and plotting of precipitator electrical data, specifically voltage current density
curves is an excellent way of diagnosing whether such problems as ash buildup, or back corona
due to high resistivity ash, are occurring. A typical V-j curve (current density versus secondary
voltage) is shown for a well-behaved precipitator in Figure 6-46. But if the precipitator has
problems, the V-j curves might look something like those in Figure 6-47. Ref. 6-89 provides
more details on how to track and diagnose a poorly performing precipitator. Among the causes of
changes in precipitator performance are:
Degradation of the mechanical condition of the ESP
Changes in flue gas composition, especially SO2
Changes in fly ash resistivity
Changes in particle size distribution
Changes in the amount of gas and particulates bypassing the collecting zones
Changes in the amount of re-entrained particulate matter
6-87

Figure 6-46
Typical V-j Curves for a Healthy 4-Field Precipitator
6-88

Figure 6-47
V-j Curves for a Variety of Problem Situations in Precipitators
An Alternate Approach to Gas Conditioning

When burning low-sulfur coal to reduce SO2 emissions, high-resistivity ash can elude
electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), increasing opacity emissions and perhaps incurring deratings.
Ash resistivity can be improved by conditioning flue gas with SO3. Alternatively an EPRIpatented flue gas conditioning system (EPRICON), offers an alternative. The system is operating
at Consumers Energys Whiting Unit 3, where opacity at full load was reduced from 20% to 5%,
with no deratings, during just the first few months of operation.
6-89

Conventional conditioning systems are essentially small skids that burn additional sulfur to
generate the SO3 needed to improve ash resistivity. The skids add extra sulfur to the flue gas and
the sulfur is stored in on-site tanks, heated to molten temperatures, and then pumped to the skids
via dedicated lines.
EPRICON adds no extra sulfur to a plants flue gas, but extracts a small slipstream of flue gas
typically 1-3% of the streamfrom a boilers back pass. This flue gas slipstream is routed
through a multi-layer catalyst chamber where a significant portion of the gass SO2 is converted
to SO3. The SO3 is then returned to the main flue gas stream, where it reacts with flue gas
moisture to form the sulfuric acid vapor that will lower ash resistivity. The catalyst has been
developed to tolerate the presence of fly ash in the flue gas; catalyst blocks are periodically
cleaned with sonic horns. The pressure drop from the extraction point in the boiler to the
injection point ahead of the ESP is all thats needed to drive gas through the system. Flow
through the catalyst chamber is controlled via a simple damper in the duct leading to the catalyst
chamber.
Consumers Energy Testing
Consumers Energys (CE) Whiting station is coal-fired plant, commissioned in 1952, with two
100-MW units and one 125-MW unit, all served by older, cold-side ESPs. EPRICON was
installed in early 1999 at Unit 3, and performed well right from the start. During the first two
months of operation, opacity at full load plummeted from close to 20% to about 5%, with no
opacity-induced deratings; over the same period, Units 1 and 2, operating without any flue gas
conditioning at all, were experiencing 15 MW deratings due to opacity. An inspection of Unit 3s
ESP after only one-month of EPRICON operation showed none of the high-resistivity ash
buildup that had previously troubled the unit. Meanwhile, by burning a blend of 40% western
coal and 60% eastern coal, Unit 3 was able to lower SO2 emission levels to as little as 375 ppm.
(Ref. 6-84).
Demonstrations of Wet ESPs at Sherco and Dickenson Plants
Utility Demonstrations of Wet ESP Technology
While the versatility of wet ESPs has been demonstrated in diverse industrial applications, the
added complexity relative to conventional dry ESPs has discouraged its use by the power
industry until recently. However, the growing pressure to limit particulate and other emissions is
providing new motivation to examine the applicability of this technology to coal-burning power
plants.
In particular, a wet ESP design must be compact, economical and reliable to compete in the
power arena. Furthermore, it should have minimal impact on upstream and downstream plant
equipment. Two totally different designs seem to satisfy these requirements. The first design, an
up-flow tubular design, has been installed in the outlet of the scrubber modules at Northern
States Power Company's Sherco Station. The second design, a horizontal flow plate design, was
installed at Mirants (formerly Potomac Electric Power Company's) Dickerson Generating
Station. Both designs have unique features that make them particularly attractive for these
6-90

specific applications and illustrate how this technology can be adapted for electric generation
application.
Figure 6-48
Horizontal Plate and Vertical Tubular ESP Configurations
Wet ESP Technology: What is it?
Wet ESPs operate in the same three-step process as dry ESPs-charging, collecting and finally
cleaning of the particles. However, cleaning of the collecting electrode is performed by washing
the collection surface with liquid, rather than by mechanically rapping the collection plates.
While the cleaning mechanism would not be thought to have any impact upon performance, it
significantly affects the nature of the particles that can be captured, the performance efficiencies
that can be achieved, and the design parameters and operating maintenance of the equipment.
Simply stated, wet ESP technology is significantly different than dry ESP technology.
Because wet ESPs operate in a wet environment in order to wash the collection surface, they can
handle a wider variety of pollutants and gas conditions than dry ESPs. Wet ESPs are particularly
effective for fine particulate control and find their greatest use in applications where gas streams
fall into one or more of the following categories: ( Ref. 6-90)
The gas in question has a high moisture content;
The gas stream includes sticky particulate;
The collection of sub-micron particulate is required;
The gas stream has acid droplets or mist-SO3;
The temperature of the gas stream is below the moisture dew point.
6-91

What Impact does Water have on ESP Behavior?
Because wet ESPs continually wet the collection surface area and create a dilute slurry that flows
down the collecting wall to a recycle tank, the collecting walls never build up a layer of
particulate cake. Consequently, the captured particulate is not re-entrained. In addition, when
firing low sulfur coal, which produces a high resistivity dust, there is no deterioration of the
electrical field due to high resistivity, and power levels within a wet ESP can be dramatically
higher than in a dry ESP. Typical operating power within a wet ESP may be as high as 2,000
watts per 1,000 cfm, while that of a dry ESP is limited to 100-500 watts per 1,000 cfm. The
ability to inject much greater electrical power within the wet ESP is the main reason a wet ESP
can collect sub-micron particulate so efficiently.
Water can be Condensed from the Flue Gas
In wet ESPs, the delivery mechanism for the irrigating liquid is either via a series of spray
nozzles or via condensing moisture from the flue gas on the collection surface. Proper design of
the spray system and water treatment system is required for high-power operation and low
maintenance requirements. Some type of weir may be employed, but maintaining a thin film of
liquid on the collection plate is problematic. The use of recycled spray water requires water
treatment to maintain acceptable corrosion levels within the ESP.
In a condensing wet ESP, moisture in the gas creates a thin film of water over the entire surface
of the collecting electrode. Cooling the collection surface below the temperature of the flue gas
forms the condensate. The temperature differential between the cold wall of the collecting tube
and the hot saturated gas condenses moisture present in the gas. The condensation forms a
uniform, evenly distributed liquid film on the collection surface, which continuously washes the
collection surface. The condensed moisture is collected in a recycle tank where it is treated and
typically sprayed back into the process in the pre-scrubbing section of the wet ESP. The liquid
used to cool the collecting surfaces never comes into contact with the process and is
continuously recirculated. This method reduces the demand for fresh water by creating fresh
water from the condensation of moisture in the gas stream, and also minimizes treatment of the
recycle liquid. Typically, only a small bleed stream is required and the treated wastewater is
recycled back into the wet ESP for re-use, minimizing fresh water make-up. (Ref. 6-91)
Sherco Plant Demonstration: Modifying the Scrubber Outlet
Northern States Power Company's Sherco Station provided a unique opportunity to use a wet
ESP to solve a difficult particulate emissions problem. Units 1 and 2 at Sherco are equipped with
venturi scrubbers that were designed to control both SO2 and particulate emissions. Each 750
MW unit has twelve 75 MW scrubbers (two spares) that utilize an adjustable rod deck venturi for
particulate capture. However, the venturis were not very successful in capturing the very fine
particles produced by the Powder River Basin coal burned at Sherco.
An engineering study of upgrade options led to the conclusion that modification of the outlet
section of the scrubber to replace the mist eliminator with a two-field up-flow wet ESP should
solve the particulate emission problem at a cost far less than the most attractive alternate
solution, the addition of a baghouse upstream of the scrubbers. The ESP addition made it
6-92

necessary to move the scrubber sprays from the up-flow section of the scrubbers to the horizontal
crossover section connecting the down-flow and up-flow scrubber sections. This requirement
raised questions about the impact of conversion on SO2 emissions and, of course, there was no
previous experience on which to base particulate capture performance.
The modification proved to be very successful. The test program determined that an SO2
removal of 70 percent or greater could be maintained by the scrubber, the outlet particulate
emissions were in the 0.01 lb/MMBtu range, and the opacity in the duct following the modified
scrubber modules could be maintained below 10 percent. Since the modification met or exceeded
all of the emission requirements, the decision was made to follow through with the conversion of
all of the modules to wet ESP operation. By the end of December 2000, 18 out of the 24 scrubber
modules had been converted to wet ESP operation. The performance of all of the converted
modules is comparable to that of the original test module, with SO2 removal levels in the 70%
percent range and particulate emissions, as indicated by opacity, in an acceptable range.
Dickerson Station Demonstration: A Wet/Dry Hybrid
While the experience at Sherco Station indicates that wet ESPs can be used in scrubber
applications, a project at Mirants Dickerson Station was carried out to determine if this
technology could have even broader application to the utility industry. At this plant, the ESP on
the 182 MW Unit 3 was converted to hybrid operation. The first two fields of the ESP remained
unchanged. However, the internals of the last field of the three-field ESP were removed and
replaced with a wet field. The ESP casing surrounding the third field was wallpapered with a
moderate-grade stainless steel, and the new internals were made of a stainless steel alloy.
The goal of this conversion is to meet the plant's very strict opacity limits (10 percent or less).
Since the existing ESP has a specific collection area of only 120 ft2/1,000 acfm, achieving this
goal is difficult. However, an extensive ESP performance optimization program conducted by
Dickerson plant personnel demonstrated that the dry ESP alone is capable of operating at a level
close to meeting the required opacity limit. ESP performance modeling also indicated that the
conversion of the last field to wet operation should control emissions to below the limit.
Mirant selected conversion to a wet/dry hybrid ESP configuration because it was low cost, the
plant already had the needed water treatment facilities on-site, and performance estimates
indicated that conversion could produce opacities of under 10 percent. Pilot-scale tests further
indicated that a single wet ESP field could produce very high collection efficiencies and that the
water chemistry in a utility application was manageable. Because no full-scale studies of the
hybrid ESP concept had been conducted, EPRI cosponsored this demonstration project with
American Electric Power, Cinergy, First Energy Corporation, Kentucky Utilities, Mirant, and
Tennessee Valley Authority.
6-93

Figure 6-49
Conceptual Retrofit of a Wet ESP into an Existing System
Operating Problems at Dickerson Leaves Some Questions Unanswered
Following conversion, the team operated the ESP in hybrid wet/dry mode for several weeks to
determine operating parameters, measure performance, and identify operating problems. They
tested the hybrid ESP using a variety of coals representative of the range of coals normally fired
by this unit.
A number of operating difficulties occurred that prevented a full evaluation of the technology.
The two principal problems involved 1) low power levels in the wet field due to arcing at the
bottom of the collecting electrode plates and 2) moisture entrainment in the flue gas leaving the
ESP that impacted induced-draft (ID) fan operation. While these problems limited the extent of
the performance evaluation, this full-scale study showed that wet last field operation reduced
sulfur dioxide emissions by approximately 30 percent and produced opacities near 10 percent at
full load.
(Ref. 6-92)
Baghouses
Reverse gas, shake deflate and pulse-jet baghouses are all in use today in US power plants. The
newest of these options is the pulse-jet baghouse, which has the lowest capital cost. (Figure 6-50)
This results from operating at two or more times the filtration velocity of other systems, (reducing the
footprint and capital costs). Short, powerful bursts of air are used to clean the bags more thoroughly
than the other systems, allowing for higher velocity operation. Also the bags can be removed
from the top, eliminating the need for internal walkways and allowing more bags to be packed
into a given volume.
6-94

Early performance issues of short bag life and high operating costs have been largely resolved, as
experience has been gained. Baghouses are favored for low sulfur fuel operation since the
concentration of SO3 in the flue gas with those fuels is low, reducing the performance of ESP
units.
Figure 6-50
Pulse-Jet Baghouse
Baghouses became popular during the 1970-1980's with the construction of large numbers of
plants in the western US. The advantages of these systems on lower sulfur coal made baghouses
the control technology of choice for some plants.
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Precipitators and

Baghouses
Oklahoma Gas and Electric Reduces Electrostatic Precipitator Power Consumption
Oklahoma Gas and Electric reduced the amount of power consumed by the electrostatic
precipitator (ESP) at their 500 MW Sooner 2 unit by changing to intermittent energization (IE).
The coal used in this plant results in a medium/high resistivity fly ash. With IE, the voltage is
shut off periodically for several cycles. Since the ESP behaves as a capacitor, the electric field
decays slowly while the power is off. In addition, the effect of back corona, which degrades
6-95

collection efficiency and wastes power, is reduced. In a test program at the plant, it was found
that the amount of power could be decreased by 73%, from 1447kW at full power operation to
404 kW with IE operation. Emissions and opacity were reduced from 0.019lb/MBtu (0.008kg/kJ)
and 16% stack opacity with full power operation to 0.007lb/MBtu (0.003kg/kJ) and 11 % opacity
in the IE mode. (Ref. 6-93)
Columbia Energy Center Uses Additives to Enhance Precipitator Performance
Phosphate-based flue gas conditioning agents have improved the performance of the hot-side
precipitator at the 525 MW unit 1 of Columbia Energy Center. Previously ammonium sulphate
had been used when the fuel was a blend of Montana sub-bituminous and Powder River Basin
coal. But the more PRB coal, the more ineffective this was. The new additive permits opacity
levels to be met while using PRB coals. The conditioning agent, less toxic than SO3 and NH3, is
designed for high temperature, or highly alkali or acidic ashes. (Ref. 6-84).
Consumers Energy Uses EPRICON System to Reduce Opacity
The three units at the Whiting station of Consumers Energy had steadily declining precipitator
performance, particularly as sulfur content was reduced. Now an Epricon system, on unit 3,
extracts a slipstream of flue gas and passes it through a catalyst to convert SO2 to SO3. This is
then re-injected ahead of the ESP. Normal opacity has been reduced from about 20% at full load
to less than 5% under all conditions. (Ref. 6-84).
Kentucky Utilities Uses Intermittent Energization to Reduce Energy Costs
Kentucky Utilities adopted Intermittent Energization (IE) at their Ghent unit 2 to eliminate hotside ESP performance problems and to reduce energy costs. This allowed the plant to avoid the
use of sodium conditioning, which had been suggested as the preferred method to avoid
symptoms of sodium depletion, identified as the cause of poor performance. (Ref. 6-94)
Missouri Public Service Use Wide Plate Placing to Improve Precipitator Performance
Missouri Public Service rebuilt their electrostatic precipitators at Sibley unit 1, 2, and 3 with
wide plate spacing and made other modifications as part of their preparation for a switch to low
sulfur coal use in those units. After the modifications, stack opacity levels were lower than had
been experienced previously with narrower spacing. In addition there was less lost production
due to deratings and outages to repair broken wires, rappers and warped collection plates. (Ref.
6-95)
BG&E Uses Baghouse Performance Monitor to Improve Performance
Baltimore Gas and Electric installed a baghouse performance monitor expert system (BPMES) to
allow plant personnel to monitor all compartments in each reverse-flow baghouse installed in
units 1 and 2 of their C. P. Crane Station. The objectives were to diagnose operating problems
more effectively and extend bag life by one year by avoiding major problems through early
6-96

intervention. The results were achieved with successful identification of problems involving bag
failures, sonic horns, ash removal, valve damper operation and instruments and controls. (Ref. 696)
State Line Plant Converts Precipitator to Fabric Filter
The State Line plant in Hammond, IN had concerns about marginally sized precipitators.
Deratings occurred when opacity limits were exceeded. So the cold-side ESP for the 225 MW
unit 3 was converted to a medium pressure pulse jet fabric filter. This is designed to filter
particulates below 10 microns to less than 0.1lb/million Btu, and maintain opacity at less than
20% when the boiler fires low sulfur western coal. On-line cleaning of the baghouse is necessary
and appears to be viable. (Ref. 6-84).
MERCURY EMISSIONS AND CONTROLS

Overview of the Current Status of Mercury Capture from Power Plant Stacks
Trace amounts of mercury are present in coal. Consequently, whenever it is combusted, such as
in the generation of electricity, some of this mercury is emitted into the air along with exhaust
gases. Power plant emissions account for about one-third of the mercury emitted to the air from
industrial sources in the United States, but this is only about 2 to 3% of total global mercury
emissions. After power plants release mercury, it becomes part of a global cycle. The behavior
of mercury in this cycle depends on its chemical form. Oxidized mercury (also called ionic
mercury) may fall or wash out of the air and return to the earth relatively near its source.
Elemental mercury becomes part of the global inventory of mercury in the atmosphere, where it
may remain for months to years. Eventually, it too returns to the earth. This deposited mercury
may enter bodies of water, either directly or via runoff from surrounding soils, and enter the food
chain. The ultimate environmental concern is ingestion of fish containing elevated levels of
mercury by humans and animals. Significant uncertainty and controversy remain about the
contribution of individual sources to local or regional water bodies, as well as the levels of
mercury in fish that are safe.
Emissions from power plants now range from 0.01 to 56 lb/TBtu (Ref. 6-97). This large span is
due to the combination of a large range in coal mercury concentrations (2 to 65 lb/TBtu) and in
the effectiveness of existing controls (0 to 99%) in capturing the resulting mercury in the flue
gas. Further, it is important to note that these data are all derived from very limited tests (3
replicate tests obtained during one visit to the plant). Longer term testing is very much needed to
determine the emission levels that can be sustained over a longer period of time.
Emission Reduction
Figure 6-51 indicates that various approaches to mercury removal from power plant flue gases
are under development. Table 6-16 presents EPRIs analysis (Ref. 6-97) of the emission
reductions measured during the Environmental Protection Agencys mandated Information
Collection Request (ICR) in 1999 for some common air pollution controls (particulate and SO2)
and coal types. Units with fabric filters and those burning bituminous coal and equipped with
SO2 controls achieved the highest overall removals ( 99%). The large variability among units
6-97

with fabric filters may indicate that some unburned carbons are more reactive than others and/or
that certain flue gas conditions (temperature, HCl) may be necessary to achieve high removals.
Thus, the additional capture that would be required of an add-on mercury control, such as
activated carbon injection, would vary significantly to meet a uniform emission limit.
Figure 6-51
Options for the Removal of Mercury
The removal of mercury from coal-fired units can be accomplished in several ways. Coal cleaning
before combustion can remove some mercury and other heavy metals. After combustion, the
injection of a sorbent, such as a activated carbon can be very effective. Existing ESPs and SO2
scubbers can capture from 20 to 60% of mercury. Catalysts and certain chemicals can be injected
that.oxidize elemental mercury to enhance scrubber capture. Fixed beds, coated with materials
such as gold, can form amalgams with mercury.
Table 6-16
Mercury Emission Reductions from the ICR
(A first assessment based on preliminary stack emission measurements)
Mercury Removal (%)*
Control Technology**
Bituminous
Sub-Bituminous
ESP -- cold
24 (-22 to 54)
19 (7 to 38)
ESP hot
10 (0 to 27)
2 (-8 to 13)
Fabric Filter (FF)
75 (35 to 99)
67 (48 to 86)
SD ESP
18 (-17 to 76)
SD FF
98 (97 to 99)
-7 (-28 to 22)
ESPc + FGD
65 (42 to 84)
19 (11 to 28)
ESPh + FGD
69
13 (-12 to 24)
* Averages and ranges in ( ). Removal based on coal mercury concentration and outlet emissions
** ESPc = cold-side ESP
6-98

ESPh = hot-side ESP
FF = Fabric Filter
SD = Spray Dryer
FGD = Flue Gas Desulfurization
Prediction of Amount and Cost of Reductions

The reductions that can be achieved in well-controlled situations and the associated costs in the
absence of negative plant impacts can now be predicted with some confidence. In some cases
these reductions can be substantial for costs that are below $10/kW capital and 2 mills/kWh,
while in other cases the cost would be very much higher. That said, there has been only three
tests of mercury controls on full-scale power plants as of mid-2002, and these have all been
short-term tests (one week of continuous operation) at sites with somewhat atypical particulate
control configurations. Hence, many questions remain, such as the degree of capture that will
occur at other full-scale in plants with cold-side ESPs, solutions for units firing western
subbituminous coals and equipped with spray dryers for SO2 control, the effectiveness of carbon
injection in lignite fired plants, etc. Of special importance for the cost of mercury reductions is
the potential impact of these controls on the plant, such as the performance of the ESP, the
usability of the by-product (fly ash and/or FGD sludge), corrosion in the back-end equipment,
and pressure drop.
Mercury Speciation
One of the reasons the mercury capture effectiveness of existing controls varies so much is that it
0
++
depends on the speciation of the mercury whether it is elemental (Hg ), oxidized (Hg ), or
particulate-bound. Oxidized mercury appears to be captured more readily by ESPs, and at very
high percentages by SO2 controls. On the other hand, virtually no Hg0 is captured by SO2
controls. Coal chlorine appears to be the major determinant of mercury speciation, driving it to
be in the oxidized form. On the other hand, SO2 appears to impede the capture of mercury by
such devices as ESPs (Ref. 6-97). Particulate-bound mercury may be associated with the
unburned carbon of fly ash, and is generally captured in the particulate control device.
Status of Emission Reduction Technology
The leading candidate controls today are activated carbon injection (ACI) and TOXECON
(injection of carbon between the ESP and a compact baghouse added behind the ESP). Recent
field test data suggesting a limit of 60-70% mercury capture by carbon injection ahead of a coldside ESP indicate that TOXECON (or some new technology of equivalent performance) may be
required for removal requirements 70% in most cases without SO2 controls and/or where
subbituminous coals are burned. Today, it is virtually the only choice for units with hot-side
ESPs. However, full-scale data are limited (by 2000) to a single two-week test at a TOXECON
site. Even absent the inclusion of contingencies for these unknowns, the costs for the various
6-99

approaches span a large range, so the impact of meeting a specified emission limit would vary
just as widely across the population of coal-fired power plants.
Carbon Injection and Particulate Collection
Plants firing bituminous coals, especially those with moderate to high chlorine content, and
equipped with an FGD or spray dryer are likely to capture significant amounts of mercury 65%
on average (but with a large range) for sites with a wet FGD and 98% for those with spray dryers
and fabric filters (Ref. 6-98). Beyond capture by existing particulate and SO2 controls, the most
likely approach to be used in the near-term is activated carbon injection (ACI) upstream of a
particulate control device. If the carbon achieves good contact with the gaseous mercury for a
sufficient amount of time, it will adsorb the mercury. The resulting mercury-laden carbon is then
collected by the downstream particulate control. Two configurations have been investigated
injection ahead of (1) the existing primary particulate collector or (2) a compact baghouse added
behind the existing ESP for supplemental particulate removal. The compact baghouse is called
COHPAC, and the combination of COHPAC plus sorbent injection between the ESP and
COHPAC is called TOXECON; both are EPRI-patented technologies. Because the contact time
between the carbon and mercury is limited in cases with just an ESP, the mercury reduction
capabilities of this configuration are much less than with a baghouse (either existing or added
COHPAC) (Ref. 6-98 and 6-99).
Impact of NOx Controls on Mercury Emissions and Their Control
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for NOx control may increase the level of oxidized mercury,
which may lead to increased mercury removal in the particulate and SO2 controls. Measurements
reported for European coal-fired power plants indicate elemental mercury was converted to
oxidized mercury across the SCR catalyst. EPRIs review of the limited U.S. ICR data from sites
with SCR (and the related selective non-catalytic reduction process, SNCR) was inconclusive.
Pilot tests indicate that mercury oxidation by SCR catalysts is highly dependent on the catalyst
volume (as measured by its space velocity), and one test at a site burning PRB showed virtually
no oxidation by catalyst that had been in service for about 8,000 hours. Recent field tests at fullscale SCR sites have produced some conflicting results, with very high oxidation rates at one
eastern bituminous coal fired site and only moderate oxidation rates at another. Because a large
number of units are projected to install either SCR or SNCR by 2010, understanding their impact
on mercury emissions is important in planning for future mercury and NOx controls.
Low Temperature Catalysts
EPRI and DOE have also been seeking catalysts that could be used at low temperatures (i.e.,
between the air heater and the ESP) to oxidize mercury to enhance its capture by SO2 controls.
Short-to-medium length tests have shown that a palladium-based catalyst and some SCR-type
catalysts can oxidize as much as 70-90% of the elemental mercury in the flue gas. The
widespread applicability of these catalysts, the amount that would be needed (and hence the cost
of the installation), their life, and their impact on other pollutants (what else do these catalysts
oxidize that would be undesirable) remain to be determined. Initial estimates suggest that this
approach may not be much lower cost than the installation of a TOXECON system.
6-100

Chemical Additives
EPRI is also beginning to assess the feasibility of injecting chemical additives to promote
oxidation of mercury. Some form of chlorine, such as common salt or calcium chloride, are
logical contenders, but most power plant operators are reluctant to add these corrosive materials
to their boilers. This concern becomes more acute as the plants install deeply-staged low-NOx
combustion systems to meet stringent NOx limits.
Capture Through Amalgams
In a completely different approach, EPRI has patented the concept of adsorbing mercury on fixed
structures coated with ultra-thin layers of materials that form amalgams with mercury (MerCAP,
or Mercury Capture by Amalgamation Processes). These structures could be plates or banks of
tubes placed in the duct between the ESP and stack (or SO2 control). Tests to date using goldcovered plates have been conducted only at a small pilot scale, but on actual flue gas from power
plants, mostly PRB-fired. The results are promising from a performance perspective, but costs
have not been developed since we do not yet know how often one would need to regenerate the
material (i.e., its capacity to hold mercury and the impact of other flue gas constituents on the
gold or other metal) or its effectiveness for oxidized mercury.
Multi-Pollutant Capture Options
The ElectroCatalytic Oxidation system by PowerSpan is a recently announced multi-pollutant
control processes that has shown significant capture mercury at the pilot-scale. A 50 MW demo
of this combined NOx, SO2, mercury, and particulate control device is scheduled to start up in
mid-late 2002. Another potential technology is the circulating dry scrubber, which adds a
fluidized contactor vessel between the air heater and particulate collector. This is essentially a
sorbent injection process that adds the sorbent into the contactor vessel, captures the resulting
particles in the particulate control, and recycles a large fraction of this captured material to the
contactor vessel. This has the effect of increasing both contact (residence) time and sorbentpollutant stoichiometric ratio. It has been applied commercially at a few sites for SO2 control
using water and calcium hydroxide, and the developers claim to have some data showing good
mercury capture when appropriately sized and prepared carbon is added to the contactor vessel.
All of the above processes offer the hope of reduced costs for achieving given mercury limits
relative to the current technologies (ACI, TOXECON, and capture in existing particulate and
SO2 controls), but their technical success and actual costs, when all factors are considered,
remain highly uncertain in the middle of 2002.
Beneficial Utilization of Coal Combustion Products

In 1999, the utility industry recycled about 1/3 of the 107 million/tons/year of coal combustion
products that it produced. The largest uses of the 29 million tons that were recycled were for
cement/concrete grout (11.1 million tons primarily from fly ash), wallboard (3.1 million tons
primarily from FGD operations), road construction (2.3 million tons equally from fly ash and
bottom ash), blasting grit/roofing tiles (2.3 million tons primarily from boiler slag), waste
stabilization (2.0 million tons primarily from fly ash) and mining applications (1.9 million tons
primarily from fly ash). The sources and uses of coal combustion products, as compiled by the
American Coal Ash Association for 1999, are listed below.
6-101

Table 6-17
Use of Coal Combustion Products (CCP) in 1999, Tons
CCP Application
Fly
Ash
Bottom
Ash
Boiler
Slag
FGD
Material
Total for
Application
Cement, Concrete & Grout
10,084,584
701,342
11,133
289,849
11,086,908
Wallboard
3,053,268
3,053,268
Road Construction
1,216,861
1,102,254
5,513
17,398
2,342,026
Blasting Grit/Roofing Granules
156,777
2,132,354
2,289,131
Waste
Stabilization/Solidification
1,929,150
68,996
15,603
2,013,749
Mining Applications
1,527,272
154,481
10,000
231,463
1,923,216
Structural Fills
847,425
13,031
51,983
577,615
1,490,054
Raw Feed for Cement Clinkers
1,268,000
157,027
1,425,027
Snow and Ice Control
3,201
1,108,184
50,877
1,162,262
Flowable Fill
847,425
13,031
860,385
Mineral Filler
158,934
62,567
12,424
233,925
Agriculture
13,924
42,665
80,463
137,052
Soil Modification
78,154
17,444
12,941
2,095
110,634
Other
461,467
450,495
76,239
184,651
1,172,852
Total for Sources
18,436,397
4,048,294
2,363,464
4,452405
29,300,560
The combustion products that are not recycled are disposed of in landfills. Many power
generators have active programs to markets these products. Their success depends in large part
on proximity to markets and the availability of low cost natural products that compete for these
same markets.
The quality of these products is a key concern in meeting specifications for current reuse
applications. Residual carbon in ash interferes with air entrainment in concrete. The use of low
NOx burners in many cases results in an increase in the carbon content of the residual ash that
exceeds current specifications for its use in concrete. Another problem resulting from the
application of SCR is contamination of flyash with ammonia, which poses problems for concrete
workers and a potential problem in landfills. Technology has been developed to deal with these
issues. At some locations, a liquid reagent that binds with unburned carbon particles is used to
reduce the effect of air entrainment caused by the presence of carbon in the concrete. A solid
reagent can be added to remove ammonia completely.
(Ref. 6-100)
6-102

EPRI Activities in the Area of Coal Combustion By-Products

There are many technical and economic considerations and barriers influencing the use of Coal
Combustion By-products (CCBs) from fossil-fired power plants, including (1) limited
availability of disposal sites and restrictions on their use; (2) high by-product transportation costs
for plants sited far from by-product markets; (3) competing materials for reuse applications in the
marketplace; (4) limited commercial experience with the material; (5) variability of the byproduct quality curtailing reuse options; and (6) impact of NOX controls on product quality.
Currently, the EPRI effort focuses on two areas: (1) applications that consume large quantities of
ash in horticulture, turf production, and cement/concrete, and (2) beneficiation of ash with
unacceptably high levels of carbon or ammonia due to aggressive NOx controls in order to
protect the market for this ash. During 2001 a number of technical reports were issued to assist
in overcoming the institutional, regulatory, and market barriers. These include several reports
that are described in the following paragraphs.
EPRI published a technology assessment white paper that discusses opportunities for using
clean coal technology (CCT) by-products from wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD), spray dryer
(SD), sodium sorbent injection (SSI), calcium sorbent injection (CSI), furnace sorbent injection
(FSI), and atmospheric fluidized-bed combustion (AFBC). It is an update of a 1997 EPRI study.
This white paper discusses CCT by-products utilization potential and evaluation methods for
determining their suitability for various applications. The assessment is separated into wet FGD
and dry FGD by-products. (Ref. 6-102)
A white paper was issued by EPRI that summarized earlier findings on ammonia deposition
rates on fly ash from different coals and the resulting impacts of disposal and utilization of this
ash. Then it provided an update on the status of current developments in ash beneficiation, with
special focus on processes that economically produce a usable ash. (Ref. 6-103)
An EPRI white paper summarized earlier findings on treatment or beneficiation of coal ash to
make it usable for high-volume markets such as cement and concrete. The paper next provides an
update on the status of current developments in ash beneficiation to remove carbon, with special
focus on economical processes for producing usable ash. (Ref. 6-104)
An EPRI report documented a full-scale demonstration project funded by EPRI and several
private and governmental organizations. The injection program at the Omega Mine is by far the
largest project to date undertaken to reduce Acid Mine Drainage by mine filling. Nearly 61,000
3
m of CCP grout were injected in 10.4 ha (26 acres) of the mine. Due to openness of some
portions of the mine and the dip of the coal seam (9%), grout moved laterally up to 457 m (1500
ft). The total cost for drilling and grout injection was approximately $1.95 million. (Ref. 6-105)
Another EPRI white paper presented a review of the current state of knowledge on the impact
of sorbent injection for mercury control on the usability of coal ash. Information was collected
from recent coal ash utilization conferences and symposia, EPRI reports and other publications,
as well as discussions with experts. The presence of injected sorbent in coal ash is likely to
impact ash utilization in two ways: (1) sorbent itself may be problematic for some applications;
(2) mercury adsorbed in the sorbent may be released to air or water. The sorbents discussed in
6-103

the report include carbons derived from tires, biomass, carbon fibers, and commercial activated
carbon, with or without sulfur impregnation. Zeolite is also included as a non-carbon based
sorbent. The physical and chemical properties of these materials are discussed. The analysis
focused on the potential impacts on ash quality for applications in concrete and grout, cement
kiln, structural fill and soil stabilization. (Ref. 6-106)
EPRI has sponsored a project, which was a comparative field and laboratory study at CANMET,
to develop an engineering data base on the long-term effectiveness of fly ash and other
supplementary cementing materials (SCM) in controlling and/or reducing expansion and
cracking in concrete due to AAR. This report is a progress report on this multi-year effort. (Ref.
6-107)
EPRI published a report that provided a field assessment of the use of blends of coal combustion
by-products with biosolids in horticultural applications such as potting mixes for ornamentals
and turf production. The study found that trace element concentrations in both potting and sod
mixes were below USEPA regulatory limits. Greenhouse study results showed plant yields of the
CCP experimental potting mix generally outperformed the commercial potting mix. For
example, evaluations of pansy and summer annuals indicated a high degree of value in bottom
and fly ash inclusions (as soil amendments) in landscape plantings. Finished CCP sod retained
both significantly more volumetric water and less gross (wet) weight than the control mix sod.
(Ref. 6-108)
FEEDWATER CHEMISTRY
General Discussion
Primary causes of loss of availability in steam power plants are failures of boiler and steam
turbine components. It has been estimated that 50% of all forced outage failures have their roots
in the chemistry of the plant water and steam systems. Careful attention must be continuously
paid to maintain the purity of boiler feedwater and steam. This results in reduced corrosion in the
boiler, turbine and feedwater systems and minimizes formation of scale and deposits on heating
surfaces.
Figure 6-52 shows the locations of impurity ingress, contaminant deposits, and corrosion that
typically occur in the water-steam cycle of a drum type, steam power plant. In once- through
power plants, the locations would be essentially the same. Of course, the drum shown at the top
of the boiler in Figure 6-52 would not be included.
6-104

Figure 6-52
Power Plant Steam-Water Systems
Potential sites for corrosion and deposition exist throughout the steam and water systems.
Careful monitoring and prompt action to resolve difficulties significantly reduce loss of
availability.
Feedwater Treatment
Feedwater chemistry is critical to the overall reliability of fossil plants. Corrosion products are
generated here, flow around the cycle and deposit in various areas acting as initiating centers for
most of the major failure mechanisms.
There are five choices for boiler water treatment for the drum cycle shown in Figure 6-52 (Ref. 6-108)
Equilibrium Phosphate Treatment (EPT)
Phosphate Treatment (PT)
All-Volatile Treatment (AVT)
Caustic Treatment (CT)
Oxygenated Treatment (OT)
Each of these approaches is common in the US. The latest approach is oxygenated treatment
(OT). Over the last several years there have been more than 100 conversions from AVT to OT
control systems in units with all ferrous metallurgy. In the OT system, oxygen is added rather
than subtracted from the feedwater. In this way passivation of the steel surfaces is achieved with
a protective hematite/magnetite oxidation layer. The drivers for OT conversion are the reduced
generation and subsequent deposition of feedwater corrosion products that cause damage and
lead to failures in both the boiler and turbine.
6-105

Typical boiler problems caused by poor water chemistry include boiler tube failures, steam
generator pressure losses and the need for frequent chemical cleaning. Other system problems
include deposition in feedwater heaters, feedpumps, attemperator control valves and turbines,
ammonia grooving and tube failures in condensers, and frequent polisher regeneration.
The selection of either of the two treatment regimes is primarily function of the feedwater heater
tubing metallurgy, where the two extremes are all-ferrous (carbon steel or stainless steel) and
mixed-metallurgy, (admiralty brass, copper-nickel alloys, Monel). The chemical treatment of
choice for all-ferrous systems is either oxygenated treatment (OT) or all-volatile treatment
(AVT) without the addition of an oxygen scavenger. Chemical treatment for mixed metallurgy
systems is often a compromise between controlling both copper and iron corrosion. A highly
reducing atmosphere is preferred to prevent copper corrosion and a slightly oxidizing atmosphere
is preferred to minimizing iron transport. AVT with an oxygen scavenger and an amine is the
treatment normally applied to the mixed metallurgy system. Oxygen Reduction Potential (ORP)
is an important control tool in optimizing the treatment program to control corrosion in the
condensate and feedwater systems. To prevent copper carryover on highpressure drum boilers
(above (2400 psig), a negative ORP should be maintained through oxygen scavenger addition.
Basically these regimes breakdown into three distinctly different treatment types:
Type A is the classical all-volatile treatment (AVT) using ammonia and a reducing agent
(such as hydrazine). For mixed metallurgy systems, this applies to the deaerator inlet and
economizer inlet monitoring points.
Type B is the same as Type A minus the reducing agent.
Type C is oxygenated treatment (OT) using only ammonia and oxygen.
The major difference between Type A, B and C chemistries is that Type A provides a reducing
environment (where the oxidizing-reducing potential (ORP) should be <0mV with the optimum
range being -300 to -350mV), and Types B and C result in an oxidizing environment (ORP
>0mV). Table 6-18 provides a comparison of AVT and OT systems.
6-106

Table 6-18
Comparison of Normal Cycle Chemistry Limits at the Economizer Inlet
(The AVT (Mixed Metallurgy) applies also at the Deaerator Inlet)
Parameter
AVT
AVT
OT
Once-through
OT
Drum
Metallurgy
Mixed
All Ferrous
All ferrous
All ferrous
Chemicals
N2H2 (Hydrazine) to remove oxygen

NH3 (Ammonia) to control pH
Oxygen, Hydrogen Peroxide, or Air to

provide oxygen
NH3 (Ammonia) to control pH
Injection Points
Downstream of condensate polisher
Downstream of condensate polisher

and downstream of deaerator
Oxygen, ppb
< 5, (<2)
1-10
30-150
30-50
pH
8.8-9.1
9.2-9.6
8.0-8.5
9.0-9.5
Ammonia, NH3,
ppm
0.15-0.4
0.5-2.0
0.02
0.07
Conductivity,
S/cm
<0.2
<0.2 (<0.15)
<0.15 (<0.10)
<0.15 (0.10)
Iron, ppb
<10 (<5)
<5 (<2)
<5 (<1)
<5 (<1)
Cu,ppb
<2 (<2)
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
ORP, mV
-300 to -350
0-50
>100
>100
Protective
Mechanism
Porous magnetite that allows iron

transport from base metal
Non-porous hematite over porous

magnetite that prevents iron transport
from base metal
Notes
a. Values in parentheses represent achievable and desirable levels
b. ORP (Oxidizing reducing potentials with respect to Pt electrode vs. Ag/AgCl)
(Ref. 6-109)
Key Concerns in Chemistry Treatments
The primary purposes of boiler water treatments are to ensure that the water has minimum levels
of impurities to avoid damage to the boiler and turbine. The treatment should neutralize any
contaminant ingress to prevent concentration and ultimate boiler tube failures. Suggestions for
avoiding operating problems include:
supplying the boiler with feedwater that meets EPRI guidelines (Ref. 6-110)
optimizing the treatment of feedwater so that it will be less susceptible to changes in ingress
of impurities, out of specification operation, boiler heat flux and boiler blowdown.
Fifteen boiler tube failure mechanisms are influenced by the plant cycle chemistry with the major
mechanisms being: hydrogen damage, caustic gouging, acid phosphate corrosion, corrosion
fatigue and pitting. In the steam turbine, seven steam path mechanisms are influenced by the
transport of impurities into the steam, with the major losses being attributed to L-1 blade failures
and disk cracking due to corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion respectively. Deposition of
6-107

impurities and oxides onto turbine blade surfaces can also result in marked turbine performance
losses: copper oxide deposition on HP blades is another major issue. Feedwater system
availability and performance losses in many cases can also be attributed to the plant cycle
chemistry; in which case the most dangerous is flow-accelerated corrosion.
Major Turbine Problems Related to Steam Chemistry
Major turbine problems that are related to steam chemistry and condensation include: corrosion
fatigue of LP blades; stress corrosion cracking of disks at blade attachments; erosion-corrosion
of extraction piping, rotors and turbine casings, MW loss due to HP turbine deposits of copper
and phosphate, and LP turbine efficiency loss due to condensation and water droplet erosion of
wet stage blades. Table 6-19 summarizes the root causes and solutions to some of these
problems. (See Chapter 4 for further details)
Table 6-19
Root Causes, and Solutions to Steam Chemistry Related Problems in Turbines
Problem
Root Causes
Solutions
LP blade corrosion fatigue

(fossil and nuclear)
Design
Operation
Chemistry
Design-reduce vibrations, improve

steam chemistry, inject buffers
IGSCC of blade attachment

(fossil and nuclear)
Design
Operation
Chemistry
Redesign-lower stress, improve steam

chemistry, inject buffers, (shot
peening)
LP turbine efficiency loss

from moisture
Thermo-dynamics,
Design
Modification of condensation by
chemicals and by application of high
voltage, removal of moisture
MW loss due to copper

deposits in HP turbine
Cycle design with copper, high

boiler pressure, sensitive
turbines
Replace copper in HP heaters,

optimize chemistry, reduce boiler
pressure when copper is high, clean
SH, turbine chemical wash
MW loss due to HP+IP

phosphate deposits
Too much phosphate in high

pressure boiler steam
Reduce phosphate concentration in

boiler water, go to EPT or AVT (need
condensate polishers), turbine wash
with wet steam
Flow assisted corrosion in

wet steam-extraction, LP
rotors, nuclear turbine
casing
Acidified moisture drops, more

oxygen scavenger, greater flow
velocity and turbulence
Minimize or eliminate oxygen

scavenger, increase pH of moisture,
eliminate acids, use alloy steels,
reduce flow velocity and turbulence
Water droplet erosion of

blades
High % moisture, large droplets
Erosion resistant shields, reduction of

moisture, lower velocity and mass flow
(Ref. 6-111)
6-108

Deposition, Corrosion and Damage Mechanisms Specific to the LP Turbine

Approaches to reducing damage in the LP turbine include:
Reducing the concentration limits for sodium, chloride, and sulfate in steam to about 1
ppb each to avoid harmful deposits, as there is significant transport of these steam
impurities even in units with sodium and chloride levels of around 0.1 ppb.
Avoiding concentration of impurities, by evaporation of moisture (droplets and liquid

films) on surfaces, when the temperature is greater than the saturation temperature
It has been confirmed that there is no oxygen in the liquid films during operation (i.e., when the
damaging stress is applied). There can be concentrated liquid film solutions and deposits, but the
main driver is now believed to be due to the charge/potential produced by the electrostatics
within the phase transition zone (PTZ). The lack of any shutdown protection for the PTZ
surfaces results in moist oxygenated environments. This can lead to pitting, which is sometimes
the precursor to the corrosion mechanisms. Thus, even with the best operating chemistry and
almost no major deposits, serious corrosion may occur if adequate layup protection (dry air) is
not guaranteed. It is recognized that pitting can possibly also initiate during operation in crevice
areas such as blade attachments
All-Ferrous Feedwater Systems and Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)
While FAC is a function of hydrodynamic factors, temperature and metallurgy, and the oxide
processes are controlled by the electrochemical potential, the overall FAC process is heavily
influenced by the feedwater chemistry, which can be measured as an oxidizing/reducing
potential (ORP). Both the corrosion rate and the dissolution rate are controlled by this potential,
and increase in a reducing feedwater environment (where the ORP <0). This explains why
feedwater with very low oxygen (<1ppb) plus a reducing agent results in high levels of feedwater
corrosion products (>5 ppb). Removal of the reducing agent, and/or addition of oxygen (OT)
increases the ORP above zero in the feedwater (oxidizing potential). This step has the added
benefit of converting the magnetite to ferric oxide hydrate (FeOOH), with a solubility that is
orders of magnitude less than that for magnetite. This is the basis for oxygenated treatment
(OT). FAC cannot occur under such an oxidizing regime.
Mixed-Metallurgy Feedwater Systems and Problems Relating to Copper
As fossil plants get older and these plants have been asked to operate outside of their historical
envelope (overpressure operation, cycling, etc.), there has been a re-emergence of problems with
copper transport and deposition in the cycle which originally occurred on supercritical units in
the 1960s. For feedwater, the potential (ORP) again has the major influence. Under reducing
conditions (ORP around 300mV or lower), cuprous oxide (Cu2O) forms on most copper
alloys/brass surfaces as a protective (barrier) layer. Once the potential becomes oxidizing
(ORP>0), the surface layers convert to cupric oxide (CuO). The corrosion rate and dissolution
rate of copper into the feedwater increase by a factor of two as the ORP increases from 350mV
6-109

(equivalent to Type A) to 0mV (equivalent to Type B), and by another factor of two as the ORP
increases to above 100mV (equivalent to Type C). This is explained by a very marked increase
in surface area when changing from Cu2O to CuO. This point illustrates that protective
(reducing) conditions are required during shutdown, as cuprous oxide will convert very easily to
cupric oxide and produce massive amounts of corrosion products during startup.
Thus, mixed metallurgy systems must only use Type A feedwater chemistry, which maintains a
reducing environment under all operating regimes.
Guidelines
EPRI has published eleven guidelines for conventional plants, which deal with every aspect of
cycle chemistry (Table 6-20). These guidelines encompass five drum boiler water chemistries
and three major feedwater treatments, including specific variants for all-ferrous and mixed
metallurgy feedwater systems.
Table 6-20
Guidelines for Boiler Feedwater Treatment
Guideline
Type
Operating
Selection,
Process
and
Subject
Publication
Report
Number
Phosphate Treatment (EPT/PT)
1994
103665
All-Volatile Treatment (AVT)
1996
105041
Oxygenated Treatment (OT)
1994
102285
Caustic Treatment
1994
104007
Selection and Optimization .................................. 1997
105040
Transient Flow-Accelerated Corrosion ................................ 1997/8

Guidelines
106611
Cycling/Startup/Shutdown/Layup
1998
107754
Control of Copper in Fossil Plants
2000
1000457
Makeup
1999
113692
Guidelines Chemical Cleaning............................................... 1993
102401
Condensate Polishing.......................................... 1996
104422
Cycle
Support
Benchmarking
EPRI has developed benchmarking tools that can be used by power plants owners to assess the
quality for both their Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program (CCIP). As of the middle of 2002,
over 100 organizations/units/plants have used this approach to evaluate their cycle chemistry.
Among the parameters that are reviewed to develop CCIP rating are:
Size of thermal plant capacity
Occurrences of chemically influenced BTF
6-110

Occurrences of chemical influenced turbine problems
Occurrences of copper deposition in HP
Alarming of key control parameters in control room
Chemical cleaning frequency
Rate of addition of make-up water to the cycle
Cost of makeup water
Detailed Case Histories of Upgrades of Boiler Feedwater Systems

Boiler Makeup Water System Upgraded with Reverse Osmosis Unit at the 698 MW
Conectiv, Edge Moor Station
Figure 6-53
Two Pass Reverse Osmosis Retrofit
The new Edge Moor station boiler make-up water treatment system includes a two pass reverse
osmosis system with an intermediate degasifier and a heat exchanger to maintain a constant inlet
water temperature
6-111

Issues/Goal
The original boiler makeup water treatment system at the Edge Moor Station incorporated twin
bed (cation and anion) deionization (DI) followed by mixed bed deionization (MBDI). This
system was expensive to operate due to requirements for extensive operator and maintenance
staff time, the high cost of regenerant acid and caustic, and high resin replacement costs. In 1994,
Conectiv installed a single pass reverse osmosis (RO) unit ahead of the DI beds. This reduced the
number of regenerations from 30 per month to two per month. The RO installation paid for itself
within 18 months due to caustic savings alone. In 1998, Conectiv decided to further upgrade the
system by replacing the original DI twin beds with a two pass RO system to avoid the cost of
replacing the DI resin and to reduce labor costs.
Key Conclusions
The new two pass RO system has proven to be reliable and robust, as demonstrated by its
ability to meet plant makeup water needs during drought conditions (which increased the
dissolved solids levels in the supply water) in 1999
The costs of the latest 1994 modifications totaled about $180,000. The subsequent
modifications in 1998 cost on the order of $235,000.
The total savings are such that the station expects the new equipment to pay for itself within
three years
The design of the system incorporated the RO unit installed in 1994 as the second pass unit. This
unit was retrofitted to produce 190 gpm of final product water. A new first pass unit that could
produce 240 gpm of treated water to feed to the second pass unit was installed. The larger
capacity of the first RO is required to eliminate the potential for fouling and to balance the
system flow.
A forced draft degasifier was installed between the RO units to remove CO2. This results in
reduced anion loading and contributes to maximizing the length of the MBDI service runs as
well as extension of resin life. As a result, Conectiv was able to optimize the performance of the
water treatment system. In addition, a heat exchanger was installed to bring the inlet water
o
temperature to a consistent 75F (24 C). This eliminates changes in viscosity resulting from
seasonal feed water temperatures that can dramatically impact the output from the RO system.
Elimination of the original DI system eliminated more than 100 diaphragm valves and several
vacuum pumps that had required very frequent maintenance. Operating and maintenance labor
requirements have been reduced from 3 hours per day (five days per week) to 0.5 hours per day.
Full system regenerations have been reduced from two per month to six per year.
6-112

The Edge Moor plant in Edge Moor, DE contains a 446 MW oil/gas fired unit placed in service
in 1973 and two coal-fired units with capacities of 75 MW and 177 MW that were placed in
service in 1954 and 1966 respectively.
(Ref. 6-112)
Critical Assessment
The technology applications the described in the reference appear to be applicable and
potentially valuable to some fossil plants. However, it must be kept in mind that the source
water characteristics dictate the best treatment approach, for both new plant applications and
when considering upgrades to or replacement of makeup treatment systems at existing plants.
Economic considerations must always be made on a case-by-case basis, even in cases where the
source water characteristics appear to be very similar.
The following comments on the Edge Moor Plant system are made for the benefit of readers
contemplating similar issues in older fossil plants.
Pretreatment Equipment: Adequacy of existing equipment to be retained as part of an upgrade
project must always be verified as part of the assessment. In this instance, it seems likely that
such an assessment was made prior to the first reverse osmosis system retrofit in 1994. It is
unclear if the activated carbon and multimedia filters were both present prior to 1994, as
activated carbon filters followed by ion exchange equipment was a very common design
approach at the time the plant was designed and constructed. It seems likely that the secondary
(multimedia filters) were included as part of the 1994 retrofit project. However, this level of
pretreatment would not be adequate for many water supplies.
Heat Exchanger: Warmer water, ideally at constant temperature, enhances performance of
reverse osmosis and other membrane based technologies. One potential drawback to placement
of the heat exchanger ahead of the activated carbon filter is the possibility of biological growth in
the activated carbon media, unless the biofouling treatment is carefully controlled and monitored.
Forced Draft Degasifier: One drawback to degasifiers is that they saturate the water with
dissolved oxygen. This can be problematic in units with copper alloys. Also, for unit startups, it
is generally advisable to have a deoxygenated water supply for use in filling of equipment. This
can be accomplished by means of alternate technologies such as vacuum degasifiers or
membrane systems capable of removing both oxygen and carbon dioxide from the water.
Techniques to remove oxygen from water in storage are also available.
Twin Bed Ion Exchange Units: One possible disadvantage of eliminating the cation and anion
exchange units is that the plant is now entirely dependent on the reverse osmosis equipment for
makeup water production.
In general, the following overall approach should be followed when contemplating makeup
water treatment.
6-113

1. Define and characterize the water supply. Treatment requirements directly relate to the source
water type. In most instances, surface water, groundwater, or treated municipal water is used.
However, wastewater supplies are likely to be considered in the future as demands for water
increase. For a proper assessment, a detailed analysis of the source water, including any
significant seasonal variations in composition is highly desirable.
2.Evaluate pretreatment requirements. Water directed to any demineralization process (reverse
osmosis, ion exchange, continuous deionization, etc.,) usually will require some pretreatment of
the source water to remove those constituents that would otherwise interfere with the
demineralization process or would compromise the integrity of the media (membranes or resins
used).
3. Evaluate demineralization requirements. Technology advancements have resulted in several
alternatives to conventional ion exchange to remove dissolved solids from the makeup water.
Retrofitting of reverse osmosis equipment ahead of existing ion exchange equipment has proven
to be a popular and cost effective retrofit application at several older fossil plants.
4. Perform comparative economic analysis of technically satisfactory options. Normally, this
step is standard operating procedure, however, new technologies, innovative applications of
treatment technologies, and uncertainties concerning long term plans for fossil plants have
resulted in a multiplicity of options in many cases, making the economic review a very
challenging process.
For further details concerning makeup water treatment technology and treatment systems
configuration and assessment, readers are referred to Ref. 6-113.
Switching to Partial Oxygenated Treatment at the TVA Paradise Fossil Plant Saves $2.7
Million Annually by Eliminating Annual Chemical Cleaning
Pressure
Drop
Cumulative Days of Operation
Figure 6-54
Rapid Pressure Drop Buildup At the Paradise Fossil Plant With AVT
Pressure drop between the economizer inlet and the secondary superheater in Gallatin Unit 1
usually increased to the operating limit of approximately 900 psig within 100 to 300 days after
6-114

startup when All Volatile Treatment was used as indicated by the square symbols for several
typical runs. During operation with Oxygenated Treatment, the pressure drop remained essentially
constant at the startup value of about 750 psig for more than 1000 days
Issues/Goal
Boiler pressure drop problems due to heavy rippled magnetite deposits forming in the restrictor
tubes were experienced regularly by the three units (Units 1, 2, and 3) at TVAs Paradise fossil
power plant. These problems caused the units to be derated, usually within a year, so that they
could remain on-line within maximum pressure allowances. To improve overall unit
productivity, the units were switched to partial oxygenated treatment in early 1996.
Units 1 and 2 were built with low-pressure feedwater heaters that contain copper material that is
unsuitable for full oxygenated treatment. Therefore partial oxygenated treatment was
accomplished by injecting a low rate of oxygen downstream of the low-pressure heaters. Unit 3
was suitable for full OT, but TVA used the same approach in this Unit as they did with Units 1
and 2. Before initiating OT, the plant monitored the water to determine oxygen, copper, iron, and
nickel and also monitored boiler pressure drop. As part of the transition, hydrazine injection was
terminated one year prior to oxygen injection and all water chemistry parameters were within
guidelines.
Key Conclusions
After three years of OT, iron and copper transport were reduced from 2 ppb to 0.5 ppb. Nickel
concentration showed only a small decrease. Boiler pressure drop between the economizer inlet
and the secondary outlet maintained steady at 700- 800 psig. Previously pressure drops exceeded
maximum levels 200-300 days after chemical cleaning, requiring load reduction to stay in
operation
As a result of the positive experience with OT, its use will be continued at Paradise and
implemented at other TVA plants as conditions allow.
The capital cost of installing the OT system was minimal, involving only some piping changes.
Quantitative value of the improvement
The annual direct savings due to the elimination of the annual chemical cleaning of units 1 and 2
amounts to $474,000 each, and $700,000 for unit 3. The other savings primarily resulting from
reduced differential power purchase expenses, estimated at $6/MW, are $278,000, $349,000 and
$517,000 annually for units 1, 2, and 3 respectively. The annual savings resulting from switching
to partial oxygenated treatment total $2,794,000.
6-115

None of the three units has needed chemical cleaning during their last three annual outages since
partial OT was implemented. The savings of $2.7 million come from elimination of the cost of
chemicals for the cleaning, and for the treatment of the cleaning waste, reduced outage time
resulting from elimination of cleaning (3.5 days at $6/MWh differential power cost). The other
savings result from avoiding additional generation replacement costs as a result of shorter outage
clean-up times and shorter cold start-up times. No credit has been taken for eliminating the
damage that was done to the equipment during chemical cleaning, and for better heat transfer.
Other changes implemented in 1999 to further improve plant water system productivity include:
Changed to a reverse osmosis system from flash evaporators
Off-site regeneration of mixed bed due to environmental concerns
Reducing manpower by going to a single day chemist rather than several chemists per shift
TVAs Paradise Fossil Plant in Drakesboro, KY, has three coal-fired units with a total capacity
of 2558 MW. The capacities of Units 1 and 2, which began service in 1963 are 704 MW each.
Unit 3, which entered service in 1970 has a capacity of 1150 MW. The boilers are all B&W
once-through cyclone units. At the time of this work the fuel was a high-sulfur West Kentucky
coal.
(Ref. 6-114)
Critical Assessment
The units at Paradise represent a continuation of the success stories that have followed
conversion of fossil plant units to OT chemistry around the world. EPRI supported TVA
personnel in evaluating treatment options and converting to the partial OT program described.
Units 1 and 2 represented a special case in that copper alloy (Monel, which includes about 30%
copper) tubes were present in the low pressure feedwater part of the cycle. Operating guidelines
for OT developed by EPRI stipulate that candidate units for OT should be of all ferrous
metallurgy beyond the condensate polisher, another requirement as well as the ability to maintain
high feedwater purity standards. It was in consideration of this that the partial OT concept was
conceived.
The one year period of operation without hydrazine feed, now generally referred to as oxidizing
all volatile treatment or AVT(O), was conducted to evaluate copper corrosion and transport
activity in the low pressure feedwater part of the cycle and iron corrosion and transport in the
high pressure feedwater part of the cycle. An extended assessment of copper transport was
advised because of concerns that copper transport rates might be excessive. (Feedwater copper
concentrations of 2 ppb or less are normally achievable in units when the feedwater chemistry
has been optimized. Use of hydrazine or proprietary reducing treatment is indicated for units
with copper alloys in the feedwater system; this approach is referred to as reducing AVT or AVT
6-116

(R). Oxygen addition to the high pressure feedwater of units 1 and 2 was initiated only after
reliable operation of the low pressure feedwater part of the cycle on AVT(O) was demonstrated.
It is now estimated that over 90% of units with once through boilers around the world are
operating on OT. Also, some 80 drum-boiler units have been converted, generally to mitigate
serious flow accelerated corrosion activity. Virtually all conversions to OT in the last decade
have been made with assistance from EPRI, closely following the guidelines published in 1994
in Ref 6-115.
Chemical Process Indicators (CPIs) Provide the Key to Reducing Phosphate Hideout at
TVAs Gallatin Fossil Plant
Table 6-21
Chemical Indicators of Boiler Feedwater Problems
CPI
Name
Specification
Limit
Target
Significance
P1
Hotwell Cation
Conductivity
<0.15S/cm
<0.10S/cm
Used to detect
contamination leaking into
cycle
P2
Hotwell
Dissolved
Oxygen
20 ppb
10 ppb
Used to detect oxygen

leaking into the
condensate/feedwater
before it enters the low
pressure heaters
P3
Boiler Water
pH
>9.1
9.5
Ensures that protective

oxide coating on boiler tubes
is maintained
P4
#1 Heater
Outlet
Conductivity
<0.15S/cm
<0.10S/cm
Used to detect
contaminants entering the
system between the hotwell
and #1 heater outlet
P5
Makeup Water
Specific
Conductivity
<0.075S/cm
<0.06S/cm
Used to detect
contamination entering the
cycle through the make-up
water system
Issues/Goal
From the time they entered service in the mid-1950s until 1990, the four units at the TVAs
Gallatin plant were used for base load generation. After that period their duty cycle switched to
load-following generation. Following the change, severe phosphate hideout/return and pH
depressions/elevations were noted. To address the problem, the units were converted from
congruent phosphate to EPT (Equilibrium Phosphate Treatment) in 1995/1996. A continuous
program to upgrade the overall cycle was implemented.
6-117

Key Conclusions
There were a continuing number of improvements in the overall cycle that contributed to the
success of the EPT conversion including implementing the concept of Critical Process
Indicators, and improving makeup water supply and storage, condensate/condenser inleakage, and chemical feed controls.
In Units 1, 2, and 4, the improvements reduced phosphate hideout
In Unit 3, where previous deposits may have been excessive (resulting in boiler tube
failures), the improvements were not enough to reduce the hideout problem.
The use of analyzers to send information to operators in the control room, has reduced the
analytical work-force from four operators per weekday shift to less than one.
Continuous attention to maintaining the commitment to avoiding contaminants and oxygen

entering the water system is the key to continued success
Since the mid 1980s 25-45 different cycle chemistry parameters were sampled, analyzed and the
resulting data logged. This approach produced a tremendous amount of data that tended to
confirm known problems. Implementation of the CPI approach reduced the number of
parameters monitored to the five shown in Table 6-18.
Improvements were made to the system in the areas of:
Boiler water control

o If pH was 9.5 and dropping, and phosphate residual >0.5 ppm, add dosage of
NaOH to elevate pH
o If pH was 9.5 and dropping, and phosphate residual <0.5 ppm, add dosage of trisodium phosphate
o Blow down the mud drums (both furnaces 5000 gallons each) at low loads when
conductivity >45uS (at low load).
This approach was successful in Units 1, 2, and 4. It was not successful in Unit 3 perhaps due
to the existence of heavy deposits in locations not normally sampled for deposits.
Makeup water production quality. Existing on-site regenerated demineralizer was

replaced with dual media filtration softening, 2-pass Reverse Osmosis, and off-site
regenerated demineralizers
Makeup water storage. New above ground storage tanks were installed to replace belowground storage (located below the powerhouse floor) that was contaminated with
powerhouse floor washings, leaking powerhouse floor drains, and condensation of
condensate return on the tank roof.
6-118

Elimination of condensate and condenser in-leakage. Leakage detection systems utilize

trace gas detection
Feedwater ammonia control. Previously, the ammonia injection rate was adjusted
manually once per day to control pH. At low loads, this resulted in higher than desired
pH and ammonia levels, which resulted in reported damage to ferrous low-pressure
heaters and Monel high-pressure heaters. The injection process was automated by using a
specific conductivity signal on the economizer inlet to automatically adjust the ammonia
feed pump.
TVAs Gallatin Fossil Plant has four coal-fired units with current rated capacities of 230 MW.
These units are all CE, drum type, controlled-circulation boilers. Until 1990 they operated as
base load units with continuous blowdown in service at 2150 psig. Units 1 and 2 each had an
original nameplate capacity of 300 MW and were placed in service in 1956 and 1957
respectively. Units 3 and 4 had original nameplate ratings of 328 MW each and were placed in
service in 1959. All of the units have been operated recently at somewhat reduced steam
temperatures. They now fire western coal.
(Ref. 6-116)
Critical Assessment
The experience at Gallatin should be of interest to personnel operating older fossil units. In
general, the improvements followed are consistent with Ref. 6-117. One point that should be
clarified is that observations of phosphate hideout activity are not necessarily an indicator of an
ongoing boiler tube corrosion problem. This was found to frequently be the case in boilers
treated with disodium and/or monosodium phosphates, when trying to maintain congruent
phosphate treatment. In the phosphate treatments endorsed by EPRI, the boiler water is treated
only with trisodium phosphate and, if needed for pH control, sodium hydroxide. Properly
controlled, these programs are not subject to tube damage by the acid phosphate corrosion or
caustic gouging mechanisms. Phosphate hideout and hideout return are still possible, if chemical
additions in the boiler water exceed the solubility tolerance of the individual boiler; EPRI refers
to such treatment as phosphate treatment (PT). A testing protocol must be followed to determine
the phosphate solubility limit in the boiler at full load; if this level is determined and maintained,
no appreciable hideout and hideout return should be observed; EPRI refers to such treatment as
equilibrium treatment or EPT.
In many units, the test protocol to appraise phosphate tolerance of the boiler is not performed or
the tolerance is found to be extremely low (< 0.5 ppm as PO4). In the former case, a boiler
thought to be on EPT may actually be on PT. Phosphate hideout and phosphate return is possible
with chemistry trends similar to those reported in the boilers at Gallatin. Underdeposit corrosion
by acid phosphates or caustic will not develop under these conditions. The observations of
continued hideout in Unit 3 boiler may have been influenced by the presence of heavy deposits
on the waterwalls; it is generally desirable to chemically clean a boiler prior to a change in the
6-119

boiler water treatment. It was reported also that hydrogen damage failures developed in this
boiler. Boiler tube failures due to hydrogen damage suggest the presence of cycle
contamination, which could also account for the continued pattern of hideout and hideout return
following conversion to EPT. Care must be taken when applying EPT in units prone to cycle
contamination due to the limited ability of the treatment to buffer the pH; use of PT or caustic
treatment is generally preferred if cycle contamination is a chronic problem. For further
information on this subject, readers are referred to Ref 6-117.
The noted improvements in makeup water treatment and storage and minimization of condensate
and condenser air in-leakage are consistent with preferred practices for reliable unit operation.
Conversion of a boiler to EPT chemistry without such improvements would have been very
unlikely to have improved the situation at Gallatin and would have rendered all of the boilers
more vulnerable to hydrogen damage. Adaptation of Chemical Process Indicators at the plant is
generally consistent with the EPRI philosophy that effective surveillance and control can be
accomplished with a relatively small core of reliable on-line analyzers (ideally monitored and
alarmed in the control room), provided that the program also includes chemistry action levels
with response procedures to be implemented if the action levels are exceeded.
Constellation Energy units Brandon Shores 2 and Wagner 4, use Oxygen Reduction
Potential (ORP), to Control Hydrazine Injection and Sharply Reduce Iron and Copper
Corrosion Rates
Figure 6-55
ORP Utilized as a Water Chemistry Control Parameter
ORP Values are maintained in the reducing range of (0 to -150mV) by hydrazine addition at the
Wagner Unit 4. This automatic control dramatically reduces transport of iron and copper.
Issues/Goal
The chemical treatment of choice for all-ferrous systems is either oxygenated treatment (OT) or
all-volatile treatment (AVT) without the addition of an oxygen scavenger. However, the
chemical treatment for mixed metallurgy systems is often a compromise between controlling
both copper and iron corrosion. A highly reducing atmosphere is preferred to prevent copper
6-120

corrosion and a slightly oxidizing atmosphere is preferred to minimizing iron transport. AVT
with an oxygen scavenger and an amine is the treatment normally applied. Oxygen Reduction
Potential (ORP) is an important control tool in optimizing the treatment program to control
corrosion in condensate and feedwater systems. To prevent copper carryover on highpressure
drum boilers (above 2400 psig), a negative ORP should be maintained through proper deaeration
and oxygen scavenger addition.
At Brandon Shores Unit 2 of Constellation Energy Group, automatic control of hydrazine
injection, based on continuous measurements of ORP, was introduced to resolve these issues. At
the H. A. Wagner Unit 4, measurement of ORP and dissolved oxygen was adopted as the basis
for manually setting the hydrazine feed rate rather then relying on grab sample hydrazine
analysis.
Key Conclusions
ORP has been used to automatically control hydrazine addition at Brandon Shores Unit 2.
This minimizes both iron and copper corrosion by maintaining a slightly reducing
environment. The ORP is kept in the range of 50 to 150 mV with a set point of -100mV
under normal operation. Manual control is used during start-up to maintain a hydrazine
residual.
A reducing environment can be maintained with a relatively small hydrazine residual during
normal operation with a properly operating deaerator and control of condenser air in-leakage.
This allows for a small amount of oxygen to be maintained to minimize iron corrosion.
Degradation of turbine performance due to copper deposition at Brandon Shores has not been
evident since hydrazine addition was reestablished after turbine cleaning. The boiler has not
been chemically cleaned since its pre-operational cleaning in 1991.
Monitoring ORP and better control of dissolved oxygen have dramatically reduced corrosion
rates and transport to the boiler at H.A. Wagner Unit 4.
The transition to an automatic ORP monitoring and control system, similar to the one used at
Brandon Shores, would cost something less than $10,000. The overall cost to convert would
depend on the need to purchase additional probes, ORP analyzer or controllers, and the ability of
existing control room equipment to process signals from the ORP measuring system and to
deliver signals to the hydrazine injection pump. The hydrazine pump would have to be equipped
with an automatic controller. Controller programming and tuning would have to be included in
the project cost.
Value of the Modification
The savings from adopting the ORP-based control system result from using less chemicals due to
finer control over the system, faster response to system changes, minimizing copper carryover,
lower boiler tube deposits, more infrequent chemical cleanings and reduced manpower with
fewer grab samples analyses.
6-121

At Brandon Shores Unit 2 of Constellation Energy Group, a base loaded, all-ferrous feedwater
heater unit with a copper/nickel condenser, the initial boiler water treatment was all-volatile
consisting of hydrazine injection for oxygen removal and ammonia addition for pH control.
Based on the successful reduction in iron corrosion in unit 1, hydrazine injection was
discontinued on Unit 2. Unit 2 experienced copper carryover from the steam drum and fouling on
the high-pressure turbine resulting from the oxidation of copper in the boiler drum. Hydrazine
addition was reestablished to remove dissolved oxygen when copper carryover was identified.
Manual adjustment based on grab sample analyses was insufficient to be an effective control
technique. Control based on an on-line hydrazine analyzer had not been satisfactory due to
problems with the accuracy of the analyzer and the large amount of maintenance required to
keep it in operation.
Automatic control of hydrazine injection, based on continuous measurements of ORP, was
introduced to resolve this issue. Several iterations were necessary to properly tune the controller
settings to make the system function properly. There was a significant time lag in the system,
since hydrazine addition was just downstream of the condensate demineralizers while the ORP
measurements were made at the deaerator inlet and economizer inlet.
H. A. Wagner Unit 4, a cycling (200 starts /year), mixed metallurgy unit, initially used allvolatile water feedwater treatment with hydrazine and ammonia. A switch was subsequently
made from hydrazine to catalyzed hydrazine to react with high levels of dissolved oxygen that
occurred with frequent startups. Due to high corrosion product transport and heavy boiler tube
deposits, sulfate contamination and previous hydrogen damage required frequent chemical
cleaning of the boiler. Measurement of ORP and dissolved oxygen was adopted as the basis for
manually setting the hydrazine feed rate rather then relying on grab sample hydrazine analysis.
Cycling of the H. A. Wagner unit caused the oxygen in the condensate to be high during start-up.
Maintaining a sufficient hydrazine residual in the feedwater is difficult with high levels of
dissolved oxygen and large changes in feedwater flow during startup. High hydrazine levels also
contribute to elevated pH and copper corrosion. ORP measurement was used in conjunction
with hydrazine addition to reduce corrosion and avoid corrosion product transport to the boiler.
The ORP measurement provides the information needed by the operator during start-up to
manually adjust hydrazine injection. The target is to maintain a slightly negative ORP in the
range of 0 to -100mV.
6-122

There are a number of limitations that should be evaluated when considering an automated
oxygen scavenger control system using ORP including:
Variations in the hydrazine day tank concentrations could impact the ability of the pump to
respond over its working range
Condenser air in-leakage variations, changes in condensate flow rates, and makeup to the
hotwell will all greatly impact oxygen condensate levels
High feedwater dissolved oxygen may be caused by inefficient deaerator performance or

insufficient hydrazine residual, which will require a higher hydrazine feed to overcome the
elevated oxygen levels and may cause the ORP to spike or swing
Lag time between the point of hydrazine injection and the sample point for ORP
Competing reactions between oxygen and reducing agents in the water
Brandon Shores Unit 2 is a 680 MW unit that began commercial operation in May 1991. It is a
base loaded, B&W natural circulation, drum unit operating at 2750 psig. The unit is equipped
with a full flow, in-line demineralizer, carbon and stainless steel feedwater heaters, and with
90/10 copper nickel tubing in the main cooling section and 70/30 copper/nickel tubing in the air
removal section of the condenser.
H. A. Wagner Unit 4 is a 415 MW unit that began commercial operation in 1972.
It is an oil-fired, cycling unit that follows load during the day and is off or at minimum load
overnight. A titanium condenser was installed in 1994 to replace a copper/nickel unit. The unit
has only two low-pressure feedwater heaters, one carbon steel and one admiralty brass.
(Ref. 6-119)
Critical Assessment
EPRI investigations have confirmed that inclusion of a reducing agents (still commonly, albeit
incorrectly referred to as oxygen scavengers) in the feedwater treatment program is essential
when copper alloys are present in the heaters. EPRI refers to this treatment as reducing AVT, or
AVT(R). Hydrazine or other reducing agents may be used for this purpose. Further, research
sponsored by EPRI has demonstrated the importance of maintaining the reducing environment
under all operating conditions. This is exactly the opposite of all ferrous cycles, where the
chemistry should be maintained oxidizing, by not feeding any reducing agent, called oxidizing
AVT or AVT(O) or possibly, where allowable, utilizing oxygenated treatment (OT).
Evaluation of fossil plant feedwater chemistry treatment options has determined that ORP
monitoring is the only way to verify that the desired reducing environment exists. Control
philosophies based on measurement of dissolved oxygen and/or the reducing agent cannot assure
the presence of reducing conditions. Further, ORP monitoring has shown that a reducing
6-123

environment is possible when low but definable levels of oxygen are present in the water. For
this reason, it is very important to control air inleakage so as to assure levels of oxygen in the
condensate are <10 ppb, which makes it possible to establish the reducing environment in the
low pressure feedwater part of the cycle.
In future EPRI Cycle Chemistry Guidelines, ORP will be designated a core monitoring
parameter, but only for mixed metallurgy units. Conversely, ORP monitoring is not needed in all
ferrous cycles. The target value for ORP in cycles with copper will be 350 to 300 mV,
measured at the deaerator inlet if the design includes a deaerator.
Brief Case Histories of Upgrades of Boiler Feedwater Systems
Georgia Power Extends Boiler Cleaning Intervals with Oxygenated Treatment
A number of companies have converted their plants from AVT to OT. At Georgia Power's 865
MW supercritical Wansley unit 1, iron transport was reduced after conversion by approximately
65% and internal waterwall scale density decreased to 50% of the levels that had been
experienced previously with AVT. This allows an increase in the intervals between chemical
cleaning of the boiler from three to ten years. Among the other advantages were reductions in the
cost of hydrazine and reduced startup times that result from the lower levels of iron in the water.
(Ref. 6-120)
OT Reduces Boiler Corrosion at TU Electric
TU Electric concluded that converting their units from AVT to OT would reduce corrosion and
corrosion related problems, shorten startups, and improve heat rate. They converted their first
unit, Tradinghouse unit 2, in 1992 and were scheduled to complete conversion of a total of
fifteen units by the end of 1997. Their experience with AVT treatment was that large amounts of
preboiler corrosion products were forming, resulting in transport and deposit of the corrosion
products that impaired the performance of boiler feedpumps, feedwater heaters and boilers.
These deposits increased pressure drop, reduced heat transfer, and required chemical cleaning to
remove. At the Tradinghouse unit, they observed lower pressure drops across the boiler,
extended intervals between boiler chemical cleanings, reduced feedpump maintenance, improved
powdered resin bed polisher performance and shortened startup times. (Ref. 6-121)
BG&E Uses Isokinetic Sampling to Monitor Reheat Steam Composition
Baltimore Gas and Electric (now Constellation Energy) successfully tested an isokinetic
sampling system (Figure 6-44) to monitor the composition of reheat steam at the Wagner
Generating Station unit 3. Utilization of this device provided more consistent and reliable results
than the simple surface tap that had been used previously. It was designed for use in drum and
once-through units for both saturated and superheated steam. (Ref. 6-122)
6-124

Figure 6-56
Isokinetic Steam Sampling Device
This device provides an improved method of obtaining representative steam samples from both
drum and once through units. (Ref. 6-122)
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS

General Discussion
Clearly the instrumentation and control of the entire plant largely determines the mechanical and
chemical demands on the equipment. Though a detailed discussion of I&C is beyond the scope
of this section, temperature sensing is of particular importance in understanding plant
performance. Proper calibration of temperature monitoring instruments is required to prevent
drift and the possible use of inaccurate information for unit control. Cost related impacts from
the use of incorrect information have been estimated. For example, an error of 10F (5.5C) on
the high side at 1000F (538C) could increase heat rate by 10-20 Btu/kWh (10.5-21kJ/kWh) and
an error of the same magnitude in the opposite direction could reduce the creep lifetime of the
boiler tubes by approximately 25%. Decisions to perform instrument calibration today are
primarily driven by preventative maintenance (PM) programs that are periodic, not when
instruments truly need attention. (Ref. 6-123)
Brief Case Histories of Refurbishments and Upgrades of Instrumentation and
Controls
Temperature Sensor Reliability and Accuracy Studies at PG&E and Duke Power
PG&E tested 26 resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), 4 type J thermocouples (TCs) and 4
type K (TCs) for a period of 19 months in the superheat steam temperature zone of 10 fossil gasfired power plants. High temperature (1000 -1050F, 538-566C), and high vibration impacted
these sensors. Every two months the RTDs and TCs were removed, calibrated off-line, and
6-125

reinstalled in a different location. RTDs have had a history of short lifetimes and poor
performance in these high temperature, high vibration applications.
RTD drift rates ranged from about 0.1 to 2F (0.05 to 1.1C)/month. RTD failures due to open
circuit or off scale resistance readings occurred in 7 sensors in less than 2 months, 7 in longer
than 19 months, with 11 months as the median. It was concluded that handling of RTDs for
calibration led to excessive failures and over-estimates of RTD drift rate in the plant, and that
off-line calibration of thermocouples obscured the true drift rate. (Ref. 6-124)
Duke Power has developed a methodology for calibration interval determination in fossil coalfired and nuclear plants and in-house calibration facilities to support pressure, temperature, and
flow instrumentation. Long (250ft, 77m) continuous-lead (CL) type J thermocouples, were
developed to eliminate compensating extension wire mismatch, and connection head temperature
errors of 1 to 2F (0.5 to 1.1C). One thousand of these CL type J TCs which were calibrated to
1050F (566C) every 1-2 years since before 1979 show 0.25F (0.14C) agreement year-to-year
and provide field accuracy of 0.58F (0.32C). Laboratory calibration of RTDs shows an
uncertainty of 0.15F (0.08C) and field accuracy to 0.30F (0.17C).
The conclusions and recommendations resulting from this work are:
RTDs
Reliability of RTDs for superheat steam at 1000 F (538C) can be increased from a mean
time to failure of less than 9 months to greater than 19 months by qualification and proper
handling of the RTDs. Drift can be reduced by a factor of ten by proper design choices and
fabrication methods. Also, predictable operation of RTDs requires preconditioning, i.e.
installation at the highest operating temperatures several hours before calibration.
A plant temperature accuracy goal of +/-1.5F (0.8C) at 1000 F (538C) is achievable.
RTDs can achieve this accuracy goal initially but may drift more than 1.5F (0.8C) in 3
months and may fail in 8-9 months.
RTD drift measurement and prediction is expensive, time consuming, and biased by the use
of different off-line methods.
In situ, on-line, continuous calibration of RTDs using Johnson Noise can eliminate drift
greater than +/-2F (1.1C)at present and probably better in the future
RTD reliability goals of 18-36 months mean time to failure could be met by procurement of
qualified RTDs.
RTDs should be preconditioned for several hours at highest operating temperature before
calibration and installations
RTDs should be drifted and calibrated in-situ. This avoids handling abuse and deals with all
process stresses - vibration, thermal cycling - and includes signal processor alignment.
6-126

TCs
TCs are less accurate, drift more, are more difficult to restore accuracy, but are less likely to
fail in service.
Maintaining accuracy goals requires accurate drive monitoring and prediction
TCs should not be preconditioned or precalibrated.
TCs should be calibrated in situ to avoid inhomogeneity effects or replaced with unused TCs.
(Ref. 6-125)
TVA Installs A Distributed Control System at Kingston Unit 9
Successful retrofit of the 200 MW Kingston unit 9 CE coal fired boiler with a Distributed
Control System (DCS) has provided significant benefits to TVA since it went on line in 1995.
These include a reduction in unit heat rate of 2.7%, a reduction in unit carbon loss from 6 to 3%,
a NOx reduction of 25% as a result of more precise control, 3% per minute load swings over a
50% daily load range, and a reduction in minimum load from 100MW to 60MW. This project
was facilitated by the ability of the operators to train on a DCS simulator. (Ref. 6-126)
REFERENCES
6-1
NDE Guidelines for Fossil Power Plants, EPRI Report TR-108450, September 1997.
6-2
Survey of Feed Pump Outages, EPRI Report FP-754, April 1978.
6-3
Troubleshooting, Boiler Feedpump Operation and Maintenance Guideline, Volume 1, EPRI
Report TR-104292-VI, September 1993.
6-4
Boiler Feedpump Operation and Maintenance Guidelines, EPRI Report TR-104292 Volume 2,
September 1994.
6-5
Utilities Improve Boiler Feedpump Reliability, EPRI Innovators IN-104511, December 1995.
6-6
EPRI "SWAT" Team Reduces Feedpump Unscheduled Outages at Three PP&L Units, EPRI
6-127

6-7
Operation and Maintenance Guidelines for Draft Fans, EPRI Report TR-101698, January
1993.
6-8
Control of Fan Erosion in Coal-Fired Power Plants: Phase 2 Report, EPRI Report CS-6068,
November 1988.
6-9
Steam: Its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox, 161 East 42nd Street, New York, NY
10017, 1978.
6-10
PEPCO Uses New Air Heater Operating Procedures to Reduce Unit O&M Costs, EPRI
Innovators IN-1000028, October 1991.
6-11
FMAC (EPRI Fossil Maintenance Applications Center) Memo, October 2001, Page 15
6-12
Pete Massa, Lyndell Fuller, and Tim Buckley, Portable Coal Crushers Resolve Frozen Coal
Problem; Power Engineering, November 2001, Pages 121-124
6-13
1980 National Conference and Workshop on Coal Freezing, EPRI WS-80-119, December
1980.
6-14
Survey of the State of the Art of Coal Handling during Freezing Weather, EPRI CS-1780,
April 1981.
6-15
Michael Schimmelpfennig and Daniel Mahr, AmerenUE, Coal Unloading and Transshipment
Facilities Enhance Viability of PRB Coal, Power Engineering, February 2002, Pages 71-74
6-16
Coal Chute Flow Monitoring System Developed at Eddystone, EPRI Innovators IN-102802,
December 1994.
6-17
Pulverizer Failure Cause Analysis, EPRI Report FP-1226, December 1979.
6-18
POWER May/June 2001, Pages 26-27
6-128

6-19
Rabon, T. R., Inspection of Chimneys for Carolina Power and Light Company, Proceedings:
American Power Conference. Vol. 57-2, 1995.
6-20
Brannen, W. F., Kasperski, E. and Topor, T., Condition Assessment Inspection of Concrete
Chimneys,Proceedings, American Power Conference. Vol. 57-2, 1995.
6-21
Center Lines, Volume 7; Number 5, EPRI NDE Center, Charlotte, NC. 2nd Quarter 1996.
6-22
Header Feedwater Heaters Adopted In United States, EPRI Technology Brief TB-102286,
January 1994.
6-23
L. Neel, Cycling to Failure: Feedwater Heaters, Power Engineering, Nov. 1, 1997.
6-24
Manual for Investigation and Correction of Feedwater Heater Failures, EPRI Report GS7390, September 1991.
6-25
Leeth DePriest and Danny Walker, Benefits of Feedwater Heater Performance Monitoring at
Georgia Powers Plant Hammond, EPRI Feedwater Heater Technology Seminar And
Symposium, October 11, 2001
6-26
AMS Alerts Operators When Feedwater Leaks, Power Engineering, Nov. 1, 1998.
6-27
Header Type Feedwater Heater Retrofit Tackles Cycling Problem at Glenwood Unit 5, EPRI
Innovators IN-100883, October 1992.
6-28
Header Feedwater Heaters Improve Cycling Capability, Reliability, and Availability, EPRI
Innovators IN-106883, January 1997.
6-29
New Fe-Cr-Ni-Mo Austenitic Alloy Tubing Helps Utility Improve Life of High Pressure
Feedwater Heaters, EPRI Innovators IN-101248, December 1992.
6-30
Pulsed Acoustics as an Innovative Alternative to Oxidizing Biocides for Biofouling Control,
EPRI Report GC- 110127, December 1998.
6-129

6-31
Tsou, J. L., New Methods for Analyzing Condenser Performance, Proceedings: 1994 Heat Rate
Improvement Conference, EPRI Report TR-104241-V3, June 1995.
6-32
Woff, Paul J.; March, Patrick A.; Pearson, Hubert S.; Terrell, James and Almquist, Charles W.;
Using Condenser Performance Measurements to Optimize Condenser Cleaning, Proceedings:
1996 Heat Rate Improvement Conference, EPRI TR-106529, May 1996.
6-33
Morris, L.; Echols, J.; DeMarco, J.; Baum, C. and Carrol, J., On-Line Mechanical
Condenser Tube Cleaning, Proceedings: Condenser Technology Conference, EPRI Report
TR-106781, August 1996.
6-34
Medina, C., Bennett, B., and Thornton, M., Development, Application and Assessment of
Improved Condenser Leak Detection Program at Brayton Point, Proceedings: Condenser
Technology Conference, EPRI Report TR-106781, August 1996.
6-35
On-line Condenser Fouling Monitor Development, EPRI Report TR-109232, December 1997.
6-36
ABCs of Condenser Technology, EPRI Report TR-104512, August 1994
6-37
Fred Maner, JEA Trims Condenser Air In-Leakage and Realizes Significant Savings, Power
Engineering, November 2001, Pages 115-118
6-38
Condenser Leak-Detection Guidelines Using Sulfur Hexafluoride as a Tracer Gas, EPRI
Report CS-6014
6-39
EPRI Fossil Plant News, Pages 1-2, Spring 1998.
6-40
Siney, K. et al, Gorgas Team Battles Condenser Tube Problems, Power Engineering, May 1,
1999.
6-41
Dodson, D., SS Tubes Aid Troubled Condenser, Power Engineering, June 1, 1999.
6-42
Buecker, B., Loper, E. Selecting Condenser Replacement Tubes, Power Engineering, March 1,
1996.
6-130

6-43
In-Situ Coating of Condenser Tubes as an Alternative to Retubing, EPRI Report TR-107068,
September 1997.
6-44
Bell, R. J. and Hardy, C. D., Investigations of Condenser Deficiencies Utilizing State-of -theArt Test Instrumentation and Modeling Techniques and Results from Post Modification
Testing, Pages 20-1 to 20-33, Proceedings: 1996 Heat Rate Improvement Conference, EPRI
Report TR-106529, May 1996.
6-45
Condenser Performance Test Facility Confirms Benefits of LILCO Cleaning Procedure, EPRI
6-46
Energy Information Agency, ww.eia.doe.gov
6-47
Performance Monitoring of Power Plant Operations. Power Engineering, August 1998.
6-48
Burger, R., Cooling Towers, the Overlooked Energy Conservation Profit Center, Proceedings:
American Power Conference. Vol. 57-2, 1998.
6-49
Cuchens, J. W. and Vansickle, R. J., Crossflow Cooling Tower Improvement, Proceedings:
Cooling Tower Technology Conference, EPRI Report TR-108483, July 1997.
6-50
Tom Odenthal, Texas Power Plant Upgrade Restore Lost Megawatts to Meet Summer
Demand, Power Engineering, March 2002, pages 49-50
6-51
Increasing Electricity Availability from Coal-Fired Generation in the Near-Term, National
Coal Council Report to the Secretary of Energy, May 2001.
6-52
Improving Existing Fossil-Fired Power Plants. Volumes 1 and 2, EPRI Report TR-109342,
March 1998.
6-53
POWER, May/June 2001, Pages 76-79
6-54
POWER, March/April 2001, pages 103-104
6-131

6-55
POWER, September/October 2001, Pages 19-24
6-56
Lees Jr., U. A., and Cooper Jr., J. W., Cost Effective Thermal Performance Upgrade of the
Calloway Plant Cooling Tower, Proceedings: Cooling Tower and Advanced Cooling Systems
Conference, EPRI Report TR-104867, February 1995.
6-57
Smith, J. O. and Muder, M., ComEd Byron Generating Station Unit 1 Crossflow to
Counterflow Conversion, Proceedings: Cooling Tower Technology Conference, EPRI Report
TR-108483, July 1997.
6-58
Liffick, G. W. and Cooper, J. W., Thermal Performance Upgrade of the Arkansas Nuclear One
Cooling Tower: A Root Cause Analysis Approach, Proceedings: American Power Conference.
Vol. 57-2, 1995.
6-59
Steam Treatment of Zebra Mussels, EPRI Report TR-105203s, December 1995.
6-60
Zebra Mussel Control Using Periodic Chlorine Dioxide Treatment, EPRI Report TR105202s,
November 1995.
6-61
Zebra Mussel Control Using Periodic Clam-Trol 2 Treatments, EPRI Report TR-107084,
December 1996.
6-62
Nontoxic Foul-Release Coatings Help Utility Reduce O&M Costs for Cooling Water Intake
Systems, EPRI Innovators IN-100297, November 1991.
6-63
Nontoxic Foul-Release Coatings to Reduce Condenser Macrofouling, EPRI Innovators IN103476, December 1994.
6-64
Haynes, B. J. and Medina, E. A., Redesign of Steam Cycles for Improvement, Proceedings:
1998 Heat Rate Improvement Conference, EPRI Report TR-111047, September 1998.
6-65
EPRI Macrofouling Guidelines Help Northeast Utilities Improve Unit's Intake Structure,
EPRI Innovators IN-100496, April 1993.
6-132

6-66
Mitchell F. J., and Miller, M. J., On-line Performance Monitoring of the Natural Draft Cooling
Tower at Cardinal Plant, Proceedings: 1998 Heat Rate Improvement Conference, EPRI Report
6-67
Controlling SO2 Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants, EPRI Brochure BR-106807, 1996.
6-68
FGD Maintenance Guidelines, Volume 2, FGD Maintenance Information, EPRI Report CS4699, July 1986.
6-69
Installation of Thin Sheet Wallpaper Lining in Air Pollution and Other Process Equipment,
NACE Publication RP0292-92
6-70
The Guidelines for FGD Materials Selection and Corrosion Protection; Vols. 1 and 2, EPRI
Report TR-100680, March 1993.
6-71
www.eia.doe.gov
6-72
FGD optimization Workbook Final Report, EPRI, TR-111118
6-73
FGD Mist Eliminator System Design and Specification Guide, EPRI Report TR-102864s,
December 1993.
6-74
FGD Mist Eliminator System Troubleshooting Manual, EPRI Report GS-6984, October 1990.
6-75
FGD Chemistry and Analytical Methods Handbook, EPRI Report CS-3612, Vol. 1, Rev. 1,
August 1990.
6-76
High Efficiency Flue Gas Desulfurization Guidelines, EPRI Report TR-104597, December
1994.
6-77
F. Adamczyk, Ch. Kortz , and D. Kirmse, Lignite Power Plants to Increase the Efficiency and
to Reduce CO2 Emissions; VGB/EPRI Conference Lignite and Low Rank Coals: Operational
and Environmental Issues in a Competitive Climate, May 16-18, 2001, Wiesbaden, Germany
6-133

6-78
James G. Keppelar, Carbon Burn-Out, an Update on Commercial Application,
http://www.flyash.org/2001/ashpdf/061.pdf, University of Kentucky, International Ash
Utilization Symposium, September 2001
6-79
Bullinger, C.; Ness, M, Lignite Fuel Enhancement Moisture Reduction, EPRI/VGB
Conference on Lignites and Low Rank Coals: Proceedings 2001, EPRI Report 1006879, 2002
6-80
Development Plan for Advanced Fossil Fuel Power Plants, EPRI Report CS-4029, May 1985
6-81
EPRI Mist Elimination Research Helps Kansas City Power and Light to Improve Operation
and Reduce Cost, EPRI Innovators IN-104367, December 1994.
6-82
EPRI Mist Elimination Research Helps Cincinnati Gas and Electric Reduce Operating Costs,
6-83
Bypass Mix Zone Proves to be a Tough Environment for State-of-the-Art Materials, EPRI
6-84
Proceedings EPRI/DOE/EPA Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium: The Megasymposium,
EPRI Report TR-113187, August 1999.
6-85
Meeting the Particulate Control Challenge, EPRI Brochure BR-104360, 1994.
6-86
Bibbo, P. P., EPRICON: Agentless Flue Gas Conditioning for Electrostatic PercipitatorsA
Technology and Experience Update, Proceedings American Power Conference. Vol. 57-1,
1995.
6-87
Bush, P. V., Advantages of Humidification for Pollution Control, Proceedings: American
Power Conference. Vol. 57-1, 1995
6-88
Trebbi, G. and Padera, B. G., Pulse Energization: A New Look at an Attractive Technology for
Upgrading ESP Performance, Proceedings: American Power Conference. Vol. 57-1, 1995
6-89
Guidelines for Upgrading Electrostatic Precipitator Performance, Volume 1 Optimizing an
Existing Electrostatic Precipitator, EPRI TR-113582-V1, September 1999
6-134

6-90
Ralph Altman, George Offen, Wayne Buckley and Dr. Isaac Ray, Wet Electrostatic
Precipitation Demonstrating Promise for Fine Particulate Control-Part 1, Power Engineering,
January 2001
6-91
Ralph Altman, EPRI, Wayne Buckley and Dr. Isaac Ray, Wet Electrostatic Precipitation
Demonstrating Promise for Fine Particulate Control-Part 2 Power Engineering, February 2001
6-92
Demonstration of Hybrid Wet/Dry Electrostatic Precipitator, EPRI Report 1004607, November
2001
6-93
Intermittent Energization Reduces Power Consumption, Emissions for Oklahoma Gas and
Electric, EPRI Innovators IN-100780, August 1992.
6-94
New Technologies Keep Hot-Side ESP in Compliance, EPRI Innovators IN-101514, December
1992.
6-95
Successful Use of Wide Plate Spacing Technology Saves ESP Rebuild Costs, EPRI Innovators,
6-96
Baghouse Monitor Improves Baghouse Reliability and Performance, EPRI Innovators IN100057, October 1991
6-97
An Assessment of Mercury Emissions from U.S. Coal-fired Power Plants, EPRI Report
1000608, November 2000
6-98
Mercury Sorbent Effectiveness and Cost: An EPRI Synopsis, SP-113805, October 1999
6-99
Mercury Sorbent Effectiveness and Cost: An EPRI Synopsis, Supplement 1, Report 1000303,
October 2000
6-100
Power Engineering, February 2001, Pages 28-31
6-101
Alternative By-Products from Flue Gas Desulfurization System, EPRI Report ID-1004611,
Nov. 2001.
6-135

6-102
Ash Beneficiation to Remove Ammonia for Ash Use in Concrete, EPRI ID-1004609, Nov.
2001.
6-103
Coal Ash Carbon Removal Technologies, EPRI ID-1006565, Nov. 2001.
6-104
Omega Mine Injection Program, Monongalia County, West Virginia, EPRI ID-1004032, Aug.
2001.
6-105
Impact of Mercury Control on Coal Combustion By-Product Utilization, EPRI ID-1004610,
Dec. 2001.
6-106
CANMET/ Industry Research Consortium on Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity in Concrete, EPRI
ID-1004031, Nov. 2001.
6-107
Coal Combustion and Organic By-Product Blends as Soil Substitutes/Amendments for
Horticulture, ID-1004058, Dec. 2001.
6-108
Oxygenated Feedwater Treatment for Fossil Plants, EPRI Technology Brief TB-103989, June
1994.
6-109
Dooley, B., The Influence of Cycle Chemistry on Plant Maintenance, Proceedings: 1996 EPRI
Fossil Plant Maintenance Conference, Pages 47-1 to 47-15, EPRI Report TR-106753 July 1996.
6-110
The Current State of Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants, Proceedings: Third International
Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants, EPRI Report TR-109938 April 1998.
6-111
Dooley B., and Jonas, O., Major Turbine Problems Related to Steam Chemistry: R&D, Root
Causes, and Solutions, Proceedings: Fifth International Conference on Fossil Plant Cycle
Chemistry, ERPI Report TR-108459 November 1997.
6-112
Daniel J. Hilson, Robert Lattomus and Keith Kehrer, Reverse Osmosis Supplies High Quality
Water at Low Cost, Power Engineering, February 2002, Pages 59-61
6-113
Revised Guidelines for Makeup Water Treatment, EPRI TR-113692, October,1999.
6-136

6-114
Richard G. Steward, Savings Associated with Partial Oxygenated Feedwater Treatment at
Paradise Fossil Plant, Proceedings: Sixth International Conference on Fossil Plant Steam
Chemistry, EPRI 10001363, April 2001.
6-115
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Oxygenated Treatment, EPRI Report TR102285, December 1994.
6-116
W. Brock and G. L. Bartley, Equilibrium Phosphate Treatment Improvements at TVA Gallatin
Fossil Plant, Proceedings: Sixth International Conference on Fossil Plant Steam Chemistry,
EPRI 10001363, April 2001.
6-117
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: Phosphate Treatment for Drum Units, EPRI
TR-103665,
6-118
B. Dooley and W. McNaughton , Appropriate Controls for Boiler Water Phosphate Treatments
to Avoid Acid Phosphate Corrosion and Hydrogen Damage, (Power Plant Chemistry, (3)3,
2001).
6-119
Stephen J. Shulder, Mark A. Janick, Eric C. Gwin, and Shane T. Filer, Measuring OxidationReduction Potential (ORP) and Its Use in Controlling Oxygen Scavenger Injection;
Proceedings: Sixth International Conference on Fossil Plant Steam Chemistry, EPRI 10001363,
April 2001
6-120
EPRI Oxygenated Treatment Guidelines Help Georgia Power Improve Cycle Chemistry, EPRI
6-121
TU Electric Inaugurates Oxygenated Treatment in Units with Powdered Resin Polishers,
EPRI Innovators IN-102940, March 1994.
6-122
BGE Uses EPRI Steam Sampling Nozzle to Accurately Monitor Hot Reheat Steam Chemistry,
EPRI Innovators IN-104584 January 1995.
6-123
Weiss, J., Welcome and Introduction 1997 Proceedings: Instrument Calibration and Signal
Validation Workshop, EPRI Report TR-108292 May 1997.
6-137

6-124
Fromberg, R., Temperature Sensor Evaluation, 1997 Proceedings: Instrument Calibration and
Signal Validation Workshop, EPRI Report TR-108292 May 1997.
6-125
Shuler, G. M., Calibration Intervals: A Short History and Some Practical Applications, 1997
Proceedings: Instrument Calibration and Signal Validation Workshop, EPRI Report TR-108292
May 1997.
6-126
Qualification of Control System Retrofit Benefits at TVAs Kingston Unit 9 Plant. EPRI
Report TR-111673.
Pumps
Centrifugal Pump Hydraulic Instability, EPRI Report CS-1445, May 1980
Recommended Design Guidelines for Feedwater Pumps in Large Power Generating Units,
EPRI Report CS-1512, September 1980
Guidelines for Prevention of Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps, EPRI Report GS-6398,
November 1989.
Fuge, D. A., Bennett, M. G. and Stefl, J. M., PP&L's Effort to Improve Boiler Feedpump
Availability, EPRI Power Plant Pump Symposium, Tampa, FL, June 27, 1991.
Guidelines for Part-load Flow and Hydraulic Stability of Centrifugal Pumps, EPRI Report TR100219, March 1992.
Boiler Feedpump Operation and Maintenance Guideline, EPRI Report TR-104292, Volumes 1
and 2, September 1994.
Air Heaters
Effects of Cycling on Environmental Controls at Fossil-Fired Plants, EPRI Report CS-5055,
March 1987.
Failure Cause Analysis-Air Preheaters, EPRI Report CS-1927, July 1981
Feedwater Heaters
Feedwater Heaters Maintenance and Repair Technology: Reducing Outage Cost, EPRI Report
GS-6935, 1990.
6-138

Ranganathan, K.M. and Tsou, J.L., Feedwater Performance Evaluation Using the Heat
Exchanger Workstation, Proceedings: 1995 EPRI Feedwater Heater Symposium, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA.
Tsou, J.L., Feedwater Heater Performance Prediction Calculation Procedure. Proceedings:
1989 EPRI Heat Rate Improvement Conference, EPRI Report GS-6985. 1990.
Stellem, J.L., Hoobler, J.V., Milton, J.W., Welch, T., Kona, C., Thompson, N., Tsou, J.L.,
Proposed Revisions to the ASME Feedwater Heater Power Test Code , Proceedings: 1992
EPRI Feedwater Heater Technology Symposium, Birmingham, AL, EPRI Report TR-102923,
September 1993.
Beavers, J. A., Agrawal, A. K., and Berry, W. E., Corrosion-Related Failures in Feedwater
Heaters, EPRI Report CS-3184, 1983
Bell, R. J.; Conley, E. R.; Diaz-Tous, I.; Von Boeckh, A. and Eberia, H. P., Manual for
Investigation and Correction of Feedwater Heater Failures, EPRI Report GS-7390, 1991.
Failure Cause Analysis - Condensers and Associated Systems, EPRI Report CS-2378, June
1982.
High-Reliability Feedwater Heater Study, EPRI Report CS 5856. EPRI Palo Alto, CA, June
1988.
Steam: Its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox, 161 East 42nd Street, New York, NY
10017, 1978.
Replacement Feed Water Heater Guidelines, EPRI Report GS-6913, August 1990.
Condensers
Condenser In-leakage Monitoring System Development, EPRI Report NP-2597, September
1982.
Condenser Macrofouling Control Technologies, EPRI Report CS-3550, June 1984.
Mussali, Y. G.; Gordon, L. S. and Tsou, J. L., Mechanical Technologies Experience for
Condenser Macrofouling Control, Presented at Joint Power Conference, October 19-23, 1986.
Recommended Practices for Operating and Maintaining Steam Surface Condensers, EPRI
Report CS-5235, July 1987.
Condenser Leak Detection Guidelines using Sulfur Hexafluoride as a Tracer Gas, EPRI
Report CS-6014, September 1988.
Guidelines on Macrofouling Control Technology, EPRI Report CS-5271, June 1987.
6-139

Nontoxic Foul Release Coatings, EPRI Report GS-6566, October 1989.

Gross, A. C., Evaluation of Non-Fouling Coatings for Power Plant Cooling Water Systems,
Proceedings: Condenser Technology Conference, EPRI Report GS-7349, August 1991.
Hagewood, B. T., Improved Process for Cleaning Condenser Tubes, Proceedings: Condenser
Technology Conference, EPRI Report GS-7349, August 1991.
Process for Cleaning Tube-Type Heat Exchangers, U. S. Patent 4,860,821.
Condenser Microfouling Control Handbook, EPRI Report TR-102507, October 1993.
Cooling Towers
Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering, Thomas C. Elliot and the Editors of POWER
Magazine, 1989, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York, NY.
STEAM, Its Generation and Use, Babcock and Wilcox Company, 1992, Barberton, Ohio 44308.
Cooling Tower Advisor, EPRI ReadyNow RN-102892, September 1993.
Flue Gas Desulfurization
FGD Mist Eliminator Replacement Guide, EPRI Report TR-109108, October 1997.
FGD System Design and Specification Guide, EPRI Report TR-102864, December 1993.
Limestone Selection Methodology for Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems, EPRI Report
TR-102660, August 1993.
Guidelines for FGD Materials Selection and Corrosion Protection, EPRI Report TR-100680,
Volumes 1 and 2, March 1993.
FGD Cycling Guidelines, EPRI Report TR-101730, December 1992.
Economic Evaluation of FGD Systems, Volumes 1 and 2, EPRI Report TR-017193, January
1992.
FGDCOST: Cost Estimating Model, Computer Users Manual, Version 1.0, EPRI REPORT
GS-7525-CCML, October 1991.
FGDPRISM Flue Gas Desulfurization Process Integration and Simulation Model, Computer
Users Manual, Version 1.0, EPRI REPORT GS-7268-CCML, April 1991.
6-140

Investigation of Flue Gas Desulfurization Chemical Process Problems, EPRI Report GS-6930,
August 1990.
FGD Damper Guidelines, EPRI Report GS-6569, November 1989.
Leaning Brick Stack Liners, EPRI Report GS-6520, September 1989.
Causes of FGD Construction Material Failures, Volumes 1 and 2, EPRI Report GS-6396,
June 1989.
West Texas Utilities Co. Extends the Life of Its Scrubbers with EPRI's FGD Rubber
Guidelines, EPRI Innovators IN-103961, August 1994.
EPRI Mist Elimination Research Helps Cincinnati and Electric Reduce Operating Costs,
Ten Years of EPRI R&D Pays Off in New Scrubber Design, EPRI Innovators IN- 101546,
April1993.
EPRI Helps SWEPCo Increase FGD System Availability and Reduce Maintenance Costs,
EPRI Innovators IN-101266, April 1993.
Bypass Mix Zone Proves to be a Tough Environment for State-of-the-Art Materials, EPRI
EPRI FGD Chemistry and Process Knowledge Used to Select Best Method for Increased SO2
Removal, EPRI Innovators IN-101350, November 1992.
Laboratory Investigation Underscores Need to Reline Scrubber Outlet Ducts, EPRI Innovators
EPRI Helps Tampa Electric Reduce Plume Corrosion and Opacity, EPRI Innovators IN100118, December 1991.
Precipitators and Baghouses
Engineering Study on Wide Plate Spacing Electrostatic Precipitators, Proceedings: Eighth
Particulate Control Symposium, Volume 1, Electrostatic Precipitators, EPRI Report GS-7050
November 1990.
Delaying Sodium Depletion in Electrostatic Precipitators at Ghent Generating Station,
Proceedings: Eighth Particulate Control Symposium, Volume 1: Electrostatic Precipitators, EPRI
Report GS-7050, November 1990.
6-141

Baghouse Performance Advisor: A Knowledge-Based Baghouse Operator Advisor;

Proceedings: Eighth Particulate Control Symposium, Volume 2, EPRI Report GS-7050,
November 1990.
Pilot Study of Precipitator Wide Plate Spacing; EPRI Report GS-6711, February 1990.
Performance of Dale Station Precipitators with Increased Plate Spacing, Proceedings: Seventh
Particulate Control Symposium, Volume 1, Particulate SO2 Control with Electrostatic
Precipitators, EPRI Report GS-6108, February 1989.
Evaluation of ESP Intermittent Energization, Proceedings: Third International Conference on
Electrostatic Precipitator, Abano-Padova, Italy, October 1987.
Electrostatic Precipitator Guidelines, Volumes 1-3, EPRI CS-5198, June 1987.
Sodium Conditioning for Improved Hot Side Precipitator Performance, Volumes 1 and 2,
EPRI Report CS-3711, October 1984
Pilot Scale Evaluation of ESP Intermittent Energization, Proceedings: Sixth Symposium of
Transfer and Utilization of Particulate Control Technology, Volume 2, EPRI Report CS-4918
Electrostatic Precipitator Power Measurements, Proceedings: Sixth Symposium of Transfer
and Utilization of Particulate Control Technology, Volume 2, EPRI Report CS-4918.
Continuous Emission Monitors
Continuous Emission Monitoring Guidelines: 1993 Update, Volumes 1 and 2, TR-102386,
December 1983
Advanced Sensors
Fiber Optic Sensors for Temperature and Strain Monitoring in Motors and Generators, EPRI
Report TR-101950, Volume 2, 1997.
Temperature Sensor Evaluation, EPRI Report TR-106543, June, 1996.
Shepard, R.; Weiss, J; Holcomb D., Advanced Thermometrics for Fossil Power Plant
Improvement, Presented at Sixth International Joint Instrumentation Society of America
POWID/EPRI Controls and instrumentation Conference, Baltimore, MD, June 1996.
Development of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors for Utility Applications, EPRI Report TR105190, September 1995.
Narendan, N. and Weiss, J., High Temperature Fiber Optics Strain and Temperature Sensor
for Structural Health Monitoring in Instrumentation, Control and Automation in the Power
Industry, Volume 38, Instrument Society of America, 1995.
6-142

Evaluation of Pressure-Sensing Concepts, EPRI Report TR-102177, December 1993.

Plant Cycling, Chemistry Effects
Interim Consensus Guidelines on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry, EPRI Report CS-4629, June
1986.
Guideline Manual on Instrumentation and Control for Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry, EPRI
Report CS-5164, April 1987.
Monitoring Cycle Water Chemistry in Fossil Plants: Volume 1-3, EPRI Report GS-7556
October 1991.
Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil Plants: All Volatile Treatment Report. EPRI Report TR105041, April, 1996.
Compact Simulators
Proceedings: 1988 Conference on Power Plant Simulators and Modeling, EPRI Report
GS/NP-6670, February 1990.
Simulator Based Training and Technology for Fossil Plants, An R&D Plan and Technology
Assessment, EPRI Report GS-6672, February 1990.
EPRI Compact Simulator Technology- An Update, 1992 Meeting, Society for Computer
Simulation Multi-Conference, Orlando, FL, April 1992.
6-143
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Productivity Improvement Handbook For Fossil Steam Power Plants Third Edition

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Productivity Improvement Handbook for

Fossil Steam Power Plants: Third Edition

Final Report, October 2002

EPRI Project Manager

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

To underscore cost-effective approaches for minimizing downtime due to planned and

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PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

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COMMENTS FROM USERS OF THE HANDBOOK

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Other Literature of Interest .............................................................................................2-37

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Chromized Panels Reduce Boiler Tubes Failures in PEPCOs Supercritical

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Seam Welded Piping Failures....................................................................................3-80

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Consumers Power Utilizes a Combination of PRB Coal and Combustion

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Burner Line Orifices Improve Coal Distribution to Burners at Consumer

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Worldwide Designs for Supercritical Turbines................................................................4-14

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STEAM TURBINE BLADES AND DIAPHRAGMS ..............................................................4-54

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Retractable Packings .................................................................................................4-70

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Water Chemistry Practices ...................................................................................5-21

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Entergy Upgrades Cooling Tower by Controlling Air/Water Problems.......................6-64

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Improving Precipitators ..............................................................................................6-86

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Beneficial Utilization of Coal Combustion Products ..........................................................6-101

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Figure 3-38 Weld Repair Of Reheat Header............................................................................3-72

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Figure 4-8 A New Rotor Steel Envisioned .................................................................................4-9

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Figure 5-3 A Rare Catastrophic Failure of a Turbine-Generator Rotor ......................................5-5

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Figure 6-23 Continuous Sponge Ball Cleaning System ...........................................................6-43

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Figure 6-52 Power Plant Steam-Water Systems ...................................................................6-105

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Table 5-2 Summary of Generator Component Damage Mechanisms, Inspection

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STRATEGIES FOR OPERATING GENERATING PLANTS

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