01B-QoS in Telecommunications Networks Module 1

QOS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS
NETWORKS
MODULE 1
Property of Neotelis
Outline
Warm up Quiz
Introduction to QoS
QoS issues in existing networks
NGN concepts & IP technology
QoS issues raised by NGN and IP
ITU-T Recommendations (to date)
Outline
Warm up Quiz
Introduction to QoS
A Warm up Quiz
Self-assessment quiz to test your knowledge

For each question mark the Self-assessment
Check List
List as follows
a.
b.
c.
You understand the question and know the answer

You may understand the question but are unsure of the
answer
You do not understand the question or you have no idea
what the answer may be
Add up your a, b and c scores and save for

comparison later
Quiz answers at the end of the week!
Outline
Warm up Quiz
Introduction to QoS
Introduction to QoS
The networks of today are composed of a multiplicity

of elements both for the core transport and the
distribution networks.
Complexity is the name of the game for operators,
simplicity for the end-users! (Norman Rae, 2009)
To succeed in todays competitive environment,
telecom operators must focus on price, reliability and
quality of service. These elements are essential to
provide customer satisfaction
This is a quick technology recap to put a context to

Quality of Service (QoS)
Introduction to QoS
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
originally based on copper wires & analog

technology
today based on digital technologies, such as ISDN
(Integrated Services Digital Network) and more
recently on IP technology
includes the set of all the traditional telephone lines
and associated infrastructure
includes switching systems, transmission lines for
g distance and multiplexing
p
g
both local and long
equipment
must include numbering plans, back-office
systems, customer support, etc.
Introduction to QoS
The circuit switched wired network

Transit switch
Inter
switch
trunks
Transit switch
Local
switches
Local
switches
Transit switch
Telephone networks use telephone numbers to enable one party to connect to another,
whether it is local, national or international . Area codes and country codes are
included as required as well as numbers that indicate whether a call is local or
long distance. E.164 is the ITU standard that regulates this, with NANP being
the exception applying to the USA, Canada and the Caribbean.
Introduction to QoS
The circuit switched mobile network

MSC
MS
CO
BSS
BSC
MSC
MS
Local
switch
Fixed
network
Mobile networks for the PSTN are essentially similar except:

they have Mobile Switching Centers (MSCs)
connection to the mobile subscriber (MS) is wireless
trunks are required to interconnect to the fixed network COs
Introduction to QoS
Typical PSTN or circuit switched services
End-to-end call
Call set
set-up,
up call cleared
cleared, call waiting
waiting, voice mail
mail, etc
etc
Facsimile
Connectivity to Internet
Connectivity to mobile
Long distance call
Conferencing
g
Video
Payphone
etc.
10
Introduction to QoS
Public Switched Data Network (PSDN)
Data networks existed either as telegraphy (point to point

at first) and then evolved to Telex and TWX (circuit
switched public networks for the purpose of transmitting
the written word) and eventually FAX (their replacement)
Packet switching
A communications method in which packets (discrete

blocks of data) are routed between nodes over data links
shared with other traffic
In each network node, packets are queued or buffered,
resulting
l
in variable
bl d
delay
l
As opposed to circuit switching, there are no fixed and
dedicated hard connections between nodes for their
exclusive use of the communicating parties
11
Introduction to QoS
Packet switching 1st generation
This first generation was connection oriented and

emerged from the ITU in the mid 1970
1970s
s under the X
series of protocols including the well known is X.25
These networks provided guaranteed packet delivery
with built in error detection, retransmission etc. and
were process intensive and lacked the speed that we
know today
X.25 networks were modified to increase efficiency &
throughput with FRAME RELAY
12
Introduction to QoS
Packet switching 2nd generation
This is what we know mostly today (based on the Internet

Protocol or IP); it evolved from the IETF efforts with
practically a complete connectionless approach
IP networks do not provide guaranteed packet nor error
detection, retransmission etc. in the sense of the first
generation
The principle is one of the datagram that carries its own
destination address (like a letter)
Includes a virtual connection mode which requires call
establishment for setting-up virtual paths for specific
communicating parties requirements
13
Introduction to QoS
Packet switching
Packets are sent independently and may or may not follow the
same route which create the need for proper sequencing,
delay and quality issues
2
4
Packet network
14
Introduction to QoS
Comparison of switching techniques
Circuit switching
Packet switching
Designed for voice originally and hence for

real-time traffic
Difficult to adapt to any type of traffic
Physical connections established and used
whether idle or not until call released
Utilization of network resources not very
efficient
Security and quality are not real issues
Designed for data and not for real-time

traffic (voice and video)
Capable of transporting any type of traffic
Any connections that may exist are logical
logical
Much better utilization of network resources
Packets may be delayed to varying degrees or
even get lost (discarded)
Special measures are required to address
issues of Quality of Service (QoS) and security
15
Introduction to QoS
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a high

speed packet switching system based on fixed
packets (cells) also known as Cell Relay
p
y service
ATM objective was to transport with high reliability and

quality guarantees, on a single network, real-time video
conference and audio as well as image files, text and
email
It is an advanced connection-oriented packet-like
switching for high-speed multiplexing and switching with
improved error control & simplified flow control
2 groups, the International Telecommunications Union
and the ATM Forum were involved in the creation of the
standards
16
Introduction to QoS
ATM Cell Relay advantages
High capacity support for voice, video, data and images

Supports fixed and variable throughputs
Provides bandwidth-on-demand
Supports current technologies, independently of the
application
Enables a large number of users to share applications
such as:
Teleconferencing, telemedicine, real-time collaboration,
video-on-demand and HDTV, distance learning,
high-speed data transfer
Because of high costs, ATM is now slowly giving way to

IP/MPLS based networks
17
Introduction to QoS
Private networks and Customer Premise

Equipment (CPE) have an influence on QoS
physically located on the customer site

may be simple terminal equipment or may
constitute networks that may be privately owned
and operated by the customer or owned and
operated by the service provider; e.g.
Telephones; switches; routers
Videoconference
Vid
f
systems
t
Computers; facsimile
- etc.
18
Introduction to QoS
Typical private networks
Local Area Network (LAN)
S i h
Switch
19
Introduction to QoS
Typical private networks
Private Branch eXchange (PBX)

In-House Lines
PBX
Outside Lines
(trunk to CO)
PSTN
20
10
Introduction to QoS
Private networks that are part of the public

networks
These networks dedicated and designed to

satisfy the specific needs of the organization
e.g. Virtual Private Networks (VPN)
Company
site A
Company
site B
Public Network
Company
site C
21
Introduction to QoS
Transmission & distribution
The traditional copper line is no longer a telcos

bottleneck to service evolution as a result of Digital
Subscriber Line or DSL (major competition is fibre
and coaxial cable high speed access) and is
implemented worldwide
Limitation of bit-rate a function of distance
Several services can share the same access :
data, video, voice (fixed or mobile)
Access traffic increase pushes demand for higher
speeds
Note that the demand for broadband capacity is

also true for mobile on account of multimedia
services
22
11
Introduction to QoS
Transmission & distribution : DSL

Voice
switch
S i
Service
Provider
PSTN
Voice trunk
Client
Filter
C
Copper
pair
i
switch
network
switch DSLAM
router
network
PC
Microfilter
Micro-filters are used

instead of entry filters
for residential clients
IP/MPLS
Service
Provider
Entry filter
Modem
10/100BT
ATM
Service
Provider
Voice
switch
router
IP DSLAM
23
Introduction to QoS
Transmission & distribution
Illustration of typical maximum ranges for

speed and distance from C.O.
C O for ISDN,
ISDN ADSL
and VDSL (downlink/uplink)
VDSL: 26/2
VDSL: 13/1 Mbps
Repeater required
ADSL: 8 Mbps / 800 kbps

ISDN: 128 Kbps
1 km
<1.5
km
3 to 4.5 km
5 5 km
5.5
24
12
Introduction to QoS
Fiber technology in the access
Point-to-point (expensive)
Active Optical Network (AON)
PON using TDM
PON using WDM
PON = Passive Optical Network

25
Introduction to QoS
Wireless Transmission: Point-to-point

microwave
Considerations
Earths
E th curvature
t
Antenna height
Obstacles in path
Fresnel zone clearance
Antenna
height
Obstacle
clearance
Fresnel Zone Clearance
Antenna
height
g
Earth Curvature
The Fresnel zone is a three-dimensional ellipsoidal volume between

transmit and receive antennas within which diffraction (due to
obstacles) will significantly impact transmission
26
13
Introduction to QoS
Satellite communications
Wide area coverage but issues due to

propagation
p
p g
delay
y
Space Segment
Coverage Region
Satellite
Earth Stations
Ground Station
National
Network
Regional
Network
Customer
Premises
27
Introduction to QoS
Mobile or Cellular: the principle
Wireless base stations distribute the signal to subscribers

and are linked to Mobile Switching Centers (MSCs)
Th base
The
b
stations
t ti
constitute
tit t cells
ll and
dah
handover
d
mechanism is key to handle calls to mobile subscribers
The mobile networks are interconnected to the fixed PSTN
and other mobile networks
Control
Equipment
PSTN
Control
Equipment
MSC
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14
Introduction to QoS
First generation technology (1G)
Second generation technology (2G)
AMPS, TACS (analog)

Increasing
speeds of
Packet technology (2.5G): GPRS, EDGE transmission
TDMA , CDMA , GSM (digital)
Third generation technology (3G)
UMTS (WCDMA )
CDMA 2000 etc.
Super 3G, 3.5G, 3.75G
Fourth generation technology (4G) ?

29
Introduction to QoS
MSC
Circuit Switched
PLMN Core
MSC
BTS
BSC
PSTN or PLMN
MGW
IP transport
Evolution of
mobile with
packet technology
MGW
IP MPLS Packet
Switched Core GGSN
IP Network
SGSN
HLR
MSC Server
30
15
Introduction to QoS
Fixed wireless: Wi-Fi
Used for wireless hotspots linked to the

Internet via broadband; each individual hotspot
covers up to about 100m
University
Airport
Cross
Roads
Internet
SME
SOHO
Cafe
31
Introduction to QoS
Fixed wireless: WiMAX
Broadband wireless distribution over wide areas

Hotzones:
Hotzones : area of coverage of tens of
kilometres radius
University
WiMAX
equipped
Internet
Cross
Roads
Airport
WiMAX
SME
SOHO
Cafe
32
16
Introduction to QoS
Technology evolution
SNA
ARPANET
X.25
ETHERNET
MOBILE
INTERNET
Rights
released;
FRAME
WWW
RELAY
Summary
timeline
ti
li off key
k
developments
2000
1990
1980
1970
1960
1ST ATM NETWORK
FAST
ETHERNET
PC
DIGITAL
SWITCHING
Fiber Optics
GIGABIT
ETHERNET
SONET
ISDN
33
Introduction to QoS
The need for QoS
Todays networks support an increasing number of

applications and transport all types of information:
Voice, audio
Videoconferencing, video on demand
Gaming and interactive applications
E-mail, SMS
E-commerce, online banking
FTP, web browsing, etc.
Mechanisms are required to manage network

resources in order to ensure suitable Quality of
Service for each application
34
17
Introduction to QoS
Definitions
Service:
Ap
pre-defined
e de ed type o
of ttreatment
eat e t du
during
g ttransmission
a s ss o
across a network, usually quantitative:
-
Delay
Delay variation
Information loss probability
Throughput
Maximum transfer unit (MTU)
Priority
Q lit off service

Quality
i now simply:
i
l Q
QoS
S
A defined level of performance for a given service
Class of service
A grouping of one or more qualities of service
35
Definition in telephony
ITU standard X.902 is A set of quality

q
on the collective behaviour of one
requirements
or more objects. It comprises requirements on
many aspects of a connection, i.e.
Service response time
Service loss
Signal-to-noise ratio
Crosstalk
Echo
Interrupts
Frequency response
Loudness levels
36
18
Definition for packet switching
QoS refers to resource reservation control mechanisms

rather than the achieved service quality
The ability to provide different priority to different
applications, users or data flows
To guarantee a certain level of performance to a data flow
in terms of:
Bit rate
Delay
Jitter
Packet dropping probability
Bit error rate
Important if network capacity is insufficient;

irrelevant in the absence of congestion
37
Definition subject to discussion
Business metric that reflects or predicts quality

that is subjectively experienced
Quality of Experience (QoE)
User perceived performance
Degree of satisfaction
Number of happy customers
Mean Opinion Score (MOS)
Cumulative effect on subscriber satisfaction of

all imperfections affecting the service
38
19
Introduction to QoS
Various perceptions
39
Introduction to QoS
Probably the best definition is the

following, since what counts is the
customers
custo
e s perception
pe cept o o
of be
being
g sat
satisfied:
s ed
Quality of service (or simply QoS) is the

level of performance for a given service
From the viewpoint of service providers
network, QoS is the ability to service an
application efficiently, without affecting its
function or performance and provide
predictable quality of service
40
20
Outline
Warm up Quiz
Introduction to QoS
41
Several factors to consider
Human Factors
Individual perception of audio/video quality, lack of

t i i
training
tto use th
the system
t
effectively,
ff ti l
Important factors are: service availability & stability,
promptness to answer customer queries, accuracy of
information, etc.
Technical factors involve

Reliability, Scalability, Effectiveness, Maintainability
Network Factors include
Delay,
D l
jitt
jitter, packet
k t lloss, th
throughput,
h t
Device Factors include such items as
endpoints, gateways, routers, firewalls, network address

translation, processor, memory,
42
21
Basic problems that have existed from day

one in telephony with respect to quality in
analog
l
networks
t
k
Echo
Singing
Delay
Distortion
Noise
43
In Digital networks, the basic telephony

problems that affect QoS are generally
Delay
l
Jitter
BER (Bit Error Rate)
The problems of echo and distortion are also still
present
The big
g advantage
g of digital
g
technology
gy is
the ability to eliminate noise as well as
detect and correct errors through a
variety of techniques
44
22
QoS considerations for IP real-time traffic

involve many elements which are most
often a result of insufficiency of resources
and queuing, e.g.
Throughput
Delay (latency)
Loss (of packet)
Jitter (variation of delay)
Error rate
Sequence errors
Echo
Blocking
45
Networking devices and queuing
General switching architecture
46
23
Introduction to QoS
Input functions
Given a packet (datagram) destination, lookup output port using

forwarding table in input port memory, with the goal to
complete input port processing at line
line speed
speed
Other processing: classification, marking, shaping
Queuing becomes necessary if packets arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Physical layer:
bit-level reception
Data link layer:
e.g. Ethernet
Queuing
determination
47
Introduction to QoS
Output functions
Buffering required when packets arrive from switch fabric faster

than the transmission rate
Queue management needed,
needed e.g.
e g how to manage overflow
Scheduling needed e.g. how to order transmissions based on
traffic classification, marking, etc.
Data link
processing
(protocol,
encapsulation,
fragmentation)
Queuing
management
Physical layer:
bit-level encoding
Data link layer:
e.g. Ethernet
48
24
Networking devices (blocking)
49
Packet loss and delay (in routers)
Often the packet arrival rate exceeds the output capacity

Packets are placed in output queues and wait to be sent
Iff the
h queue is full,
f ll packets
k
may be
b dropped
d
d
(this is called the tail drop)
Router
Packet being sent (delay)
Next router
B
A
Packets in queue (delay)

Output queue: packets may be
dropped (loss) if queue is full
50
25
1.
Sources of packet delay

Processing delay
Check bit errors

Reassembly
Forwarding table lookup
Move to output link
2.
Queuing
Time spent
p
in the output
p
queue waiting to be sent
Depends on queue depth,
link speed, queue service
Serialization
B
A
Propagation
Processing
Queuing
51
3.
Sources of packet delay

Serialization delay
Time required to put

bits on the wire
Depends on link speed
4.
Propagation delay:
Time required to move

move
signal from one end to the
other
Depends on distance
Serialization
t1
B
A
Processing
Propagation
t2
Delay
= t1 + t2
Queuing
52
26
Processing delay
Queuing delay
Significant when networks are congested e.g. up

to tens of milliseconds
Serialization delay
Usually negligible e.g. a few microseconds
e.g. 10 ms but significant on slow links
Propagation delay
Significant on international and satellite links

e.g. up to 50 milliseconds (200 milliseconds or
more for satellite)
53
Outline
Warm up Quiz
Introduction to QoS
54
27
NGN concepts
Digital Phones
PBX
Analog
FAX
Voice Network
Class
4/5
Switch
Legacy networks and

the services they
provided were
p
tightly linked
Analog
Telephone
Key
System
Little or no flexibility
existed to carry
services other than
those for which the
network was designed
Router
PC Client
ATM
Switches
Servers
Data Network
Router
Frame Relay
Switches
Ethernet
Switches
55
Still today:
Convergence of services and applications is often difficult

where networks use inherently different technologies
Telephone, cable, mobile, wireless, satellite and now Wi-Fi
and WiMAX
There is complexity, lack of integrated mobility features

and lack of seamless inter-working between various enduser communication devices
The capital intensive nature of building or expanding
networks, especially in areas of low population density
cause these
h
areas to become
b
underprivileged
d
i il
d iin terms off
service availability
56
28
IP architecture evolution
Legacy networks: separate networks for

different services
SS7
PSDN (DATA)
(TDM-based, dedicated,
message or packet
switched)
PSTN (POTS)
(TDM-based)
Interconnection
Broadband access
Narrowband access
POTS/ISDN
Enterprise
customers LAN H.323/SIP
Dial-up
xDSL
57
Mobile networks only made things more

difficult
PLMN
(mobile)
Interconnectio
n
3G
(cellular)
SS7
PSTN (POTS)
(TDM-based)
Interconnections
?
Broadband access
Narrowband access
POTS/ISDN
Dial-up
PSDN (DATA)
(TDM-based, dedicated,
message or packet
switched)
Enterprise
customers LAN H.323/SIP
xDSL
58
29
NGN is a generic wording created in 1998 by

telecom-minded people in the US to designate a
multi-service network architecture somehow
differentiated from what the Internet was at that
time
An Internet Protocol (IP) based infrastructure
similar to Internet but not limited to best effort use
of IP
An architecture and the necessary control devices
to enable valuable real-time communication
services over the network(s)
59
The following characterize NGNs:

1.
2.
3.
A common transport architecture: based on

high speed
speed, transparent,
transparent digital technology
A distributed architecture (as opposed to the
tightly linked nature of legacy networks)
A layered structure with open standards:
essentially all NGNs tend to have different
planes addressing the transport and access,
the media (the actual information),
information) the control
(signalling etc.) and the services
60
30
NGN Architecture
Applications
Service Layer
Softswitch
Servers
Control Layer
IPX
PSTN/
PLMN
TGW
AGW
RGW
AGW
LAN
Enterprise customers
Media Layer
Media Server
Access & Transport Layer
IMS UMTS
Access
Broadband access
Remote office/SOHO
3G mobile
users
Residential
users
61
ITU-T definition of NGN (Y.2001)
A packet-based network able to provide

telecommunication services and able to make
use off multiple
l l broadband,
b
db d QoS-enabled
bl d
transport technologies and in which servicerelated functions are independent from
underlying transport-related technologies
It enables unfettered access for users to
networks and to competing service providers
and/or
a
d/o se
services
ces o
of ttheir
e c
choice
o ce
It supports generalized mobility which will allow
consistent and ubiquitous provision of services
to users
62
31
From tightly linked to distributed architecture!

Service
Delivery &
Connection
Control
Softswitch
Trunking
Gateways
Switching
Matrix
Elements tightly linked
together more often than
not with proprietary methods
IP or ATM
Access
Gateways
IP Terminals
Distributed elements working
together based on open
standards and protocols
New (IP)
Traditional (CS)
63
Softswitches
Next-generation switches are known as softswitches

because they are predominantly software driven
servers
They are the most flexible platforms available,
combining substantial scalability, remote
management and diagnostics, and are designed to
be highly reliable
They are now replacing the legacy class 4 (transit)
and class 5 (local exchange) PSTN switches
These switches have also been replacing traditional
mobile switching centres in cellular networks
64
32
Typical Softswitch
Carrier grade system that can scale up to

handle large traffic volumes e.g. over a
million Busy Hour Call Attempts (BHCA)
Supports a wide range of signalling,
transport and control protocols for line
gateways and in support of multimedia
traffic i.e. classical data as well as digital
voice and video
Represents a new breed of switching
systems
Often include both circuit and packet
switching to ease network transition
65
Gateway
Gateways carry functional transformations

between different networks
networks, e.g.
eg
Between circuit & packet networks)
Different types of gateways exist as well as

various levels of integration
Trunking: telephone to IP networks
Residential: analog and VoIP networks
Access: analog/digital PBX and VoIP networks
Gateways carry out call processing, e.g.

Signalling to circuit switching
IP signalling to IP network (H.323)
66
33
NGN IP components
Media Gateway
Converts digital media streams between disparate

telecommunications networks for end-to-end operability
between IP-based networks, PSTN, mobile networks, etc.
IP telephony gateway
Converts real-time media between circuit and packet

switched networks
Ensures inter-working of signalling
Initially deployed by long distance operators to extend
Internet telephony for Least-Cost Routing (LCR)
Gateway to place calls on packet networks
Realizes efficiency, cost savings and features of packet
switched networks
67
Router
The workhorse of IP networks

Routers receive and forward packets
according to their IP destination address
Most of packet delays in an IP network
originate from routers processing, output
link selection, queuing, etc.
Congestion can cause packet loss
68
34

Router functions
Routers are used to

connect LANS through a
Wid A
Wide
Area N
Network
k
(WAN) such as an IP
network e.g. the
Internet
Routers use IP
addresses to forward
packets to their
destinations (do not
route on MAC
addresses)
IP
Network
Router
69
IP routing
Is based on the final destination e.g. D

Packets are forwarded hop
p by
y hop
p i.e. from one router to
the next based on the entries in their routing table
Routing tables in routers are filled or updated by routing
protocols e.g. RIP = Routing Internet protocol; OSPF =
Open Short Path First (one of the best); Others: EGP, BGP,
IGRP etc.
D
IP Network
70
35

Router architecture
Routing
Engine
Routing
Table
Control Plane
Exchanges routing
information with
other routers i.e.
signalling
The routing
logic
Forwarding
Table
Forwarding plane
Directs outbound
packets to the
appropriate interface
71

No unique format in routing
tables
As a minimum should contain
Address of a destination
IP address of the next hop router
Network interface to be used
A
1
B
Routing Table for R1
R1
Destination
address
Next Hop
Interface
Directly connected
Directly connected
Directly connected
R2
R2
R2
R2
3
4
F
D
2
E
72
36
Application Servers
An application server is a software engine that

delivers applications to client computers or
devices, typically through the Internet and using
the HyperText Transfer Protocol
Application servers are distinguished from web
servers by the extensive use of server-side
dynamic content and frequent integration with
d b
database
engines
(Wikipedia definition)
73
Putting the pieces together

SMTP
server
Hub
H b
Hub
Switch
DNS
server
DHCP
Server
Web
server
LAN
LAN
FTP
server
LAN
74
37
The Internet has evolved and become more

complex as it has permeated various networks and
y by
y carriers and
has been used more extensively
service providers alike. Private networks have also
multiplied in a way parallel to the PSTN with LANs
as opposed to PBXs. Here we have a look at
Tier-1 Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-3 ISPs
Typical packet path
75
Roughly hierarchical with tiers i.e. sizes
Tier-1 ISPs have national and international coverage (e.g.

AT&T, Sprint, BT, France Telecom)
NAP
Tier-1 ISPs
interconnect
privately
Tier-1 ISPs
interconnect at
public Network
Access Points
(NAPs)
Tier-1 ISP
Tier-1 ISP
Tier-1 ISP
76
38

Tier-2 ISPs: Smaller (often regional) ISPs
Connect to one or more Tier-1 ISPs & other Tier-2 ISPs
Ti
Tier-2
2 ISP
pays Tier-1
ISP for
connectivity
to rest of
Internet
Tier-2 ISP is a
customer of
Tier-1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-1 ISP
Tier-1 ISP
Tier-1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISPs
peer
privately
with each
other,
interconnect
at NAPs and
P-NAPs
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
77
Tier-3 ISPs and local ISPs
Last hop (access) network (closest to end systems/users)
Local and
Tier-3 ISPs
are clients of
higher Tier
ISPs that
connect them
to the rest of
Internet
local
ISP
local
oca
ISP
Tier-3
Tier
3
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-3
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier-1
Ti
Tier-1
1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-3
ISP
local
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-3
ISP
local
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-3
ISP
local
ISP
78
39
A packet will be transported through many networks

local
ISP
Inherent to the
structure, technical
issues arise for
Quality of Service
(QoS) and Security
local
ISP
Tier-3
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-1 ISP
Tier-1 ISP
Tier-1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-3
ISP
Tier-3
ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
Tier-3
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-3
ISP
local
ISP
79
In view of the above, the need for QoS is

evident:
Networks are converging bringing together transport

facilities serving numerous applications with varied
requirements
Networks are multi-layered and heterogeneous
The unifying technology is IP but it was not designed
originally for isochronous traffic
QoS therefore has to be implemented in and by the
various levels of IP protocols
80
40
Standards
(Set of rules) govern data transmissions and

telecommunications between computers,
computers or
between computers and other computerrelated devices
Protocols
Ensure that the sending end and receiving

end are, in effect, speaking the same
l
language
or using
i
the
h same language
l
rules
81
The world of telecommunications is complex and

to make it work, many organizations work on
g that networks and
standards thus ensuring
services function properly. Main ones:
ITU (International Telecommunications Union)

ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
IEEE (Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute)
TISPAN (Telecoms & Internet converged Services &
Protocols for Advanced Networks)
TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association)
82
41
ISO Model: the need
The multiplicity of networks and the arrival of IP software

driven technology and the abundance of new protocols
have caused increased complexity in every network
element
The boundaries between core, edge and access networks
are sometimes blurred
As a result it became imperative to have a common
reference for a wide variety of networks and is an
essential framework for interoperability (networks and
equipment)
i
)
ISO started on this in the mid-seventies basing
themselves on a model by IBM (SNA)
83
Three important elements of the model
Services (functions): what a layer does

Interfaces: how each layer
y p
provides a set of functions to
the layer above and how it relies on the functions of the
layer below
Protocols: the rules by which each layer communicates
with its peer layer on another node by sending messages
back and forth
System A
System B
Layer n+1
Interface
Layer n
Layer n+1
Protocol
Layer n
84
42
Standards and protocols

OSI 7-layer model
TCP/IP model
Application
Voice, video and data services such as VoIP,

IPTV video streaming
IPTV,
streaming, e
e-mail,
mail file transfer and
facsimile
Application
Presentation
Data formatting and encryption
Session
Establishment and maintenance of sessions

(e.g. SIP)
Transport
End-to-end delivery (e.g. TCP, UDP)
Transport
Network
Routing and switching of packets (e.g. IP),

establishment of source to destination path
Network
Data link
Transfer of units of information, framing and

error checking, multiplexing and multiple
access
Data link
Physical
Modulation of binary data over the medium,

definition of electrical and mechanical
standards
(groups layers
5,6,7)
Physical
85
TCP/IP ensemble of protocols
Application: supporting network

applications
FTP,
FTP SMTP,
SMTP STTP
Transport: host-host data

transfer
TCP, UDP
network
Data link: data transfer between

neighbouring network elements
data link
PPP, Ethernet
transport
Network: routing of datagrams

from source to destination
IP, routing protocols
application
Physical: bits on the wire
physical
86
43
TCP/IP architecture
Others
The TCP/IP architecture includes a number of protocols

(here the wireline version is shown)
Many protocols have been added since real-time traffic is
transported today
SMTP
TELNET
FTP
NFS
TFTP
SNMP
TCP
BOOTP
ARP
IGP
EGP
ICMP
RIP
RARP
OSPF
network
IP
802.2
Ethernet
application
transport
UDP
EGP
BGP
Others
802.3
PPP
FDDI
802.5
SLIP
Serial Link
data link
physical
87
Layers implementation
application
transport
network
link
physical
application
transport
network
link
physical
Devices implement layer functions

Devices perform actions,
exchange messages with peers
Each layer has its role
network
link
physical
application
transport
network
link
physical
application
transport
network
link
physical
88
44
TCP/IP Model
Client for Microsoft Networks
D-Link DFE-530TX PCI Fast Ethernet Adapter
Layers 3 and 4
TCP/IP
Layers 1 and 2
File and printer sharing for Microsoft Networks
Every device (PC,

mobile handset etc.)
that works with IP
will contain the
appropriate TCP/IP
protocol layers
89
Transport Layer
data
application
transport
transport
network
link
physical
application
transport
network
link
physical
ack
data
Takes data from layer above

Adds addressing, reliability check
information to form datagram
Sends datagram to layer below
Waits for feedback (e.g. acknowledgement)
network
link
physical
application
transport
network
link
physical
data
application
transport
transport
network
link
physical
90
45
Sending a message (in a packet)
Each layer takes data from above
Adds its own information (e.g.

(e g header)
Passes the new data unit to the layer below
Source
M
Ht M
H nH t M
H l H nH t M
Destination
application
application
transport
transport
network
t
k
network
t
k
link
link
physical
physical
message
Ht M
H nH t M
H l H nH t M
segment
datagram
frame
91

packet
segment Ht
datagram Hn Ht
frame
Hl Hn Ht
M
M
M
M
Source
application
transport
network
link
physical
Switch
Hl Hn Ht
link
physical
Hl Hn Ht
Packet (Message) Handling
M
Ht
Hl Hn Ht
Hn Ht
Destination
application
transport
network
link
physical
Hn Ht
Hl Hn Ht
M
M
network
link
physical
Hn Ht
Hl Hn Ht
M
M
Router
92
46
TCP service
Connection-oriented: set-up required between client and server

processes
Reliable transport between sending and receiving process
Flow control: sender will not overwhelm receiver
Congestion control: throttle sender when network is overloaded
Does not provide: timing or minimum bandwidth guarantees
UDP service
Unreliable data transfer between sending and receiving

processes
Does not provide: connection set-up,
set up reliability
reliability, flow control
control,
congestion control, timing or bandwidth guarantee
93
Transport layer
uses same Network layer communication channel between

hosts for several applications
multiplexing and demultiplexing is achieved by using
sockets:
TCP socket: source IP address, source port, destination IP
address, destination port
UDP socket: destination IP address, destination port
HTTP
Transport
layer
FTP
TELNET
Network
layer
Transport
layer
Network
layer
94
47
Some applications and their transport protocols

Application
e-mail
remote terminal access
Web
file transfer
streaming
g multimedia
Internet telephony
Application
layer protocol
Underlying
transport protocol
SMTP [RFC 2821]

TELNET [RFC 854]
HTTP [RFC 2616]
FTP [RFC 959]
TCP
TCP
TCP
TCP
e.g.
g RealPlayer
y
e.g. Skype
UDP or TCP
UDP
95
TCP and UDP transport layer protocols
TCP: Transmission Control Protocol

Reliable,
Reliable in
in-order
order delivery
Some congestion control
Flow control
Connection set-up
UDP: User Datagram Protocol
Unguaranteed, unordered delivery

No-frills extension of best
best effort
effort IP
Both provide for multiplexing/demultiplexing

between Layer 5 and Layer 3
96
48
VoIP protocols in the TCP/IP model
ISO Model Layer

y
Protocols or Standards
Presentation
Applications / CODECs
Session
H.323 and SIP
Transport
RTP / UDP / TCP
Network
IP Non QoS
Data Link
FR, ATM, PPP, Ethernet
97
Voice over IP protocols
SIP
Stands for Session Initiation Protocol

Signaling
Si
li
protocol
t
l ffor initiating,
i iti ti
managing
i
and
d
terminating voice and video sessions across packet
networks
RTP
Stand for Real-time Transport Protocol

Provides end-to-end network delivery services for the
transmission of real-time data
RTP is network and transport-protocol
transport protocol independent
independent,
though it is often used over UDP
It is the de facto standard media transport protocol on
the Internet
98
49
Outline
Warm up Quiz
Introduction to QoS
99
QoS issues raised by NGN & IP

Location #1
Traditional networks
Location #2
PABX
PSTN
Leased line
WAN
Host
Leased line
Controller
100
50

Converged networks (NGNs)
Location #1
Location #2
PABX
WAN
Host
Packets compete for bandwidth

Critical applications need priority
Voice traffic is delay-sensitive
101
Issues in NGN and Packet networks
Although the situation is improving, the public

Internet lacks QoS guarantees (primarily due to
limits in router computing power)
Problems encountered as packets travel from
origin to destination
102
51
Issues with NGNs (converged networks)
Lack of bandwidth
Traffic types compete for limited bandwidth
Total end-to-end delay
Data travels through multiple networks, devices and

links, each add an incremental amount of delay
Delay jitter
The total amount of delay to traverse the converged

network varies according to network congestion
Packet loss
Packets may be discarded when network congestion

reaches a certain level
103
Dropped packets
The routers fail to deliver some packets

Packets arrive when buffers are already full
Impossible to determine what will happen in advance
The receiving application may ask for this information
to be retransmitted, possibly causing severe delays in
the overall transmission
Delay
It might take a long time for a packet to reach its

destination
P k t gets
Packet
t h
held
ld up iin llong queues or ttakes
k a lless di
directt
route to avoid congestion
In some cases, excessive delay can render an
application, such as VoIP or online gaming, unusable
104
52
This leads to quality issues which show

themselves in different ways depending on
the application:
Voice packets may be delayed or dropped
System response is slow
Video packets may be delayed or dropped
Talker overlap
Voice gets clipped or disappears
Slow screen refreshes
Spongy keyboard effect
Slow application responses
Image jerks and unsynchronized voice

Black squares in images, etc.
105
In last 5-10 years a lot of effort has been

applied to solve QoS issues that had slowed
down deployment of real-time services on
IP networks
Extensive research was spearheaded by MCI
since the 1980s
This research was carried out to look into
the factors that affect quality of service of
real-time transport on data networks that
were primarily not designed for real-time
traffic
106
53
Outline
Warm up Quiz
Introduction to QoS
107
ITU-T Recommendations
The ITU and other standards organizations have

been active in pursuing issues of quality both from
the traditional networks and the NGns
In the field of telephony, QoS was defined in 1994
by ITU-T Recommendation E.800
Support
Operability
Accessibility
Retainability
Integrity
Security
108
54
In the field of data networking, ITU

published ITU-T Recommendation X.641
Provides concept and terminology
Main QoS related IETF RFCs:
RFC 2474: Definition of the Differentiated

Services field
RFC 2205: Resource ReSerVation Protocol (RSVP)
RFC 2990: Next steps for the IP QoS architecture
RFC 3714: IAB concerns regarding congestion
control for voice traffic in the Internet
109
ITU Series E
Overall telephone service, service operation and

human factors
ITU-T Recommendation E.721
Network grade of service parameters and target values

for circuit-switched services in the evolving ISDN
ITU-T Recommendation E.723
Grade-of-service parameters for signaling system no.

7 networks
110
55
ITU Series G
Transmission systems and media, digital

systems and networks
ITU-T Recommendation G.107
The E-model, a computational model for use in

transmission planning
ITU-T Recommendation G.108 Amendment 2
Planning examples regarding delay in packet-based

networks
111
ITU Recommendation G.108
Provides guidance for the transmission planner on how to

deal with the delay occurring in packet-based networks in
conjunction with VoIP terminals and gateways
For illustration purposes, the following scenario has been
investigated:
Two VoIP terminals interconnected via a packet-based
network that complies with ITU-T Rec. Y.1541, Class 0 (100
ms)
In addition, two CODECs, G.711 and G.729A have been
considered while no other impairments have been
considered,
considered (proper echo control assumed)
The network delay is composed of the fixed delay and the
value of the delay variation (jitter)
112
56
For the E-model calculations, three different cases

of terminal delay have been investigated
Case 1: IP terminal send delay

y = 20 ms,, IP terminal
receive delay = 30 ms, total delay = 150 ms, R=90: Users
very satisfied
113
For the E-model calculations, three different cases

of terminal delay have been investigated
Case 2: IP terminal send delay

y = 35 ms,, IP terminal
receive delay = 65 ms, total delay = 200 ms, R=86: Users
satisfied
114
57
For the E-model calculations, three

different cases of terminal delay have been
investigated
Case 3: IP terminal send delay = 50 ms, IP

terminal receive delay = 100 ms, total delay =
250 ms, R=79: Some users dissatisfied
115
Real-time issues for softswitches
Voice service performance standards are described in

terms of blocking and delay requirements that apply to
the entire switching system regardless of the hardware or
software implementation
The key requirements that should be applicable to
softswitches as a Class 5 or Tandem replacement:
Dial tone delay (measured during ABSBH)

Average dial tone delay < 0.6 s
Probability (dial tone delay > 3 s) < 1.5%
Probability of cut-off calls < 0.000125
Probability of ineffective attempts <0.003
Cross-switch call set-up delay < 400 ms
116
58
ITU G.114 - end-to-end delay
Time during which voice signals travel across the network

Sum of delays
y required
q
for a voice signal
g
g
generated by
y the
speaker's mouth to cross the different network devices
and links in order to reach the listener's ear
117
Voice quality standards have already been

established by the ITU over and above the MOS
scale of perceived quality:
P.861 in an attempt to estimate MOS using quantifiable

measurements that can be automated
PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) is
primarily for optimizing individual networks and NOT for
comparing quality in different networks
PSQM does not map to MOS and does not account for
factors encountered in IP networks such as packet loss or
bit errors
118
59

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QOS IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Self-assessment quiz to test your knowledge

You understand the question and know the answer

Add up your a, b and c scores and save for

The networks of today are composed of a multiplicity

This is a quick technology recap to put a context to

originally based on copper wires & analog

The circuit switched wired network

The circuit switched mobile network

Mobile networks for the PSTN are essentially similar except:

Typical PSTN or circuit switched services

Public Switched Data Network (PSDN)

Data networks existed either as telegraphy (point to point

A communications method in which packets (discrete

Packet switching 1st generation

This first generation was connection oriented and

Packet switching 2nd generation

This is what we know mostly today (based on the Internet

Designed for voice originally and hence for

Designed for data and not for real-time

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a high

ATM objective was to transport with high reliability and

ATM Cell Relay advantages

High capacity support for voice, video, data and images

Because of high costs, ATM is now slowly giving way to

Private networks and Customer Premise

physically located on the customer site

Typical private networks

Local Area Network (LAN)

Typical private networks

Private Branch eXchange (PBX)

Private networks that are part of the public

These networks dedicated and designed to

Transmission & distribution

The traditional copper line is no longer a telcos

Note that the demand for broadband capacity is

Transmission & distribution : DSL

Micro-filters are used

Transmission & distribution

Illustration of typical maximum ranges for

ADSL: 8 Mbps / 800 kbps

Fiber technology in the access

Active Optical Network (AON)

PON using TDM

PON using WDM

PON = Passive Optical Network

Wireless Transmission: Point-to-point

Fresnel Zone Clearance

The Fresnel zone is a three-dimensional ellipsoidal volume between

Wide area coverage but issues due to

Mobile or Cellular: the principle

Wireless base stations distribute the signal to subscribers

First generation technology (1G)

Second generation technology (2G)

AMPS, TACS (analog)

TDMA , CDMA , GSM (digital)

Third generation technology (3G)

CDMA 2000 etc.

Super 3G, 3.5G, 3.75G

Fourth generation technology (4G) ?

Fixed wireless: Wi-Fi

Used for wireless hotspots linked to the

Fixed wireless: WiMAX

Broadband wireless distribution over wide areas