Book - A Basic Guide To Air Photo Interpretation in HK OCR PDF

A Basic Guide to Air Photo Interpretation
in Hong Kong
Ho HY, King JP & Wallace MI
ce ARUP
A Basic Guide to Air Photo Interpretation

in Hong Kong
Ho HY, King JP & Wallace MI
Applied Geoscience Centre, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Hong Kong
ARUP
Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd
Foreword
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form without prior permission.
A Basic Guide to ~u: Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong

Ho H.Y., Kin~;l & Wallace M.l.
Published bi:
Applied Geoscience Centre
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Hong Kong
Pokfulam Road
Hong Kong
The Applied Geoscience Centre promotes collaborative research and provides analytical services
and training. Its sponsors include the Association of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Specialists
(Hong Kong), Bauer (Hong Kong) Ltd., Electronic & Geophysical Services Ltd., Fong On
Geotechnics Ltd. and the Hong Kong Construction Association Site Investigation Contractors
Committee.
http://www.hku.hkiearthsciiagc/
Geoscience Guides:
Fletcher, C.J.N., 2004. Geology of Site Investigation Boreholes from Hong Kong
Ho H.Y., King J.P. & Wallace M.l., 2006. A Basic Guide to Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong
The 1924, 1945 & 1949 air photos are reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her
Majesty's Stationery Office. British Crown CopyrightIMOD.
All other air photos are reproduced with permission of the Director of Lands. The Government of
Hong Kong SAR. License No. 55/2005.
The historical ground-based photographs of Hong Kong shown on Figures 5.2a & 5.2b (ref.
HKRS365-1-179-1 & HKRS 365-1-6-6) are reproduced with the permission of the Public Records
Office, Government Records Service, Hong Kong SAR.
ISBN 13: 978-988-98896-1-6

ISBN 10: 988-98896-1-7
Front Cover: Victoria Harbour looking east. Oblique air photo, flying height 6,000 feet, taken in
November 2000.
Foreword
For eighty years photographs have been systematically taken of Hong Kong from the air. The
photographic negatives are archived in their tens of thousands by the government and prints may be
purchased by members ofthe public, without restriction.
Trained people can make use of such air photos in special ways. When a pair of adjacent
overlapping photographs is viewed through a stereoscope, the brain constructs a 3D image, a
synoptic view of the ground just as seen from the air. With training we can learn to see subtle
features on the photographic image. Characteristics of the ground can be detected that reflect the
long history of the landscape, the underlying geology of the rocks and the footprints of human
activity. From a series of air photos we can discern small changes made years ago in the use of a
building lot and compute the movement of a piece of hillside.
In various parts of the world air photo interpretation (API) techniques have been applied in geology,
engineering geology and natural resource assessment for at least the last seventy years. The use of
the technique in geotechnical practice in Hong Kong in particular received a boost in 1978, with the
establishment of an API unit in the Geotechnical Control Office. Many excellent API studies have
since been carried out in Hong Kong by experts in government and the engineering consultancies.
Given this boost and with its treasurehouse of past air photography you might expect the use of API
to have become commonplace in professional practice in Hong Kong. But this is not so for one
simple reason: few of the people who might gain from the use of air .photos will have received any
training in API in their university education.
We are helping to put this right. The Department of Earth Sciences at HKU teaches introductory
courses in API for undergraduates, postgraduates and working professionals. The teaching facilities
are now sufficient. to train a class of 25 students, but we lack an affordable basic API guidance
manual.
In 2004 an MSc dissertation was completed at HKU by Ms Ho Hoi-Yan on the subject Application
of Aerial Photography in Geotechnical Practice in Hong Kong (MSc in Applied Geosciences,
Department of Earth Sciences). Ms Ho has carried out further research with her mentor in Ove Arup
and Partners, Mark Wallace, and her dissertation adviser, Jonathan King, late of the Geotechnical
Engineering Office. Together they have worked on the MSc material, aided by HKU funding and
Arup's generosity, and added to it significantly to produce this basic guide to air photo interpretation.
The manuscript was reviewed and proof-read by John Henry and has benefited from input by Andy
Hansen and Kevin Styles.
When you have read and used this guide, one in a series of geoscience guides being published by the
AGC, please let me have your comments.
Andrew Malone
Director Applied Geoscience Centre
University of Hong Kong

Aug?st 2006
Contents
Contents
f0@1
Contents
Foreword
Contents
,/
1 Introduction!
l.l Objective of the Guide
1.2 / Air Photo Interpretation
2 Principles of Air Photography
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Acquisition of Air Photos

Infonnation on the Air Photo
Photo Scale
Distortion
Vertical Exaggeration (and Compression)
Orthophotos
Types of Photographic Film
Stereoscopy
3 Air Photo Interpretation Techniques

Selection of Air Photos
Orientation of Air Photos in Relation to Shadow and Topography
Procedure for Fonning a 3D Image Using a Mirror Stereoscope
Procedure for Using Pocket Stereoscope
Stereoscopic Viewing Without a Stereoscope
Stereoscopic Viewing of Terrestrial Photos
Use of Single Air Photos
Care of Mirror Stereoscopes
Care of Air Photos
Elements of the Photographic Image
3.1 0.1 Shape
3.10.2 Pattern
3.10.3 Size
3.10.4 Tone I Colour
3.10.5 Shadow
3.10.6 Texture
3.10.7 Time
3.11 Elements of a Stody Report
3.12 Limitations of API
3.12.1 Physical Limitations
3.12.2 Procedural Limitations
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
4 Air Photography in Hong Kong

4.1
4.2
4.3
The Development of Air Photography

Evaluation of Existing Air Photos of Hong Kong
Types of Air Photos Available
4.3.1 Vertical & Oblique
4.3.2 High Level & Low Level
4.3.3 BIW & Colour
4.3.4 Infra-red
Availability of Air Photography

4.4.1 Lands Department
4.4.2 Geotechnical Engineering Office
4.4.3 Hong Kong Central Library
4.4.4 University of Hong Kong
4.4.5 Hong Kong Polytechnic University
4.5 Availability ofAPI Equipment
30
5 Applications of Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong
35
4.4
1
I
I
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
14
14
14
14
15
15
16
19
20
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
Introduction
An Example Highlighting the Importance of API
Site Investigation
5.3.1 Site History
5.3.2 Geomorphological Interpretation
Planning, Land Management and Physical Land Resources
Stodies of Man-made Slopes
Geological Stroctore & Rock Type
Geomorphology
Regolith Mapping
Boulder Survey
Natural Terrain Landslide Hazard Assessment
Catalogue of Man-made Slopes
Maintenance Responsibility of Man-made Featores
Reclamation History
Past Land Use / Contamination Stody
Route Selection
35
35
39
41
43
43
44
45
45
45
46
47
47
47
47
6 Examples of Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong

6.1 Interpretation of Geological Featores / Photolineaments
6.2 Landfonn Process
6.3 Regolith Mapping
6.4 Boulder Identification
6.5 Landslide Hazard Assessment
6.6 Terrain Classification
6.7 Mis-identification of Man-made Slope Featores
6.8 Reclamation and Seawalls
6.9 Past Land Use and Contamination Assessment
6.10 Other Applications in Hong Kong
48
7 References
93
23
23
26
27
33
Photo Gallery
49
52
57
62
66
71
78
81
86
90
98
Glossary of Terms
104
Appendix A - Example API Report for a Slope Stndy
107
Introduction
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1 Introduction
1.1
,/
Objective ofthe Guide
This document describes the use of Air Photo Interpretation (API) in civil engineering, planning,
land management and associated fields and provides a reference document to aid the use of air
photos. It gives examples from Hong Kong to identifY the key stages and techniques and illustrates
the various procedures described in the text through use of case studies with practical photographic
examples.
The guide is intended to acquaint users with the scope of the technique and its practical uses. It
is hoped it will encourage professionals unfamiliar with API to learn to make use of the technique
themselves, and help them to judge when the services of a specialist interpreter would be necessary.
Chapter 1 provides a general introduction to Air Photography while Chapter 2 describes technical
aspects of the acquisition and use of air photos.
Chapter 3 outlines the techniques of examining air photos, which include the selection of
photographs, proper orientation of photographs and procedure for interpretation using different
types of stereoscope. This includes some references to international technical papers on Air Photo
Interpretation.
Chapter 4 is a review of air photography in Hong Kong. The history and development of air
photography is covered and the sources and types of air photos and equipment available in Hong
Kong are identified.
Chapter 5 discusses application of API in Hong Kong and gives examples showing the importance
of API in desk study and fieldwork. References are presented highlighting the range of applications
in Hong Kong over the last 30 years or so.
To demonstrate the use of air photos in Hong Kong, examples of detailed air photo interpretation for
each application (with scanned images and explanatory text) are given in Chapter 6. This forms the
main body ofthe guide.
The Guide also includes a Photo Gallery showing example,photos of various features, a Glossary of
Terms and an example API report for a slope study.
Satellite imagery is an additional source of remote sensing information which can be considered
as a substitute for an air photo mosaic and used in survey. The interpretation of satellite imagery
is a separate specialised study and is not covered in the guide although some limited references are
given.
1.2
Air Photo Interpretation
The collection of information by observation of air photos is termed Air Photo Interpretation (API).
The technique described in this document uses a three-dimensional image, which is created when
a pair of overlapping vertical photographs are viewed through a stereoscope. Acquisition of air
photos is generally a cost effective way to get an overall view of large areas showing the spatial
relationships of objects.
Introduction
In some countries there may be inadequate topographic map coverage or the maps may be of poor
quality or out of date. [n addition there may be poor coverage of geological, soil s and landuse
maps. Air photo interpretation will assist in developing a clearer understanding of the layout of
the land and provide clues to the potential ground conditions within a site as well as provide an
understanding of the regional context. Geohazards and other land related features may be identified
Principles of Ai r Photography
2 Principles of Air Photography

2.1
Acquisition of Air Photos
from air photo interpretation such as the location of mountains, forests, swamps, unstable ground,
In an air photo survey, a strip of ground is photographed with a large format (e.g. 230mm x 230mm)
fau lting, and human habitation. The effect that man has had on the landscape can be traced back
from the prese))! to several thousand years depending on the features to be explored and the
denudatIOn , the landscape.
Photographs are taken sequentially along the flight line and recorded on a map called a flight plan
Figure2.1. The geometric centre (principal point) of each individual photograph is indexed with
Air photo interpretation is widely used to study the character of the ground and vegetation or
structures upon it. It has been applied to map making and data analysis in many fields including
agriculture, archaeology, forestry, geology, geomorphology, hydrology, land use, soil science, legal
and forensic investigations, military reconnaissance, civi l and geotechnical engineering. The type of
came~a
looking down vertically from an aerop lane at constant height on a straight flight line.
a print number and in some cases each line is given a run number. Most of the flight lin es in Hong
Kong are in an East-West direction.
Oblique Photo
interpretation depends upon the field of interest and the knowledge and experience ofthe interpreter.
Air photos complement other sources of site information and can often provide information that
/
is difficult or impossible to obtain by other means. Among their advantages is the complete and
. -.r....
o
accurate record that they provide of visible surface conditions at the moment of exposure, wh ich
can include information on ground conditions, surface development and land use. They show
of/
information not recorded on topographical maps and when ortho-rectified and laid on topographic
"
maps air photo information provides a useful reference for fieldwork, visuali zation and presentation
of spatial data.
The observational ski lls for collection of site development chronology data from air photos
can be acquired by non-specialist personnel with suitable training. The degree of geological
and geomorphological interpretation required for a geoscience investigation wi ll depend upon
the complexity of the problem and its quality will depend on the education and experience of
the personnel who carry it out. To be effective, this type of API requires an understanding of
geological and geomorphological processes, regional geology and the appropriate landform model
for recognition of these characteristics in the three dimensional image. Such knowledge is gained
from a basic geological and geomorphological education coupled with appropriate field experience.
Personnel with both engineering and geological training and experience are best suited to prepare an
appropriate geotechnical ground model for engineering design. This role is often carried out by an
Figure 2.1 Part Print of an Air Photo Flight Plan (Note: Details of vertical and oblique photos refer to Section 4.3.1)
Engineering Geologist.
The speed of the aeroplane and the interval between suecessive photographic exposures are so
arranged that the field of each photograph overlaps that of the previous photograph by about 60%,
(F igure 2.2) . Where mountainous areas are flown over the overlap is sometimes increased up to
80-90%. This ensures that each point on the ground appears on at least two photographs which will
allow observation of a three dimensional (3D) image with a stereoscope. Adjacent flight lines are
arranged with about 25% side-lap between runs.
1
~AirBa se ~ .
60%
First
run
Forw&rdrrla
,- -- -1--- f---
,,
- ~ -- t}~~---;
Side lap
:
Second
,
~------------------
Figure 2.2 Photographic Overlap
,
______ I
Principles of Air Photography
Stereoscopic 'dea d ground'

occurs in many of the 1970's air
photos taken in Hong Kong (see
also Section 4.2). It arises when
there is in sufficien t overlap so
that parts of the landscape are
not covered by stereo overlap.
:-------------- ----
II
,,
- - -- ----
,------,r,=T---~==r_--~',---~~c----: __ 11
ron
----- --r--
---.!
Second
/
'Dead grou,9d ' ca n also app ly
w here there is a 'topogra phic
shado w' w he n a s lope at the
e dge of photo is faci ng away
from the camera or is obscured
by a bui ld ing so th at it is not
photographed.
princiPlesofAir~p~ho~to~g~"'~P~h;Y;;;;::::::::;;~~~~;;;~=:::::5
NO
-'!
, ______________ ,
I
I
---------------~
------
Stereo. coplc
Dead Ground
,,
,
----- ---_.-
---- ----- .---
~~~~T~~~~-,
1
,,
-_.--- ----
Typical specifi cations for air

Figure 2.3 Stereoscopic Dead Ground
photo acquisition can be found
from various sites on the internet. The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors in the UK provides
some guidance and a typ ica l specificati on for air photo acquis ition. It must be noted that the
specifi cation should be tailored for the specifi c characteri stics of the terra in to be photographed as
well as the objectives of the investigation .
It should also be noted that different times of the year are better for acqui sition th an others
depending on the application. Specific dates may be relevant to particular incidents such as when
a site or road was built, or foll owing typhoons and intense rainstorm we ll known for associated
damage and landsliding.
2.2
Information on the Air Photo
Air photos of Hon g Kong taken from 1972 onwards are normally produced as contact prints from
the 230mm or 9 inch wide film and with the border having dim ensions of 250mm x 250mm. You
will also e ncounter the smaller format 7 inches x 9 inches contact prints of the 1940s and 1950s
air photos from reconnaissance cameras. There is also the small er format of the remarkab le 1924
photos. Refer to Secti on 4 .1 for more details on the deve lopment of air photograph y in Hong Kong.
The margin of each photograph often shows information to identi fy the print and provide techn ical
details. The typical format of a vertical air photo in Hong Kong is shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4 Panel of Information on the Air Photo
2.3
Photo Scale
The scale of any verti cal photograph taken above sea level is found by the following equation:
A data panel is recorded by th e camera and, if preserved, some older photographs may show a spirit
level , a clock, an altimeter and an exposure co unter. The camera also places fiduc ial marks in each
comer so that the image can be registered within a coord inate system for mapping purposes. Other
information such as copyright, the focal length of the camera lens, the date of the photography, the
print reference number and flying height is normall y added to th e film before printing.
S ~ fI H
where
S ~ scale of photograph
f ~ focal length of camera
H ~ height above sea level
The scale of a photograph calcul ated from the fl y ing he ight is the scale at sea level (Figure 2.5).
Scale varies within the photograph depending on the topography; high ground (nearer to the camera)
is at a larger scale than low level areas. The above equation has to be modified to accommodate the
height above ground level:
S ~ fI (H - h)
where
h ~ the height of the land above sea level
Principles o f Air Photography
2_5
~_ _-iBFilm
Vertical Exaggeration (and Compression)
The amount of vertical exaggeration (V) when viewing the stereo pairs under a stereoscope depends
on the ratio of the airbase (refer to Figure 2.2) to the flying height above the ground and the ratio of
the virtual image distance to the eye base.
Photograph scale =
AS
CD
= H-h
B h
V=--
H'b,
where: B
H'
h
b,
-----------------
Ground level
- - - - - - - - Sea level
h'
Figure 2.5 Scale of an Air Photo (Dumbleton & West, 1970)
In Hong Kong, many photographs have been taken with a 6 inch (l52mm) lens and a simple scale
relationship for this lens is to multiply the flying height in feet by two. Therefore, the approxImate
scale of photography taken at 5,000 feet (above sea level) is 1:10,000. The flYlllg heIght written III
the margin of the air photo is still given in feet and not metres III Hong Kong.
2.4
Distortion
Distortion is any shift in the position of an image on a photograph that alters the perspective
characteristics of the image. Lens distortion, flying ti lt, and topographIc dISplacement are the major
causes of image distortion.
Lens distortion is greatest around the margin of the photograph. The shorter the focal. length of
the lens, the wider the angle, the greater the ground coverage and the greater the dIstortIon. Thus
photographs taken with a 152mm lens will have greater distortion than one from a 300mm lens.
Aircraft attitude - rolling from side to side, pitching forward or aft, or a combination of the two tilts the camera off the notional vertical line - the optical axis - that is nonnal to the ground when
the aircraft is flying parallel to the ground. Tilt can increase or decrease the apparent angle of slopes.
In Hong Kong, the water is never far away; it is usually possible to observe l~ the water surf~ce IS
flat. If it is not then you can observe the ti lt on the water surface and apply It as an approx Imate
correction to slopes you may be observing.
On an air photo, as with a map, the actual ground distance in sloping terrain is greater than the
distance measured on the photo. As a general rule the following approxImatIOns apply:
Approximate slope angle
20
30
40
SO
60
====,==:-- 7
Increase distance by
6%
15%
30%
55%
100%
= airbase
= flying height
virtual image distance
= eyebase
The airbase relates to the total ground coverage of the air photo and the percentage overlap of the
stereo pairs. Wolf & Dewitt (2000) describes the details of the principle.
In most survey photography seen in Hong Kong the impression of relief is very strong. In aerial
survey cameras with 230mm x 230mm image format, the use of a wide angle lens, focal length
152mm, introduces a x4 vertical exaggeration when viewed on air photos with a 60% overlap. This
exaggeration comes mainly from the radial displacement distortion and is preferred because it makes
parallax differences easier to measure and convert to heights.
Vertical exaggeration varies with the lens focal length, image format dimension and percentage
overlap of the stereo pair.
With reconnaissance cameras used over Hong Kong during and after World War II, telephoto lenses
were used in order to stay high especially during World War II. Typically the lens focal length was
20 inch (500mm) but occasionally 24 inch (600mm) and 36 inch (900 mm) lenses were used.
For the smaller format 7 inches x 9 inches prints in the old dates with the 20 inch (500mm) lens
there will be not much vertical exaggeration or compression for stereo pairs with 60% overlap. With
the 36 inch (900mm) lens a vertical exaggeration at approximate 0.5 will be introduced. In other
words there is vertical compression where heights appear to be half of what they are which makes
even the Peak in Hong Kong look rather flat.
It is very important to observe the lens focal length recorded in the marginal data on the air photo
and to be aware of the amount of vertical exaggeration when measuring heights or comparing slopes.
Within any particular date set of photos it is possible to make estimates by making comparisons
of structures or slopes within your site to known building heights or slope values outside of your
site. Within the same photo pair these estimates are not affected by the vertical exaggeration. But
between date sets of photos it is important to be sure you consider vertical exaggeration when
making comparisons.
Vertical exaggeration is one of the most powerful facilities available to the air photo interpreter. It
can emphasis very subtle changes in slope ang le and minor undu lations in the ground surface, that
may be sometimes hardly detectable even to an observer on the gro und. The main disadvantage is
that true heights and slopes are difficult to determine.
2.6
2.7
Orthophotos
====~~========~==~9
Types of Photographic Film
The three main types of photographic film used for air photos are panchromatic, co lour and
occasionally infrared . The advantages and disadvantages of these three different types of
photographic film are summarised in Table 2.1.
The distortion in an air photo may be taken out or rectified by optica l or digital techniques to
produce orthophotos which are images with correct horizontal scale and positional relationships.
These days this is no,mally performed through computer manipulation of digitised images. Most
Geographic Information System (GIS) packages include the capability to provide a simp le ortho
rectification or warping that can be useful for field mapping, especially for small areas.
Table 2.1 Differences between Three Types of Photographic Film (After Lawrence et al 1993)
"
Type
Black & White
Panchromatic
Photography
Natural Colour
Photography
More sophistl~ted survey quality ortho-rectification incorporating information from a digital terrain
model requires specialised software and can produce high quality rectification of large areas. In
order to link the air photo to base map information ground control is required to link the photograph
with its inherited lens distortion to the true vertica l map location.
Orthophotos can be used as true scale base maps for field mapping and, when incorporated into GIS
systems, can be accurately registered with digital maps and plans (Figure 2.6).
Infrared (IR) False

Colour Photography
"
A
Advantages
Least expensive.
High resolution.
Widely Available.
..
0
0
0
Colours easy to
understand.
Low contrast, good detail
in shadow.
High spatial resolution.
Good haze pehetration.
Very clear depiction of
vegetat ion and surface
water.
Disadvantages
Fairly high contrast, detai ls in shadow tend
to be lost.
.
0
0
0
0
Relat ively more expensive than B& W

photography.
Lower resolution (but still good).
In Hong Kong, widely avai lab le only since
the 1990's.
Relatively more expensive than B& W
photography.
Difficult to interpret (not natural colour).
High contrast (dense shadow).
Timing important for maximum vegetat ion
contrast* .
Special development processing required
Hardly any available.
Note: Infrared pholOgraphy IS likely 10 be most effecfI\le at limes 0/ vegetallve wale,. stress, when palciTes o/mOisture
soil slill SIiPpOI'l healthy vegetatioll while surrounding plants sllffer seasonal drought conditions.
In
Ihe
As IR cannot be seen by the human eye, it has to be given a colour in the visible spectrum to be
seen. The standard colour for the near IR is usually red, The visible spectrum is then shown by
the remain ing primary colours wh ich gives rise to the term 'false co lour'. More information on IR
photos can be referred to in Section 4.3.4. Near IR should not to be confused with Thermal Infrared
wh ich does not register on photographic film but requires a thermal sensor in a specialised digital
camera.
2.8
Stereoscopy
The phenomenon of stereoscopic vision involves both mechanical and physiological principles. Our
vision is so natural that we seldom stop to ana lyze it (Warner e/ al., 1996). With a single eye depth
perception is limited but we can judge by size what is nearer and what is further away. At greater
distances, atmospheric haze influences depth perception. For acute depth perception we need two
eyes for stereo vision.
Figure 2.6 Orthophoto with Topographic Map Overlay (Arup, 2005b)
In this format they can also be processed using computer

image analysis techniques that can automatically identify
features and measure areas. Orthophotos are often
draped over digital terrain models for 3D simulation
and 'fly through' vis ualisation purposes
(Figure 2.7).
Due to the separation of our eyes they receive a slightly different view of the same object, therefore
stereoscopic vis ion enables people to view an object simultaneously from two different perspectives.
In stereo photography we emulate this phenomenon by taking two photographs from slightly
different camera positions. A stereo pair cons ists of two adjacent overlapping photos at the same
flying height. The stereoscopic view is seen only in the overlapped portion of the photos.
It is important to note that to use the stereoscope we need both eyes to have more or less the same
strength. A strong eye can override a weak or 'lazy' eye so that some indi viduals just can' t see in
stereo.
Figure 2.7 Digital Terrain 3D Model (A rup,2005b)
-------------------------------------
10
Air Photo Interpretation Techniques
Selection of Air Photos
A three-dimensional or stereo image can be formed using any pair of photographs provided that the
ground coverage of the respective photographs overlap, the ir geometric centres (prinCipal pomts) are
not identical a, d'the photograph scales are equal. Provided that these conditions are met, the two air
photos can be from different flight lines, or even from different dates. However, such exammatIon
is sometim e~ not so easy and will strain the eyes sooner.
The best stereo portrayal is from photos in the same fli ght line with about 60% forward overlap.
The use of photos from adjacent flight lines is sometimes useful in Hong Kong fo r selectmg the best
view of steep slopes or areas hidden by buildings from one pomt of view.
Rldgeline
Be aware of the direction the site faces

before choosing photographs.
Choose photo where the site faces the
photo centre.
In this example choose photos from flight
lineA.
Flight Line B
Stereo View
Flight Line B
Figure 3.1 Se lection of Air Photos
In some situations, dates may be chosen that are, say 5 years apart, to try to bracket when a critical
change occurred. When you find the change, you then select intervening dates, if they are ava ilab le,
to narrow the time frame.
Adverse
Lean
3.2
Orientation of Air Photos in Relation to Shadow and Topography
If a landscape is observed with the sun behind the observer, in general shadows wi ll not be seen .
Conversely if the sun is in front, irregularities in the ground w ill cast shadows. In thi s way the
shadows can hi gh light subtle feat ures in a hillside not seen when the shadow effect is less we ll
developed.
Initiall y, it may be easier to orient the air photos and maps to the north, so the map can be read the
right way up. However, once a fa miliarity is gained with th e work area it is often preferable to tum
the photographs aro und and read the map upside down to give th e preferred orientati on of the air
photos.
Topographic factors should also be considered when orienti~g ai r photos to look at a specific slope.
In most cases a better appreciation ofthe landscape can be gained from looking into a slope rather than
down it eve n though the 3D image is of course the same as it is generated from 2D photographs.
Th us it is often preferabl e to have the slope facing towards the observer rather than away from the
observer.
Ground Surface
Favourable
Lean
When severa l sets of air photos are available for a site they wi ll often have been ta ken under
different conditions, and as a result some may reveal site features not shown by others. Such
co nditions include the time of yea r, the directi on and length of shadows, and the obliquity of view.
The Photo Survey

Wide angle lens view.
Flight Line A
It is often possible to select photos from adjacent flight lines or from further along the same flight
line wh ich also show the feature with fa vourab le lean. Figure 3. 1 illustrates this for a site on one
side of a building and ridge.
In the northern hemisphere the su n is genera ll y to the sou th and thus most air photos w ill be
illumi nated fro m this direction although latitude, the season, the time of day and topographi c effects
w ill also have an influence. In general a photograph taken in the northern hemisphere is often
orientated to the south (away from the observer) so that it is observed as if towards the li ght.
Flight Line B
Flight Line A
When selecting photographs to study specific steep slopes or retaining wa lls the flight plan should
be consulted to consider the aspect of th e feature relative to the principal point of the air photo.
Where possible, select photos with a 'favourable lean' where the slope or retaining wall faces the
centre of the photo. The height and orientation of any buildings, vegetation or other obstructions in
the vicini ty should also be considered.
Flight Plan
The
Site
Flight Line A
II
3 Air Photo Interpretation Techniques

3.1
For favou rable lean, site faces towards

photo centre. Slope and retaining wa ll
easy to see.
For adverse lean, site faces away from
photo centre. Slope and retaining wa ll
impossible to see.
While these guidelines give some genera l suggestions for the orientation of air photos it is often
useful to check di ffe rent orientations that could enhance the view of subtle features that might be
missed othenvise.
3.3
Procedure for Forming a 3D Image Using a Mirror Stereoscope
A mirror stereoscope is particularl y useful because it permits a view of a large area in 3D and one
can annotate the photo-overlay with a pen wh il e viewing in stereo. For most people it is difficult
initiall y to see in stereo but with patience and carefu l registration of the two photos one wi ll see the
image in 3D gradua ll y. When it finally is visible in 3D there is no mistaking it and on subsequent
attempts stereovision comes immed iatel y or very quickly.
12
Air Photo interpretation Techniques
13
Prolonged viewing through the stereoscope may bring on eyestrain. To avoid this, take care when
setting up the photographs. As you are positioning the photographs under each mirror and eyepiece,
look with one eye at a time and change eyes quickly. If the image jumps the images are not aligned.
You may be able to see in stereo but your eyes are struggling and wi ll ache if the photos are slightly
misaligned. Secondly once you are set up, look up from the stereoscope every ten minutes or so
and stare out of the window or into the distance to relax your eyes. When you work all day on
stereophotos you can anticipate the ache of strained eyes before they actually hurt and look up and
relax for half rinute. As an air photo interpreter your eyes are your most valuable tools and it is
important to/take care of them.

Step I
Select a consecutive pair of air photos and superimpose the image of one photograph over
the other photograph. There should be between 60 and 90% overlap, the sides should
line up and the orientation of the flight line should become apparent. Separate the two
photos along the fli ght line and place them under the stereoscope. Check that the panel of
information about the photograph is oriented in the same position for both photographs to
ensure the correct orientation of the photographs for stereo viewing (see Figure 3.2).
Using a Mirror Stereoscope

(sufficient lighting is important)
Step 4
Relax your eyes to focus on infinity and if necessary make very small movements of the
photographs to improve the superimposition until the images merge and the terrain should
appear in three-dimensions. The slope of the ground often appears to be increased due
to the very wide effective eye base formed by the true distance between the photographs.
Note that a pse~do-stereoscopic view or inversion of relief in wh ich ridges appear
as valleys a~d vice versa, may occur when the photos are transposed, i.e. if the right
photograph IS placed on the left side and the left photograph is placed on the right side.
Thl~ can be useful In flat terrain with minor river channels in wh ich the channels stand up
as ndges and are often more obvious than in the natural view.
Step 5
If ~ higher magnification view is required then x3 magnifying eyepieces can be used.

WIth the photographs left in position from the initial set-up swing the magnifying
eyep l ece~ I11to place. AdJ~st the distance between the eyepieces to suit your eye base so
that the circular fie lds of vIew merge into one. (Generally there is a little micrometer with
a scale between 55 and 75mm. The average space between human eyes is 65mm. This is
called the eye-base. It is possible to measure this with the help of a friend. Look straight
ahea~ into the distance. Your colleague can hold a ruler between your eyes and measure
the distance between the pupils of your eyes. It is usually accurate to measure between
the right or left edges of the pupils rather than between the centres. Once you have your
eye-base it is very quick to set the binoculars for your own use.)
~;~:P' +---f~'-_
features
+
pp,
PP1
(Hidden) PP2
Pe2
Lett photo
I. Locate the Principal Point for each

photo. (Stereo pair maybe affected
by crabbing or even different
f1ightlines)
R;ghl photo
2. Overlap the two images to detennine

the nature of the overlap.
H htline
FI' hlline
pp1
3. Reconstruct flightlines
through Principal Points.
pp2
PP1
pP2
4. Align flightline w ith axis of

stereoscope.
Step 6
Figure 3.2 Setting up Stereo Pairs
Step 2
For photos taken along E-W flight lines, it may be useful to orient the photographs under
the stereoscope such that the most southern areas are facing away from you. This creates
the impression that the sun is illuminating the image from in front of the observer. The
fall of shadows on hillslopes facing towards the observer helps to reinforce the stereo
model for most people (see Section 3.2) .
Step 3
It is easier to form a 3D image using the lowest magnification lenses and these should be
used for the first positioning of the photographs to form an initial 3D image with a wide
field of view. Select an obvious feature, such as a road junction or a noticeable building,
in each photograph and move the photographs so that the feature is in the centre of your
field of view. A way to do this is to place your index fingers on the same feature in both
photographs and looking through the eyepieces, move the fingertips together until they
appear to overlay each other. Then remove your fi ngers and make small movements of
the photographs so that the images from each photograph superimpose (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.4 Tracking Device (Sokkia Co., Ltd.)
Step 7
Focus each eyepiece individually to obtain the ~Iearest view of the photograph. Try to
re lax your ey.es dunng focusing as this will reduce eye strain later during observation
of the stereo Image. Then repeat Step 4. Should it be required to observe small details
then the use of the x8 eyepieces can be set up and used as described above for the x3
eyepieces. At these high magnifications the field of view will be rather small and it will
be more difficult to correctly position the photographs. Viewing at high magnifications is
much eas ier using a stereoscope with a zoom lens.
Once the photographs have been correctly positioned it is sometimes useful to tape them
111 place to retain their relative orientation while the stereoscope is moved about over them
to view different parts of the ground. This is most effective with lower magnification and
stereoscopes can be mounted on moving arms or sliding tracks to allow smooth movement
of the stereoscope over the photographs (Figure 3.4) .
Training and experience will not necessarily improve the ability to see the stereoscopic image but
it will .increase the ability to interpret one. However, a small percentage of people cannot fo;m a
stereo Image.
3.4
14
Procedure for Using Pocket Stereoscope
3.8
15
Care of Mirror Stereoscopes
Tbe Pocket Stereoscope (Figure 3.5) consists

of tw o lenses mounted in a frame which
bas folding legs. The distance between the
lenses can be varied to suit the eye-base of
the user.
Always use the handles to pick up the stereoscope and when holding it while unfolding or folding
the legs. Do not touch the mirrors with your fingers because the mirrors are front-silvered and are
easily marked and etched by the sweat of finger tips. Optical quality mirrors have tbe silver on the
front so that there is not a faint double reflection from the front of the glass as well as from the si lver
backing which you wi ll notice if you look closely in conventional mirrors.
To use th.ypocket stereoscope two

consecutive air photos are placed one
on the other so that the areas which .i....:~!::~:!.~~~~::::~~~;;J~~:;;;"-~.they have in common are both visible.
Figure 3.5 A Pocket Stereoscope
An item of detail is selected in the area of
overlap and the photographs are drawn apart until the
separation of this item on the two photographs is the same as the distance between the observer's
eyes, about 60-70mm. A strip of about 60mm wide is now avai lable for stereoscopic examination.
The stereoscope is placed with each lens over the same item of detail on the two photographs. A
single stereoscopic image should now be seen through the stereoscope.
3.9
This techn ique is more suited to site use and is limited by its short focal length. The major
disadvantage of this instrument is that it is not possible to view 230mm x 230mm contact prints
without bending the photographs to overlap them.
3.5
Stereoscopic Viewing Without a Stereoscope
Some people with normal vision and eyes of equal strength can develop the knack of stereoscopic
viewing without using a stereoscope. This skill maybe useful for navigational purposes in the field.
The major disadvantage of not using a stereoscope is eyestrain and the loss of magnification. Many
people, even with perfectly normal vision, are unable to develop this technique however.
3.6
Stereoscopic Viewing of Terrestrial Photos
Just as with air photos, a three-dimensional or stereo image can be formed using any pair of
terrestrial photographs provided that their view overlaps and they are not taken from the same
position. With a standard 45mm or 50mm camera lens a separation of about 5111 is adequate for a
feature within 100m of the camera whi le a somewhat wider separation may be used for observation
of a landscape. Some trials with a camera will soon show the best distance. This technique can be
useful for making observations of rock structure on inaccessible rock faces or enhancing the view of
Care of Air Photos
Air photos are expensive to acquire and print but they provide synoptic views of large areas with
considerable detail. They are often acquired to collect data for a specific project but there will be
much information on the photograph that may be useful for other work later. Catalogued air photos
form a va luable resource and organisations co llect air photos into libraries to share th em among
many users.
It is important that each user takes care not to damage or permanently mark the photographs as this
will make them less useful for subsequent users. There is nothing worse than attempting to interpret
a subtle change in tone or feature that eventuall y turns out to be an ink or pencil mark left by a
previous user!
Care needs to be taken to avoid creasing or defacing the photographs. Ink pens should never be
used to mark or even point to features on a photograph. Photographs can be protected by clear
overlays taped onto them and used for interpretation. The advantage of plastic film is that is can be
flipped out of the way for a clear view. Staedtler Pens Superfine draws the thinnest lines on the film
overlay. If you accidentall y mark the alternate photo of the stereo pair (without the film) Staedtler
have a solvent pen which removes the ink.
Alternatively, soft 'Omnichrom' or 'Dermatograph' pencils (Figure 3.6) can be used to directly
mark photos (Figure 3.7) as they can be rubbed off with a clean cloth or eraser. These pencils are
produced under the trade name of Staedtler and Mitsubishi and can be found in large stationery
stores.
Ordinary pencil or ink lines can be removed with a cloth moistened with methylated spirits but great
care should be taken or the emulsion may be softened an)! the photo image damaged. If ord inary
pencils or ink pens are used to draw on the photographs, they usuall y leave an indentation on the
surface of the photograph that cannot be removed even after the line is erased.
a landscape.
3.7
Use of Single Air Photos
In some cases a pair of air photos with overlap may not be available and observations have to be
made from a single photograph. Use of a magnifying glass is recommended. This may be useful
to identify the presence and location of prominent linear features such as roads or buildings but it
is almost impossible to identify the 3D characteristics of features which can be very misleading
and lead to significant errors of interpretation. Where observations from single photographs are
used they should be very carefull y checked against 3D data such as contour maps and other sets of
photographs that cover the same area. Use of single air photos is commonplace in archaeological
work (Wi lson, 1982).
Figure 3.6 Soft 'Crayon' Pencils
Figure 3.7 Direct Marking on the Air Photos
If paper (masking) tape is used to hold air photos in place, it should be restricted to the border and
care is required with its removal as pulling upwards on the edge of the air photo may separate the
various layers of paper.
========-_16
3.10.3
3.10 Elements of the Photographic Image
--==================~
Size is the length, width, height, area or vo lume of an object as compared to its background
or surroundings. Descriptive words for size may include sma ll , large, etc. or their estimated
dimensions. The size of a studi ed feature can be estimated from its relation to an object of
known dimensions such as a car, road or adjacent buildings (Figure 3.10).
A consideration of the various elements making up the photographic image will assist in making a
description of the scene they represent. They include shape, pattern, size, tone, shadow, texture and
time.
3.10.1
Size
17
Shap , /
It is often possible to estimate building heights by counting the number of storeys by rows
of windows or balconies. Typical storey heights are around 3m and an approximate height
can be estimated. In Hong Kong, new highway road lane widths are about 3-4m. New
soil cut slope batters can often be 7-8m high. Size and height of an object can therefore be
estimated from a known feature.
Sh'}pe is the form or outline of an object compared to its surroundings. Many objects
can be recognized by their two-d imen siona l shape on a single air photo or from threedimensional views of stereoscopic image (Figure 3.8). Shape is usuall y enough of a e1ue
for photo interpreters to positively identify an object. Typical descriptive words for shape
include circu lar, square, ova l, rectangular, irregular, L-shaped, or pointed, etc.
Size is a measure of the object's surface area

(e.g. single-lane vs. mu lti-lane roads).
The form of an object on an air photo helps to

identify the object. Regular uniform shapes
usually indicate a human involvement.
Multi-lane
highway
Circular shaped oil tanks
Vill age road
Year 1996 (ph% No. CN14044)

Tuell MUll, NelV Terrifories
Year 1972 (Photo No. 1862)
Ap Lei Chall, Hong Kong
Figure 3.8 Air Photo Shape
3.10.2
Figure 3.10 Air Photo Size
3.10.4
Pattem
Pattern is the phys ical arrangement of repeated characteri stics of an area or object. It can
be recognized by a certain spatial order or disorder. Patterns can be man-made or natural
and in general man-made patterns can be distinguished from natural ones. Humans usually
create well-defined geometri c patterns whereas natural patterns are not near ly as uniform
(Figure 3.9). For example, a field or crops may be seen as a series of linear rows, or a
natural forest may be seen as mUltiple irregu lar round shapes. Words to describe pattern
include uniform, mottled, square, round , repetitive, or linear, etc.
Tone / C%llr
Tone is brightness, or grades of light, s hadow, or colour. Tone is usuall y used in
conjunction with another photo identification element, like shape or texture. On black &
white photographs, tone varies from black to white with various shades of grey in between.
Recently excavated soil or a recent lands lide is normally observed as a light tone. On
colour photography, hue, saturation, and brightness all contribute to the interpreter's abil ity
to differentiate objects. Tone is directly affected by the angle of the sun and its intensity.
Descriptive words for tone include dark, li ght, medium , varied, even, or uneven (Figure
3.11).
The colour characteristics of an object,
relative to other objects in the photos, are
used to identify the feature (e.g. water and
vegetation usually has a dark tone, while sand
has a light tone).
Similar to shape, the spatial arrangement of

objects is also useful to identify an object and
its usage .
Plantation
forest
Year 1973 (Ph% No . 4625)

Chellng Sha. Lamall
Figure 3.11 Air Photo Tone
Figure 3.9 Air Photo Pallem
18
3.10.5
3.10.7
Shadow
3.11 Elements of a Study Report

A shadow provides information about the
object's height and shape.
Low-rise building
(shorter shadow)
High-rise building
(longer shadow)

Choi Wan Estate, Kowloon
3.10.6
Time
Time, as an element of ai r photo interpretation, refers to the temporal relationship of objects
and phenomena. Time as in a specific or opportune date that captures a specific event - like
a landslip or a contamination event. Time as time of day and the opportunity to observe
what is in shadow and what is in light, or to observe high tide or low tide. Time as in the
passing oftirne and monitoring of a sequence of events, say the progress of a road building
contract.
Shadow is the patch of shade projected by an object that intercepts light and wi ll vary with
time of day. Shadows may help the photo interpreter by providing a profile image of an
object or highlight relief on a hillside. They give valuable clues as to profile shapes and
relati ve sizes of objects such as bridge structures, towers, or trees (Figure 3.12). On the
other hand, shadows often obscure important details that one may wish to see. The best
stereo v,few is obtained when shadows fall towards the interpreter. In the absence of bright
sunligJit, shadows may be weak or virtually absent.
I
19
Any air photo interpretation study will need to be reported in writing and, whatever the subject,
certain basic aspects are common to all reports. The report should always include:
A summary of the most significant observations relevant to the objectives of the API with author's
name and date and reason for the study.
A plan of the study area with all observations accurately located. The plan should always include a
north arrow and a scale. For geomorphological mapping Anon (1972) provides a useful commonly
used legend. Where observations cover a number of years, colour coding them by year or use of a
series of maps with different years can aid clarity. Alternatively, scanned images or ortho-rectified
images with annotations are useful and easy for the reader to understand.
Figure 3.12 Air Photo Shadow
A list of the observations made from each set of photographs.
Texture
A table of the numbers and runs of the photographs used giving full date, flying height and scale.
The most sign ificant photographs should be identified to help the rapid review of the site history by
an end user.
Texture is the result oftanal changes that define a characteristic arrangement of tones (Paine
& Kiser, 2003). It refers to degrees of roughness, coarseness, or smoothness of objects in
a photograph (Figure 3.13). The texture ofa concrete building may be relatively smooth,
but a building of uneven bricks may be described as coarse. A highway pavement's texture
may be smooth, and a village dirt road may look grainy.
The physical characteristics of an object wi ll
change the way they appear on a photo (e.g.
rock outcrops usually have rough texture
while soil slopes have a smooth texture).

Ngoll Chi Wall, Kowloon
Figure 3.13 Air Photo Texture
A note of the site visit. A site visit should always be made by the interpreter to calibrate and check
observations and can often be usefully combined with site reconnaissance to add field observations
to an initial geological model. Follow up review of air photos should be carried out to re-confirm
other features observed during the site visit.
A sample API report for a slope study is shown in Appendix, A.
3.12 Limitations of API

The limitations of API can be divided into, firstly, the physical limitations which main ly relate to
the quality of the photographs and equipment used and, secondly, the procedural li mitations with
respect to the use of the information. In all cases though, it must be recognised that the quality and
efficiency of interpretation are largely dependent upon the knowledge and expertise of the interpreter
and that field checking is a prerequisite to successful interpretation. Fookes e/ at (1991) provides an
example where several experienced practitioners provided different interpretations of the same set of
photographs, partly for want of thorough ground truthing.
3.12.1
Physicallimitatiolls
The main physical limitation of API arises from the quality and cover of the air photos used.
The quality of the image is governed by the type of film and camera used in combination
with the flying height, scale, air quality (transparency) and the time of day, which will affect
'---------
--
20
--
the illumination of the ground. Different types of film wi ll have different resolutions and,
in combination with filters , will have different capability of seeing through haze.
There are also limitations where features of interest are obscured by local cloud cover or
areas of shadow at certain times of day. Sometimes areas of steep ground are consistently
in shadow over a number of years with little or no detail visible. In S0me cases there may
also be poor temporal cover where photographs may not be available for some years, which
will limit the resolution of a site history.
/
SOIte features such as slopes and walls formed underneath elevated roads, around high rise
buildings, or under tree canopy may never be visible in the air photos (Figure 3.14) and API
will be of limited use unless there are old photographs which pre-date the obstruction.
With respect to API for terrain c lassificat ion as we ll as site-specific studies, there are a
number of factors which contribute to effective and efficient application . These relate to
the phenomena of 'under classification' and 'over-classification' during systematic terrain
classification (Styles & Hansen, 1989). There are three general stages during which this
effect may arise : at the design stage, at the operational / collection stage, and at the user
appl ication stage. The general influence on the quality oftbe mapping and impact on 'users'
caused by under or over-classification is summarised in Tab le 3. 1.
Table 3.1 Common Prob lems Associated with Terrain Classification (Extracted from Table A9 of Styles &
Hansen, 1989)
Stage of
Classification
I. Design Stage
The quality of the stereoscope used for air photo interpretation can have a significant effect
on the detai ls visible in the image and thus the interpreted model. This is most significant
at high magnifications and comparison of the image from x8 magnification using a typical
mirror stereoscope with the image from an APT 2 stereoscope (Figure 4.20) with a zoom
lens will quickly show this.
2. Operational /
Infonnation
Collection
State
Under-classification
Over-classification
(i) Too little information

to answer problem.
(i) Too much infonnation to answer

problem.
(ii) Scale too small to

reflect problem.
(ii) Scale too large to reflect problem.
(i) Interpreter is a
' Iumper ', fai ls to
highlight critical
terrain.
(ii) Ground control is
inadequate.
3. User
App lication
Stage
Figure 3.14a Retaining Wall Underneath an

Elevated Road
3.12.2
Figure 3.l4b Slope / Wall Features Under

Tree Canopy
Procedural Limitations
API is a powerful tool for the engineering geologist or geotechnical engineer to use in
engineering site investigation, landslide studies and other appraisal. An API report may be
of much less value when prepared in isolation and without field checking and presented as
a separate stand-alone report.
Even regional studies, such as the Geotechnical Area Studies Programme (GASP) carried
out by the Geotechnical Engineering Office (Styles & Hansen, 1989), wh ich are based on
API for mapping large areas quickly and economically, included large amounts of field
checking. Where field checking is not done, possibly due to time or cost constraints, the
result will be of diminished value and there is a risk that the study may not properly reflect
the actual situation.
21
A ir Photo Interpretation Techniques
(i) Terrain Classification

fail s due to inadequate
information or
unreliable data.
(iii) More time to answer problem, increase

in effort, increase in cost.
(i) Interpreter is a 'splitter' , delineates

map units which are too small to
answer problem.
(ii) Too much information is collected,
increase in effort, increase in cost,
increase in time, overrun on schedule.
(i) Terrain Classification is not cost
effective, too much information for the
desired need.
(ii) May result in confusing and
unnecessary detail.
When API is used in an engineering site investigation or landslide investigation it

provides information for both site development chronology and the initial geological and
geomorphological models of the site. As the study progresses and ground investigation
information (e.g. from boreholes and trial pits) be"omes available the API can be revisited
in an iterative interpretation to help add detail to the geological and geomorphological
model. API data is less usefully appl ied when the study is carried out as a separate study by
an API specialist who may not otherwise input to the overall investigation and whose work
appears only as an appendage to the report.
Potential losses occur in the transfer of the 3D model from the interpreter to the paper plan
and report and again in the transfer of the information from the report to the user. The
nuance of uncertain / tentative observations to which the interpreter may assign mental but
undocumented uncertainty values is also generally lost. Such tentative observations may
later be found to be irrelevant or inaccurate but conversely when taken together with other
site investigation data might later be revealed as significant. For examp le a dark patch
on a photograph may be evidence of seepage, a result of shadow, vegetation growth or a
construction artefact but when comb ined with borehole geo logical and water level data may
be proved to be seepage.
Air Photography in Hong Kong
23
C=-C=--==-.....::::,-=-.:.::-.:.:=:=.~=:.:::::.:.::::=~:.:.===-.-=-.:.==-:-.:.=-::=-.:=:=.::::==:===="'-""-'="":=:7 7:-'::.2=::::=--=--=:::;]
Best practice is when the principal investigator uses API along with all other data gained
during the investigation to update and improve the geological and geomorphological model.
In this case the limitations are minimised, as he, or she, will intemally differentiate between
observations and interpretations, assign probability values to observations and be able to
incorporate even minor observations into the geological ground model when additional data
revealsthel)l to be significant.
Generalied guidelines for effective air photo interpretation are presented in Table 3.2.
/
Tabl~.2 Guide to Effective Air Photo Interpretation (with reference to Table AIO of Styles & Hansen, 1989)
Always:
(i) Spend a great deal of effort determining
user requirements. Map scale must
balance with end use.
(ii) Undertake a pilot study of a small area,
if user is in any doubt.
Ensure effective editing of cartography,
or data base, if a computer system is
used.
(iv) Spend a great deal of effort in
familiarizing the users with the end
product.

4.1
Air surveys in Hong Kong have been undertaken systematically by Government, the Royal Air
Force (RAF) or contracted out to private companies. Since 1967, almost all surveys have been
undertaken using fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters from the Government Flying Service (previously
named the Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force). The specialist Photogrammetric and Air Survey
Section of the Survey and Mapping Office, Lands Department was set up in 1972 to organize regnlar
surveys, although one set of photographs was still produced by the RAF in 1975.
The earliest systematic air photography of Hong
Kong was taken in 1924 (Figure 4.1). Some
interesting background on the 1924 photographs
is provided in Styles & Hansen (1989).
Never:
(i) Commence a task without agreeing the
specification. Failure will probably
result.
(ii) Provide a false impression of what
information can be obtained from an
air photo. There are some situations
when air photo interpretation is not
suitable or cost effective.
(iii) Hand over a Report or Maps to the
user without detailed explanation,
particularly oflimitations to use.
Figure 4.1 An Example of the 1924 Photos (Sheung

Wan, Hong Kong)
'Apparently, the first air survey flight was made

in the Territory on 4th November 1924, a day
after the arrival of the Pegasus from Singapore.
The carrier had a small detachment from the
newly created Fleet Air Arm and four Fairey
IIID seaplanes. The first series of missions was
made from Hong Kong harbour, but the crowded
conditions created by the water traffic made
the operation of the float planes particularly
hazardous. Consequently, the Pegasus moved to
Tala Harbour until its departure for Singapore
in January 1925. Although the main purpose
of the flying was the photographic survey of the
Territory, the Flight was also used, at the request
of the Navy, for reconnaissance in Mirs and Bias
Bay in an attempt to locate pirate hideouts. In
addition, the flight also enabled the Governor,
Sir Reginald Stubbs, to complete the first ever
airborne gubernatorial progress around the
Territory. ,
After 1924, the next available photographs were
taken in 1945 and the following ones in 1949.
The quality of the 1924 and the 1940's prints
(Figure 4.2) and the stereoscopic vision of these
sets of photographs are variable.
Some of the 1940's photography is affected by
cloud.
Figure 4.2 An Example of the 1945 Photos (Mount

Gough, Hong Kong)
,
Best practice is when the principal investigator uses API along with all other data gained
during the investigation to update and improve the geological and geomorphological model.
In this case the limitations are minimised, as he, or she, will internally differentiate between
observations and interpretations, assign probability values to observations and be able to
incorporate even minor observations into the geological ground model when additional data
revealsthe~ to be significant.
GeneraLcied guidelines for effective air photo interpretation are presented in Table 3.2.
Tabl~
Guide to Effective Air Photo Interpretation (with reference to Table AlOof Styles & Hansen, 1989)
Always:
Never:
(i) Spend a great deal of effort determining

user requirements. Map scale must
balance with end use.
(ii) Undertake a pilot stndy of a small area,
if user is in any doubt.
Ensure effective editing of cartography,
or data base, if a computer system is
used.
(iv) Spend a great deal of effort in
familiarizing the users with the end
product.
(i) Commence a task without agreeing the

specification. Failure will probably
result.
(ii) Provide a false impression of what
information can be obtained from an
air photo. There are some situations
when air photo interpretation is not
suitable or cost effective.
Hand over a Report or Maps to the
user without detailed explanation,
particularly oflimitations to use.

4.1
Air surveys in Hong Kong have been undertaken systematically by Government, the Royal Air
Force (RAF) or contracted out to private companies. Since 1967, almost all surveys have been
undertaken using fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters from the Government Flying Service (previously
named the Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force). The specialist Photogrammetric and Air Survey
Section of the Survey and Mapping Office, Lands Department was set up in 1972 to organize regular
surveys, although one set of photographs was still produced by the RAF in 1975.
The earliest systematic air photography of Hong
Kong was taken in 1924 (Figure 4.1). Some
interesting background on the 1924 photographs
is provided in Styles & Hansen (1989).
Figure 4.1 An Example of the 1924 Photos (Sheung

Wan, Hong Kong)
'Apparently, the first air survey flight was made

in the Territory on 4th November 1924, a day
after the arrival of the Pegasus from Singapore.
The carrier had a small detachment from the
newly created Fleet Air Arm and four Fairey
lI1D seaplanes. The first series of missions was
made from Hong Kong harbour, but the crowded
conditions created by the water traffic made
the operation of the float planes particularly
hazardous. Consequently, the Pegasus moved to
Tolo Harbour until its departure for Singapore
in January 1925. Although the main purpose
of the flying was the photographic survey of the
Territory, the Flight was also used, at the request
of the Navy, for reconnaissance in Mirs and Bias
Bay in an attempt to locate pirate hideouts. In
addition, the flight also enabled the Governor,
Sir Reginald Stubbs, to complete the flrst ever
airborne gubernatorial progress around the
Territory. ,
After 1924, the next available photographs were
taken in 1945 and the following ones in 1949.
The quality of the 1924 and the 1940's prints
(Figure 4.2) and the stereoscopic vision of these
sets of photographs are variable.
Some of the 1940's photography is affected by
cloud.
Figure 4.2 An Example of the 1945 Photos (Mount

Gough, Hong Kong)
24
Photographs were taken at various
times up to the 1960s, with the

first territor y -w ide systematic
coverage providing exceptionally
good quality lo w altitude (less

than 10,000 feet) imagery in 1963
(Figure 4.3).
25
All the air photos are catalogued by year, with print numbers and flight lines shown on topographical
maps (see Figure 2.1 for example).
At present, the Photogrammetric and Air Survey Section of the Survey and Mapping Office
(SMO) comprises an Air Survey Unit and a Photogrammetric Unit. They are responsible for air
photography and provision of photogrammetric survey services. Details can be found on the Lands
Department website (http://www.landsd.gov.hk!mappinglenllicll ic_ pass.htm).
the 1960's, with only occasional
The Air Survey Unit (Figure 4.5) is responsible for acquisition and reproduction of air photos of
the territory of Hong Kong. Vertical air photos at various scales are taken regularly and oblique air
photos are also obtained occasionall y. Air photos are acquired for topographic mapping, emergency
yea rs having poor imagery.
survey, evidence gathering and planning purposes.
The quality of air photography has

been reasonably consistent since
Cloud cover andlor shadows can

also reduce the visible area on
some photographs; however, this
is more of a probl em for high

altitude (10,000 feet and above)
photograph s and for surveys
during the summer months.
Figure 4.3 An Example of the 1963 Photos (North Poillt, Hong Kong)
Photograph y is available for

all years since 1963 , except for
1965-1966 and 1971: presumably
Figure 4.5 Air Photograph y taken by Air

Survey Unit of SMO (Lands Department
website, August 2006)
no airborne work was completed
during these two periods. Since

1995, most of the ai r photos taken
in Hong Kong are in colour (Figure
4.4). The general range in scale
is from 1:2,500 down to 1:28,000
presented on 9" x 9" format
prints. The most useful scale for
the purposes of terrain evaluation
mapping, land slide stud ies and

site development in typical Hong
Kong projects is between 1:6,000
and I: 10,000.
The Photogrammetric Unit (Figure 4.6) is responsib le to support updating of the I: 1,000 large
scale topographic map base. It also provides photogrammetric survey services to produce digital
elevation data that can be used to form a digital terrain model for engineering and development
purposes.
Digital orthophoto images covering the whole territory of Hong Kong are now produced through
a digital photogrammetric workstation. The digital orthophotos of Hong Kong are produced by
rectifying the air photos taken by the SMO. The process produces a seamless digital image covering
all the land area of Hong Kong. It is noted that some older photography has been rectified and
most photography since 1999 has also been rectified (Refer to Section 2.6 for details of orthorectification).
From 1979-1984, GCO designed

about 5,OOOkm of flight line at
various heights spec ifically for
geotechnical applications.
Figure 4.4 An Example of a Recent Photo (Hlen Long Indllstrial Estate, N. T.)
Figure 4.6 Photogrammetri c Unit of SMO (Lands Department website. August 2006)
26
4.2
Evaluation of Existing Air Photos of Hong Kong
Most of the early photography (during the years 1924, 1945, 1949, 1950, 1954, 1956, 1959, 1961,
1962) was flown by the British forces with a 20 inch reconnaissance lens to produce a nominal photo
scale of I: I 0,000 and rectangular format. The exception is 1945 which was flown by the USAF.
With the 20 inch ,Photography, there is little vertical exaggeration, rather vertical compression.
Some of this photography is affected by cloud (Figure 4.2), and some addItIOnal loss of detail occurs
in the second /eneration prints. However, many are still extremely useful because they provide an
extensive early coverage of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula showing natural slopes prior
I
to much subsequent development.
Air Photography in Hong K ong
4.3
Types of Air Photos Available
4.3.1
Vertical & Oblique
27
Vertical air photography (Figure 4.8) provides the most consistent air coverage and is
therefore obtained systematically for mapping purposes and to provide a historical record
of development. Most (>95%) of the air photos taken in Hong Kong are vertical whereas
oblique photographs are also taken in some areas. Locations of the oblique photographs are
also shown on the air photo index flight plans (see Figure 2.1).
Early photographs in the Territory show much of the natural terrain denuded of vegetation. This is
a particular feature of the earliest known oblique photography (Section 8 of Styles & Hansen, 1989)
and even up to the late 1960's the terrain is bare of vegetation. The 1963/64 photographs flown
by Fairey Survey (later Hunting) provide an exceptional high quality record of the terrain which
is essentiall y bare of vegetation and prior to intensive development. For much of the territory, the
vegetation cover did not start to fully establish itself until the late 1960 's, partly exacerbated by
drought, hillfire and land management practices. The air photos taken between 1945 and 1967 are
therefore particularly valuable for evaluation of soi l depth, rock outcrop, and the distribution of
colluvial slopes. Many of the colluvial areas are now highly urbanized or vegetated (Figure 4.7).
The air photos taken in 1963 were the first territory-wide systematic set of good quality air photos in
Hong Kong and are a key set of photos that should be reviewed for every API study in Hong Kong.
The quality of the imagery and stereoscopic properties of the photography taken between 1968 and
1975 is quite va riable. Much of the photography is oflimited use for geotechnical investigation, due
to either a sma ll forward overlap and or small area of stereoscopic symmetry around the principal
point. This is particularly pronounced at scales larger than I :6,000 with minimum forward overlap.
Most of the imagery is of a project nature and consists of single runs across a target zone. Since
1976, for most areas of Hong Kong, the quality of the photography is generally good for both High
Level and Low Level photos.
Figure 4.8 Vertical A ir Photo (Tuell MUll, /977)
Figure 4.9 Oblique Air Photo (Tuen MUll, 1976)
Oblique air photography (Figure 4.9) is an extrem ely useful complement to conventional
vertical photography. In oblique photography a low shooting angle enables direct line of
sight beneath and through vegetation and thick foliage. In steep terrain it is often possible
to get less scale distortion in an oblique image than in a conventional vertical photograph.
This is because the lens is relatively perpendicular to the land surface.
4.3.2
High Level & Low Level
In Hong Kong air photos taken with flying height less than 10,000 feet are referred to as 'Low
Level' (Figure 4. 10) while 'High Level' is used for photographs taken at altitude more than
10,000 feet (Figure 4.11). Low Level flight plans are produced annually on transparencies
of the I :20,000 scale Hong Kong mapping while High Level flight lines are recorded on
I: I 00,000 scale maps.
Figure 4.7a
Distribution of Colluvium Shown on the

1963 Photograph (Tung Chullg)
Figure 4.7b
Area is highly urbanized in the 2000

Photographs (Tllng Chung)
Occasionally velY high altitude photography up to 40,000 feet was carried out, but these photographs
were again taken using a long focal length 20" (around 500mm) RAF reconnaissance lens and
therefore actually show less landmass than the photography carried out by Lands Department at
20,000 feet, using a wide-angled 152mm lens. The air photos taken by Lands Department were
all obtained using a standard I 52mm lens except for the 200 I air photos, with CS prefix, that were
taken using a nonnal angle 305mm lens. The maximum flying height of photography that has been
undertaken by the Photogranunetric and Air Survey Section is 25,000 feet (OEO, 2004a).
Regular Low Level photography has been carried out since 1985 at around 6 monthly
intervals, although these surveys have concentrated on Hong Kong Island, Kow loon and
the new towns. Between 1972 and 1985 there was at least partial low altitude photographic
coverage of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon each year, however the remaining land area
only has sporadic coverage.
High altitude photographic coverage of the territory is more comprehensive from 1973 to
the present, with only the years 1977, 1980 and 1984 having very limited coverage. Since
1988, two sets of high altitude photography have been carried out for most years, at 10,000
and 20,000 feet.
28
29
Colo ur infrared (F igu re 4.14) has a spectral sensitivity simil ar to black and wh ite
infrared film. This is also known as 'false co lour ' film , because the green part of the
electromagnetic spectrum from the object is recorded as the blue layer of the film, red light
as the green layer and infrared light as the red layer. This spectral shift gives the false or
unnatural colour to objects in the image.
Figure 4.10 Low Level Air Photo (Taken al 4,000 ft)
4.3.3
Figure 4.11 High Level Air Photo (Taken af 12,500 ji)
BIW & Colour

Before 1972, all air photos were black and white (Figure 4.12). From 1972 to the mid
1980s, colour photography was only very occasionally undertaken. There was an increase
in usage of colour up to 1993, both with improvements in colour film s and processing,
because more requests were made for specialist colour photography, but no regular colour
surveys were carried out. Since 1993, however, colour air photography has been carried
out routinely, with both sets of high altitude photographs and at least one of the low altitude
sets completed in colour (Figure 4.13). Black and white photographs are sti ll taken and
are more effective in hazy conditions, especially over the Winter Monsoon period. Colour,
which is avai lable as both a negative and sometimes as a reversal (positive) film, has a
spectral sensitivity similar to the ordinary black and wh ite film.
Colo ur infrared film was developed during

World War 11 to detect camouflaged military
targets (Avery & Berlin, 1992). Most types
of vegetation reflect radiation more strongly
in the infrared than in the green portion of the
spectrum. Th us, whilst healthy vegetation
appears red on infrared film , objects painted
green to look like vegetat ion will appear
blue or white. Cut vegetation will show as
a pinkish to bluish tone on the film because
its ability to reflect infrared radiation
deteriorates quite rapidly, which is related to
available moisture and hence is an indicator
of the amou nt of water present in the soil.
Infrared is of more limited use if there is no
vegetation.
The infrared films are particular sensiti ve to bare ground and vegetation pattern (Figure
4.15). Therefore applications of colour infrared photography in land resources studies
related to geotechnica l investigations include:
I.
Ill.
IV.
v.
VI.
VI I.
4.3.4
Figure 4.
J3 Colour Air Photo (So KW/l1I
Waf,
1996)
Ill/ra-red
Black and wh ite infrared film has a spectral sensitivity in the range 0.25~m to O.92~m.
Because water does not reflect significant amounts withi n the lower infrared spectrum, this
film is useful for reducing haze and for distinguishing clean from polluted water bodies.
One of the major applications of panchromatic infrared fi lm is in the mapping of land I
water interfaces. Water absorbs infrared radiation. It wi ll appear black in the infrared
photograph, unless it is extremely shallow or contains large quantities of sediment.
False colour Infrared Air Photo
(Stanley, 2002)
II.
Figure 4.12 B&W Air Photo (So KW/l1I Waf, 1992)
Figure 4.14
the location and definition of areas of

mass movement;
the identification of terrain patterns
within areas of slope instability;
delineation of existing erosion patterns.
Sheet and gully erosion is readily
identified on infrared film;
definition of high or differential
moisture content;
investigation of the weathered
zone wit hin an insitu so il (macro
photography);
delineation of rock and geo logical
strata; and
macro observation of soil structure.
Figure 4.15 Information shown on an Infrared Photo
In recent years, some areas in Hong Kong have been photographed using infra-red air
photography, whi ch may in some cases be useful for identifYing areas of seepage (Ng et ai. ,
2003) . Potential applications of remote sensing techniques for identifYing areas of seepage
in Hong Kong and for geotechnical applications are discussed in Scott Wilson (1999a).
--
~~-
"-~'"

&i!iiliWk&'&i4iWWi4iii@W4iiU:t..@@li&~A%W'atM'.l!Ji@i4&
4.4
Availability of Air Photography
4.4.1
Lands Department
31
11?hWiMtN& 1M@ bYt d
The Survey and Mapping Office (SMO) of Lands Department (LandsD) is the official
mapping agency of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government. SMO
I
undertaJses monochrome and colour photography periodically at high and low altitudes.
Copieolin the form of duplicate, enlargement (maximum of 5X for colour and 8X for black
/
anejA"hite photographs) and diapositive are obtainable on order. Oblique views of some
areas are also available. The average time required for processing is approximately 6 to 10
days depending on demand and workload.
The air photos can be ordered directly from Lands Department sales centres in Hong
Kong. The addresses of the sales centres can be found on the Lands Department website
(http://www.landsd.gov.hk). They can also be ordered from all District Offices in the New
Territories; however the flight plans and air photos are not available for inspection at these
offices. The prices of paper air photos from Lands Department are given on their website
and reproduced for August 2006 in Table 4.1 below. Further information including lists of
the air photo products available with prices can be found at the LandsD website.
Aerial
Photograph
Enlargement
Table 4.1 Price List of Air photos (Lands Department website, August 2006)
Digital Air Photos (DAP) were produced from original aerial films (taken by Lands
Department in year 1963 and thereafter) by means of high-precision photogrammetric
scanner at a resolution of 1,800dpi or better. DAP is provided in tiff format and is suitable
for photogranunetric measurement. The price of a DAP in August 2006 is HK$530 for each
photo.
Two scales of digital orthophotos (DOP 5000 and DOP 10000) are available for sale to the
public as tiff images delivered on CD. DOP5000 are produced from the air photos taken at
a flying height of 8,000 feet, they have a notional scale of 1:5,000 and ground pixel size of
0.5m x 0.5m. They consist of 189 tiles covering all the land area of Hong Kong. In August
2006 the price of a DOP5000 is HK$655 per tile.
DOPI0000 are produced from the year 2000 air photos taken at a flying height 'of 20,000
feet, they have a notional scale of 1:10,000 and ground pixel size of 1m x 1m. They
consist of 55 tiles covering all the land area of Hong Kong. In August 2006 the price of a
DOP10000 is HK$665 per tile plus a handling charge of $940 per order.
The availability of air photos from Lands Department are shown in Table 4.2 below.
1983
100
100
100
100
1985
100
100
Table 4.2 Air Photos Available from Lands Department (GEO,2004c).
100
32
4.4.2
4.4.3
Geotechnical Engineering Office
Hong Kong Central Library

The Hong Kong Central Li brary (Map Library) also has a collection (approximately
2,000 nos.) of air photos from the years of 1924 to 2004 with a general coverage of Hong
Kong. Members of the public can access the air photos. However, the air photos can only
be viewed in the Library and no photocopying is allowed. No stereoscope is available
in the Library. Opening hours for the Hong Kong Central Library can be found on the
government website (http://www.hkpl.gov.hkI).
Much of the air photography of Hong Kong is available in the GEO Air Photo Library
located in Planning Division of the GEO (Figure 4.16). Details of the layout and lending
policy for the GEO Air photo Library is set out in the GEO Circular No. 12 (GEO, 2004a).
At the beginning of 2004, the library contained approximately 126,000 air photos, of
which?ost are 9" square contact prints (GEO, 2004a). Black and white, colour and even
some mfrared photographs are held, with flying heights varying from as low as 500 feet to
40,600 feet, but mainly in the region of 4,000 feet. The photographs are mostly vertical in
perspective, although some large format oblique prints from various years are also held.
33
4.4.4
University ofHong Kong

The air photos of the Map Library of the Department of Geography consists of around
14,100 stereoscopic prints mainly in black and white but some in colour. Most of these are
vertical only with very few of oblique photographs. The collection covers most of Hong
Kong with dates ranging from 1924 and 1996.
Arrangements may be made for access to air photos (only for HKU staff I students I
research collaborators). The Map Library is situated at Room 201 of the Hui Oi Chow
Science Bui lding. The library is open for general University use as a reference centre.
Opening hours are Monday to Friday 9am to Spm .
. ...... ... ,101 ........
r-- ... ;;;;;......... ~~I
4.4.5
Figure 4.16 GEO Air Photo Library
Hong Kong Polytechnic University

The Department of Land Surveying & Geo-Informatics (LSGI) has over 300 air photos of
Hong Kong (vertical and oblique). The dates ofthe photography range from 1963 to the
Figure 4.1 7 CAPRE
present and are in the form of prints and diapositives. They also have some false-colour
infrared photos. The air photos are primarily for the use of university students and staff,
The GEO Air Photo Library has developed since 1978 when the API Unit was established.
Styles (1978) reviewed the appl ication and role of aerial photography within the
Geotechnical Control Office. The API Unit has evolved into the Planning & Terrain
but may be made available to others on a consultancy basis. They are equipped with some
mirror stereoscopes, pocket stereo v iewers, stereopiotter plus minor photogrammetrical
devices.
Evaluation Section of Planning Division.
The GEO air photo collection is available for use by Hong Kong Special Administrati ve
Region (HKSAR) Governme nt personnel and non-Government staff engaged on
Government projects (eg. working under consultancy agreements). The air photos may be
taken out of the library. The maximum number of photographs that can be borrowed as a
4.5
Availability of API Equipment
Common types of stereoscopes used for air photo interpretation are shown in Figure 4.18.
cumulative total by HKSAR Government personnel or non-Government organization is
normally 400 for each consultancy agreement. The maximum time that photos can be taken
out is 4 weeks.
A computerised air photo retrieval system (CAPRE) is ava ilabl e (Fig ur e 4.17) to
supplement the manual selection process. Users can find relevant air photos of specific
flying heights and year of photography that cover the site of interest by locating the site on
screen through a GIS system or by keying in eastings and northings of the area of interest.
In addition, between 1978 and mid 1997, some 17,000 small format oblique stereoscopic
air photos were acquired by the Terrain Evaluation Section of Planning Division as part
of geotechnical studies. Much of the natural and developed terrain was photographed
repeatedly.
Mirror Stereoscope e.g. Sokkia MS-27

( including case, swing-in 1.5x
magnifier, 3x binocular, parallax bar)
Geoscope (with 1.2x lens)

Price: HK$I,500 (approx.)
Price: HKS15,000 (approx.)

Figure 4.18 Common Types and Approximate Price (2006) of Stereoscopes
Folding Pocket Stereo Viewer

(2x or 4x)
Price: HK$200-300 (approx.)
34
Facilities for stereo-viewing of air photos are restricted to only a few organizations. The Lands
Department is equipped with stereoplotting equipment for photogrammetrical map production but
this is not available to the general public.
The GEO is well equipped with some very good quality stereoscopes. There are a few mirror
stereoscopes at the GEO Air Photo Library which may be used by borrowers .for short periods of
time on a first-come, first-served basis. Higher quality Wild ST4 stereoscopes (Figure 4.19) may
be available u~i\ request from the Planning Division and a very high quality Wild APT2 zoom
stereoscope 1 1th a j oint viewing fac ility (Figure 4.20) may also be available for two people to
review air pootos together (GEO, 2004a).
Applications of Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong
35
5 Applications of Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong

5.1
Introduction
In Hong Kong there is very good air photo coverage of both time and area. Few cities anywhere
in the world would have such frequency, time span of aerial survey cover, and the quantity of large
scale air photography. It is also readily accessible. Air photos have been used extensively for
regional mapping projects in Hong Kong. They have provided the basis of topographical, geological
and terrain evaluation maps for a variety of geotechnical, planning and land management purposes.
They have also been used for regional surveys and detailed studies of man made slopes, landslides,
boulders, squatter clearance policy, colluvium, floodplain mapping, geotechnical limitations, erosion,
slope aspect, slope gradient, relief, terrain components, site investigation design and hydrogeology.
Often air photos may be taken for specific site investigations but pre-existing archived air photos are
available for most sites and these can be obtained at low cost early in the development programme.
The desk study for engineering projects often includes a detai led site history compiled from air
photos. The production of such AP[ reports is also the norm for slope remedial works projects
carried out for the Government under the Landslip Preventive Measures (LPM) Programme.
Figure 4.19 ST4 Stereoscope
Figure 4.20 APT2 Stereoscope with Joint Viewing Facility
With some photography in 1924, extensive reconnaissance cover in the [940s and 1950s and
complete high quality coverage of Hong Kong from 1963, much of the urban area may be observed
on air photos prior to deve lopment. This allows geological and geomorphological interpretation of
ground that has already been built on and the history I chronology of a site can often be tracked from
undeveloped ground to the present day. API is also fundamental for natural terrain hazard studies
and provides information on hazard locations, geology, geomorphology, landform process, past land
The Department of Earth Sciences at the Unive rsity of Hong Kong is equipped with basic
interpretative aids. They have 18 Geoscopes (see Figure 4.18) mainly used for the undergraduate
use, erosion, unstable slope forms - type, dimensions and history.
and postgraduate courses. The Department of Geography also has several mirror stereoscopes and
some pocket-sized viewers for use in the Map Library.
Some appl ications of air photo interpretation in Hong Kong and notes on the techniques used are
Photogrammetric equipment in the Department of LSGI of Hong Kong Polytechnic University

includes 24 mirror stereoscopes, 18 parallax bars and illumination un its, 15 pocket stereo viewers, I
Zeiss P3 analytical stereoplotter, I Leica SocetSet digital stereoplotter, I [ntergraph [mageStation, I

[ntergraph PhotoS can TD, plus other minor photogrammetrical devices.
given below while case studies are illustrated in Chapter 6. One of the earliest applications of the
use of air photography was by the Crown Lands & Survey Office to volumetrically check extraction
from the government run quarries. A large number of papers have documented the application
of air photo interpretation techniques particularly to geology, engineering geology, geotechnical
engineering, planning and land management in Hong Kong since 1978 .
5.2
An Example Highlighting the Importance of API
On the 3rd of August 1997, a landslide occurred on cut slope No. II NW-A/C55 adjacent to Ching
Cheung Road. Having an estimated volume of 2,000m3, the landslide debris blocked a 50m section
of Ching Cheung Road, trapping a private car travelling on the carriageway (Halcrow, 1998).
The available air photos show that the site of the landslide was used as a borrow area before the
construction of Ching Cheung Road (Figure 5.1 a). Undermining of the natural slope by continued
excavations had caused significant erosion and landslides (Figures 5.1a). Features such as a
large gully and heavily decomposed rock exposures were identified in the photos taken before the
construction of the road. In other words, the road was constructed partly on old landslide debris
and, above the road, cut slopes were formed partly within the landslide mass (Figures 5. lb).
Figure 5.1a The Area in 1949 Before the Construction of Ching Cheung Road
36
Figure 5. 1c Ching Cheung Road in 1973 Following the Remedial Works for the 1972 Failures
Approximate location
Ching Cheung Road

was constructed
between 1963-1967
Figure 5.1b Ching Cheung Road was Constructed in the 1960's
Figure 5.1 d Ching Cheung Road in 1984 Following the Remedial Works for the 1982 Failures
37
38
39
Two major landslips had occurred within Feature Nos. II NW-A!C54 and I I NW-A/C55 in 1972,
with remedial works completed by 1973 (Figure 5.lc) involving cutting back of the slope profiles.
The fai lure at Feature No. ll NW-A/C55 is noted to lie within the previously distressed and failed
hillside upslope ofthe old borrow area. As recorded in SPRIII83, it is noted that the cutting back of
II NW-A/C55 did not extend far enough up the hillside to remove all of the material noted to have
previously failed upslope ofthe old borrow area.
In 1982, a minor landslide occurred within the upper batter of Feature No. IINW-A/C55 and a more
substantial fa~1e, involving a 40m wide and 20m high section of cut slope, also occurred within the
eastern part of Feature No. II NW-A/C56. Slope repair works have been completed in the vicinity
of the failures as noted from the 1984 air photos (Figure 5. ld).
Figure 5.1 f Location of Past Landslides (shown in Red) Along Ching Cheung Road (Halcrow, 1998)
5.3
Site Investigation
Historical air photos are available for many sites dating back to 1945 and sometimes to 1924. In
some cases these can be supplemented by ground-based photographs that go back even further. The
Public Records Office (PRO) maintains a collection of about 8,000 photographs from as far back
as the 1860s. Most of these were taken in Hong Kong. They provide interesting glimpses of the
bygone years and are valuable reflections of the changes and development ofthe city. Figures 5.2a
& 5.2b show some historical ground-based photographs of Hong Kong available in the PRO (http ://
www.grs.gov.hk).
Comparison of all these photographs gives valuable indications of the past use of the site as they
may show structures that have now been demolished and natural changes such as erosion or
landslips that may now be obscured by re-growth of vegetation. The air photo interpretation is
also the first step in the development of the geological and geomorphological model for the site
investigation.
Figure 5.1e Ching Cheung Road in 1998 Following the Remedial Works for the 1997 Fai lure
In response to the major landslide that occurred in 1997, remedial works are apparent on Feature
No. II NW-A/C55 as shown on the 1998 air photo (Figure 5.le).
The plan shape of the 1997 failure (Figure 5.1l) was found to be largely coincident with the earlier
landslide (GCO, 1983) and previously sheared surfaces may have been reactivated in part (Halcrow,
1998). This case illustrates that simple API could have provided some forewarning of many of the
problems which have since occurred (GCO, 1983). However, when Ching Cheung Road was built
in the late 1960s, use of API in the engineering industry was not common.
Figure 5.2a
The Foreshore of Quarry Bay, 1902

(P RO record)
Figure 5.2b
Tai Po Lum Chuen River, 1956

(PRO record)
t~~:l~~,:~f~~2~';~1~~~~~~:~~~~.!~~:=~:~~::::.::=.::::::~-==:::::~:.~ ::::::=:=:.:~=.::=::::::~::=.-::::::::.:=:.:.=:i~
The API technique is used in two main ways to support site investigation. Firstly, through
observation of a historical series of photographs to compile a site history and, secondly, to interpret
the shape of the ground and its surface featnres to help map the underlying geology and understand
the current and past geomorphological processes at a site.
5.3.2
with site recon,lssance and information from the desk study, air photo interpretation is used to form,
the initial ge5)logical model. The subsequent development of the geological model is an iterative
it is also very important to view the site from a more synoptic viewpoint to establish more
process witH the integration of information obtained from ground investigation, site mapping and
observations during construction to reach an appropriate ground model for geotechnical engineering
regional relationships. The 1964 High Level photography is particularly useful for regional
mapping purposes.
purposes.
5.3.1
Site History
The best way to build up a composite pictnre of what has happened at a site is to use the
full sequence of air photos that is available. Start with the most recent air photos to identifY
precisely, using the topographic map, !be location of the featnre or area of land !bat is to
be stndied. Then work backwards (in time) noting the changes or stages of development
to eventnally identifY !be site on the oldest photographs available. Where there have been
substantial changes to a site, working backwards through time helps to transfer the site
location to earlier photographs. The current edition of topographic maps is often less !ban
4 years old, and may show little or no correlation with the older air photos. It can help to
mark the site on each set of photographs with overlays or crayon pencils and to note the
date of any major changes.
Once !be site is located on the oldest photographs the site history can be recorded working
forward through time. Detailed notes should be made of the observations for each year
of photographs and the identified featnres should be recorded on a plan. Use of different
colours may help to differentiate between years of observation.
The interpretation should attempt to give a complete understanding of all relevant
developments and events that have occurred at the site. When comparing two photographs
taken on different dates, a 'no significant change' statement is equally as valuable as one
detailing substantial changes at the site. It is likely that particular sets of photographs
will best illustrate the most significant changes at the site and these should be identified to
facilitate a review ofthe site history by others.
Geomorphological1nterpretation
Geological and geomorphological interpretation of the ground is based on an understanding
of !be natnral materials that underlie the site and the processes occurring at and close to the
ground surface (see Sections 5.6 & 5.7). This air photo interpretation is best carried out on
the high quality Low Level photography taken in 1963 if the site was undeveloped at this
time, when vegetation was much less !ban today. These photographs are particularly good
for evaluation of soil depth, rock outcrop, and !be distribution of colluvial slopes allowing
a good understanding of the active processes at the site prior to development. However,
The use of air photo~ early in a site investigation can provide important information at a small cost
!bat will help to setlout an effective site investigation strategy (Fookes el at., 2000). In conjunction
A number of authors have described the application of aerial photography to site investigation in
Hong Kong. Brimicombe (1982) describes engineering site evaluation from air photos. Randall
& Taylor (1982) refer to its use in the Mid-levels Study on Hong Kong Island. Bryant (1982)
presents !be engineering geological applications of air photo interpretation used in the API Unit of
GEO. Beggs (1984) describes the applications of air photography in a review of investigation and
sampling methods in recent sediments in Hong Kong. Gammon (1984) mentions the use of air
photos in an assessment of the weathering of shoreline rock masses. Martin (2000) describes the
value of air photo interpretation in slope engineering.
41
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5.4
Planning, Land Management and Physical Land Resources
Air photo interpretation in the form of either individual site-specific stndies or systematic terrain
classification-type stndies have been applied to planning, land management and physical land
resource assessment in Hong Kong. A generalised sequence of the terrain classification procedures
is presented in Figure 5.3.

API is well suited to the collection of data or land inventory for small sites or large areas. These
data sets form the framework for creation of geological/geomorphological and other models for
understanding the terrain to assist the decision-making process.
Land resource characteristics, such as slope gradient, slope aspect, geology, geomorphological
terrain units, land use, vegetation, man-made slopes and platfonns, erosion and landslides can
be routinely and systematically collected and integrated into a database. The database can be a
conventional map or plan or a Geographic Information System (GIS). A variety of derivative maps
can be produced highlighting single or multi-unit attributes.
Examples of regional maps showing geotechnical limitations, physical constraints for development
and engineering geology prepared by the GEO are discussed by Styles & Burnett (1985) and Styles
& Hansen (1989). Bryant (1982) and Burnett el at (1987) discuss more site specific applications to
the planning process in Hong Kong.
42
5.5
Step
Step
t>
Step
1
/
Review of Background
Information
Review of Aerial Photographs

Base Maps
Step
Assessment of User Requirements
1
Selection of Map Scale
I
and
Step
1
I
Preliminary Field Reconnaissance
Step ?
Step
Step
>
Pr imary Aerial Photograph Interpretation
1
~
Step 10
I ------I
Draft Terrain Classification Map
y
Y
------t
5.6
Geological Structure & Rock Type
Air photography played an important part in the production of the I :20,000 series geological maps
of Hong Kong by the Geolog ical Survey, where definition of th e geological structure of the territory
could be identified at the local as well as the reg ional scale. It was used to help define the extent of
superficial deposits and marine reclamation. It is also extre_mely useful for defining rock outcrop,
rock type, structural pattern and ori entation of strata for the in vestigation of a site.
a. Initial Edit
b. Cartographic Edit
Computer Coding of Data
Terrain Classification Map
1
Produ ction of Derivative Maps
Field Inspection of
Problematical Areas
Cartography
t>
The use of air photography has been a part of the process of preliminary assessment of cut slopes
in Hong Kong for a long period. Jukes ef al ( 1987) describe some examp les. The review of
problematic sites is a we ll su ited application of air photo interpretation and there are numerous
examples in Hong Kong. One of the earliest deals with an unstable hillside area in Tuen Mun on the
slopes ofTsing Shan and is described by Styles ef at (1984) with a se ries of stereo pairs and overlays.
Field Inspection of Primary Mapping
Secondary Aerial
Photograph Interpretation
With reference to Operating Procedure II , project engineers are encouraged to personally carry out
the API for th e assessment of a feature and to discuss their findings with Planning Division of the
GEO as necessary. In cases where interpretation difficulties are enco untered and a second opinion
is req uired, Planning Division will give expert advice and carry out joint reviews of air photos with
the project engineer. It should be noted that the operating procedures specifi call y require the project
engineer to carry out the API. This aims to remove the procedural limitations (refer to Section 3. 12.2)
whe n the API is carried out separately, possibly by junior staff, and onl y incorporated as a stand
alone (and possibly un-read) append ix to the study.
Preliminary Aerial Photograph Interpretation
Step 1
The GEO Landslip Preventi ve Measu res (LPM) Programme is being undertaken to upgrade old
man-made cut slopes, fill slopes and retain ing wa lls to current standards. The LPM study process is
based on an initial safety screen ing of slopes followed by a Stage 2 LPM Study which, if upgrading
works are necessary, is deve loped into a full design Stage 3 Study.
D esign of Terrain Classification Legend
Step
Step 1
Studies of Man-made Slopes
Since 1995, most of the st ud y and design work has been ca rried out by co nsultants and the
requirements of Stage 2 and Stage 3 Studies are laid out in Civil Engineering and Development
Department Operating Procedures 16 and II respectively (CEDD, 2005a & CEDD, 2005b) . Air
Photo Interpretat ion by th e proj ect engineer is required in both studies for a rev iew of historical
deve lopment, to assis t in ascertaining mainte nance res pon s ibility and fo r geologi ca l an d
geomorpbological information.
Selection of Terrain Classification Attributes
Step 1
43
1
Production of Computer
Maps and Plots
Figure 5.3 Method of Terrain Class ification (Extracted from Appendix A of Styles & Hansen, 1989)
A photo-linea ment is an alignment apparent on an air photo that is ass um ed to be geolog icall y
controlled. Nu merous major lineaments can be identified on air photos of all parts of Hong Kong.
Most of them fo ll ow strai ght, nega ti ve morpho logical features whereas a few of them fo ll ow
positive morphological features. The origin of many lineaments is not known conclusively. Some
represent majo r joints, and some are certainl y faults (Allen & Stephens, 1967- 1969). The streams
and va ll eys can often be seen to be fo llowing the lineaments and as such give an indirect correlation
between lines of structural weakness and drainage lines.
Volcanic rocks of Mesozoic Age account for approximately 50% of Hong Kong's land surface area
and form most of its mountainous ground. Volcanic rocks are generally more resistant to weathering
and form the highest peaks. The higher terrain is typically steep, often with large rock exposures on
ridge lines. Steep coastal cl iffs may be fonned where the slopes are undercut by wave action.
,
Granites and related granitic rocks of Mesozoic Age underlie approximately 35% of the land surface
area. Much undisturbed granitic terrain consists of rounded foothills with long convex upper slopes.
Many of the ridge crests are subject to sheet erosion and gullying of the coarse-grained soils. In
places many large rounded corestones exist on the slopes, particularly along spurlines.
There is some correlation between the topography of the weathering front and the main structural
trends in Hong K6ng (e.g. Shaw, 1997; Owen & Shaw, 2000). A number of authors highlight
the importanc;!of air photography in geological mapping. Burnett & Lai (1985) reviewed
photogeol0,(callineaments and fault systems in Hong Kong. Strange (1987) dIscussed the
techniques of air photo interpretation to urban geological mapping in Kowloon and Hong Kong.
Langford ef al (1987) also reported on the use of air photography in geological survey and ground
investigation in Tuen Mun in the western New Territories of Hong Kong.
5.7
Geomorphology
The science of geomorphology can be defined as 'the study of the fonns of the surface of the earth,
their origins, the processes involved in their development, the properties of the materials which they
are made of and predictions about their future form, behaviour and status' (Brunsden ef al., 1978).
GEO Technical Guidance Note (TGN) No. 22 'Guidelines for Geomorphological Mapping for
Natural Terrain' (GEO, 2004b) gives some useful notes and references as do Anon (1972), Lawrence
ef al (1993) and Griffiths (2001) & (2002).
i'
Ii
'I
"
i',
r~ :
II
I
Geomorphological mapping considers the shape, type, origin and age of landfonns. A landfonn is a
terrain feature formed by natural processes, which has a definable composition and range of physical
and visual characteristics that occur wherever the landform is found, e.g. canyons, mountains,
plains, valleys and rivers. There are some basic pattern elements that the photo interpreter can use
to identify and categorise landforms. These include topography, drainage patterns, drainage texture,
gnlly types, photo tone, photo texture, vegetation patterns and land-use patterns.
Terrain classification mapping of Hong Kong was carried out by the GCO under the Geotechnical
Area Studies Programme (GASP) project (Styles & Hansen, 1989). It is based on Air Photo
Interpretation with substantial ground truthing to identify geomorphological terrain units with
attributes to describe landform, slope, morphology, instability and erosion. Use of the GASP
maps in conjunction with air photos can help to identify geomorphological units in the Hong Kong
landscape.
~i
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n
l'
l'
!
;
i
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;1
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I
I
Some of the most important geomorphological features to identify in a desk study are landslides.
The GEO recognises two classes: 'recent landslide' refers to a landslide that occurred within the air
photo coverage; and 'relict scar' refers to a scar on which vegetation has re-established but which
still has a well-defined main scarp (Ng ef al., 2003). Other features are:
(I)
present and past drainage lines and depressions that could result in concentration of surface or
subsurface water;
(2) extent of colluvial and alluvial deposits;
(3) recognition of old debris fans; and
(4) observations of erosion depth and interpretation of soil thickness.
Examples of detailed API to assist geomorphological mapping are discussed by Parry & Ruse (2002).
Parry & Ruse state that 'the basis of developing a geomorphological model of sufficient detail to
assist in Natural Terrain Hazard Study is a comprehensive API. This is extremely cost effective,
even when using experienced and hence relatively costly professionals'.
The significance of massive relict landslides on recent slope failures in Hong Kong is discussed
by Hart ef al (2001). Thorn ef al (2003) use API to examine relict instability and implications for
slope stability in Hong Kong. Hughes ef al (2002) use API together with field reconnaissance to
identify widespread distress in Queen's Hill in the northern New Territories of Hong Kong. They
also concluded that 'field mapping combined with air photo interpretation is a simple, but effective
means of identifying areas of natural terrain instability' .
5.8
Regolith Mapping
Regolith is the superficial layer of loose, unlithified material which overlies rockhead, including
saprolite, colluvium, alluvium, etc. Regolith mapping has been most successful where there are
lithological variations and significant elevation differences within the study area, resulting in a range
of processes and hence regolith types (GEO, 2004b). In Hong Kong, several classes of superficial
deposits have been recognized and shown on the I :20,000 geological maps. These include alluvial
deposits, colluvial deposits, and marine sediments. The boundaries of the alluvial and colluvial
deposits were primarily detennined photogeologically.
Many lower valley sides in Hong Kong are covered by colluvial deposits. The boundaries of these
deposits are often indistinct but can be identified on air photos by slight but consistent and traceable
changes of slope and, sometimes, a tonal boundary related to soil moisture contrast and/or slight
vegetation differences. Air photos taken between 1945 and 1967 are particularly valuable to identify
the distribution of colluvial slopes, as many colluvial areas are now highly urbanized or vegetated
(Figure 4.7).
Colluvial mapping was of great interest to the GCO in its early years. The Geotechnical Area
Studies Programme (GASP) described by Brand ef al (1982) arose originally from the need to
identify colluvial areas like the Mid-levels area of Hong Kong Island (GCO, 1982) and their
geotechnical limitations. Styles (1984) describes the delineation of colluvial deposits in Hong Kong
using the technique of terrain classification at scales of I :2,500 and 1:20,000.
Sewell & Fletcher (2002) show promising results of using regolith maps, made using air photo
interpretation and ground checking, as a basis for landslide susceptibility analysis. 'High resolution,
Low Level air photos which display low vegetation cover provide the best tools for detailed regolith
mapping' (Sewell & Fletcher, 2002). Fletcher ef al (2002) also describe the use of both old (year
1963) and recent (year 2000) air photos to assist with the regolith mapping in the Tsing Shan
Foothills area.
.
5.9
Boulder Survey
In Hong Kong there are many boulders on the hillside land surface, some being exhumed corestones
and others colluvial boulders. Where these occur on steep slopes above .development they may
fonn a hazard and boulder surveys are undertaken to identify any boulders that require treatment or
removal.
The Boulder Field Inventory held by GEO (Emery, 1998) is a series of I :20,000 maps showing
information on the number, size, shape and type of boulders present on different areas of land
in Hong Kong. These maps are derived mainly from the interpretation of the Low Level air
photos taken in 1963. They can assist in identification of any boulder fall hazards to proposed
developments near natural terrain areas.
Often it is necessary to carry out a more detailed boulder survey for a specific site and this is
nonnally based on interpretation of photographs to identify targets for follow-up field work.
47
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5.10
Natural Terrain Landslide Hazard Assessment
Natural terrain (i.e. terrain that has not been modified substantially by human activity) covers more
than 60% of the total land area of Hong Kong. Nearly 50% of the natural terrain is sloping at 30 or
more. Whilst most natural terrain landslides occur in relatively remote areas, some of them affect
existing development. Between 1982 and 2003, about 1000 natural terrain' landslides affecting
developed areas ~ere reported to the GEO (GEO, 2004d). The Tsing Shan debris flow, which
occurred in
highlights the potential ri~k of natural terrain landslides in Hong Kong. This
debris flow)nvolved approximately 19,000m of soIl and rock and the debns trail extended some
1035m to reach Area 19 Tuen Mun (King, 1996).
IJ9b,
Air photography has been used since the formation of the GCO to study the distribution oflandslides
on natural terrain in Hong Kong. Burnett ef al (1985) describes the use of terrain classification
mapping for a landslide inventory in Hong Kong.
In 1996 an inventory of natural terrain landslides in Hong Kong, known as the Natural Terrain
Landslide Inventory, was compiled from interpretation of High Level air photos (King, 1999). In
1999 a geomorphological interpretive study to identifY features thought to be landslides with sources
greater than 20m wide, the Large Landslide Study, was carried out on Low Level photographs,
mainly from 1963/4 (Scott Wilson, 1999b). Since 2000 a number of API studies, including
comprehensive interpretation of all Low Level photographs of Hong Kong, have been carried out by
the GEO to update and enhance the Natural Terrain Landslide Inventory.
i i
Guidelines for Natural Terrain Hazard Studies have been published by the GEO (Ng ef al., 2003)
and these explain the key role of API for production of engineering geological hazard maps.
Numerous publications outline the importance of API in Natural Terrain Hazard Studies. Parry &
Wong (2002) describe in detail the application of API in a pilot study for Natural Terrain Hazard
Assessment in South Lantau. They advised that all available High and Low Level air photos should
be reviewed in assessing the natural terrain hazards for individual sites. Ruse ef al (2002) describe
how a thorough API helped with the identification of a swarm of 121 landslides in the Tsing Shan
Foothills for the study oflandslide ronout characteristics.
API also plays a part in novel approaches to dealing with natural terrain landslide management.
Hansen & Lichti (2002) present a case study which used aerial and terrestrial digital photogrammetry
to investigate a natural terrain landslide scar on the upper slopes of the Ho Chung Valley, Sai Kung
that is more than 40 years old and now partially re-vegetated.
1'[.
il
5.11
Catalogue of Man-made Slopes
In 1998, the GEO completed an intensive four-year project to update the catalogue of man-made
slopes, involving all sizable (generally >3m high) man-made slopes and retaining walls in Hong
Kong. API had an important role in this project, which resulted in cataloguing of some 57,000 manmade slopes (CEDD, 2003). The catalogue can be accessed through the Slope Information System
(SIS) (http://hkss.ced.gov.hk!hkssl).
By the 1990s it had become apparent that there were many existing man-made slopes not registered
in the 1979 catalogue. Some of these were difficult to detect by field inspection because of
vegetation and access problems. In the re-cataloguing project, API techniques and topographic
plans were therefore used to identifY the slopes for registration - in the 'Systematic Inspection of
Features in the Territory' (SIFT) study (GEO, 1997). This was the most practical means for the task,
but there were technical limitations, e.g. slopes shadowed 1 concealed by clouds, dense vegetation or
buildings or incomplete air survey coverage at low level. It is inevitable that a small percentage of .
registerable slopes will not have been identified or have been mis-identified.
5.12 . Maintenance Responsibility of Man-made Features

Apart from physical information on slopes, information on the party responsible for maintenance
of individual slopes is also essential in any slope management programme, e.g. for action to be
taken for necessary maintenance or repair works. To establish clear responsibility for maintenance
of slopes, the Lands Department undertook the project Systematic Identification of Maintenance
Responsibility of Slopes (SIMAR) (Lands Department, 2003).
The allocation of maintenance responsibility is based on the 'owner maintains' principle and the
'beneficiary maintains' principle (ETWB, 1999). The latter refers to slopes formed to provide
space for or to support the beneficiary'S site, which should be maintained by the beneficiary. Air
photo interpretation is sometimes used to establish the sequence of construction and, from this, the
allocation of maintenance responsibility.
5.13
Reclamation History
Almost 5% of the land area in Hong Kong is land reclaimed from the sea. The earliest reclamation
dates back to the mid-1800s. The history of a reclaimed site can be established from air photos
together with available historical maps and other documents. Approximate reclamation dates are
given on the 1:20,000 series geological maps.
5.14
Past Land Use / Contamination Study
Review of air photos and historical maps can locate specific information about site development and
past land use. Facilities such as shipyards, oil tanks, petrol stations, car repairing workshops, gas
holders and dumping sites may pose certain land contamination hazards. For example, there are a
number of shipyards built near the shoreline of Hong Kong which have been infilled and the land
developed.
Typical hazardous substances that may be found at shipyards include petroleum hydrocarbons, oily
wastes, thinners, solvents, heavy metals, mercury, acids, etc. Contamination assessment has to be
carried out for the potentially contaminated sites.

There are a number of examples of the application of air photography to land contamination and
solid waste disposal. Brimicombe (1987) describes geomorphological terrain evaluation techniques
for solid waste disposal studies in tropical and sub-tropical climates.
5.15
Route Selection
Preliminary route selection for highways, pipelines and transmission lines is often carried out
using air photos in conjunction with available topographic and geological maps. In Hong Kong
procedures for the planning of new roads are outlined in the Highway Slope Manual (GEO; 2000).
This publication recommends the use of API for planning highway projects at the initial geotechnical
review stage and if necessary in the more detailed geotechnical assessment that follows. As natural
terrain hazards may be a significant factor in planning a new highway the use of the Guidelines for
Natural Terrain Hazard Studies (Ng ef al., 2003) is recommended and this includes extensive advice
on the use of air photography.
Examples of Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong
48
6 Examples of Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong
6.1
This chapter demonstrates, with images and explanatory text, the use of air photos in Hong Kong for
Project
Example
some common applications. The examples given in this chapter are listed below:
49
Interpretation of Geological Features / Photo-lineaments

A natural terrain hazard study (NTHS) at the hillside above North Lantau
Expressway (Arup, 2005a), see Figure 6.la.
6.1
Interpretation of Geological Features / Photo-lineaments
,Landform Process
6.2
6.3 / Regolith Mapping
6.4/
Boulder Identification
6.5
Landslide Hazard Assessment
6.6
Terrain Classification
6.7
Mis-identification of Man-made Slope Features
6.8
Reclamation and Seawalls
6.9
Past Land Use and Contamination Assessment
Other Applications in Hong Kong
6.10
Figure 6.1a Site Location Plan
API
Objectives
An API is always required as part of an NTHS. One of the objectives of this

particular API is to identity the features related to the landform and geomorphology
of the site and to observe whether shapes within these reflect some geological
control. As part of this review the API interpreter needs to identity and observe
the differing character of the study area. Sometimes linear features or significant
difference in the landform point to geological contro l on the formation or

development of that feature. The API needs to explore the possible links between
geology and landform development and to identify geological features which
control the surface landform of the study area. Geological weakness zones such as
faulting may be observed as photo-lineaments within the terrain.
API
Observations
The geological maps should be consulted prior to undertaking the API. This is
useful to give a general review of the geology likely to be encountered within the
study area (Figure 6.1 b). In addition the GASP series of maps (Styles & Hansen,
1989) show photo-lineaments that can be checked and re-considered during the
review.
The geology of the area was known from existing geological maps (Figure 6.1 b).
When the air photos are reviewed it is easy to see that the textures and landforms
present within the south-western part of the study area differ from those in the
north-eastern portion.
API
Observations
50
With reference to the published geological map, it is noted that the south-western
portion of the Study Area is underlain by volcanic rocks whereas the north-eastern
Year 1963 Air Photo (photo No. GEO RcfY06358-64 & Y06279-86, Flying Height 3,900 feet)
portion is a granitic terrain. The API shows that more irregular and hilly terrain
exists at the south-western portion whereas relatively rounded hillsides were noted
(con't)
i _. - .
at the north-eastern portion of the Study Area. The boundary of different terrain
types is generally consistent with that shown on tbe published geological map.
i - - -
Photo-lineaments
GeO~O~ICai Boundary j
;,The Study Area comprises the north-west facing hillsides on the north shore of
. Lantau, east of Tung Chung New Town. The nortb-western boundary of the Study
Area is close to the old coastline that existed prior to the reclamation works which
were undertaken for the North Lantau Expressway.
Many photo-lineaments were identified in the Study Area. Lineations found in the
area could represent structural weaknesses which have weathered differentially.
The majority of the photo-lineaments identified follow relatively straight valleys, as

shown in Figure 6.1 b.
Linear features were noted along ridge lines and within the valley areas. A few other
lineaments were noted indicating rock resistant to weathering, such as dyke rocks.
Two significant north-east trending photo-lineaments occur at the north-western
and south-eastern boundaries of the Study Area. They are joined by north-west
trend ing photo-lineaments, which coincide with the drainage channels. These
photo-lineaments are interpreted to be the surface expressions of faults, which align
with the regional faulting system.

Several smaller-scale photo-lineaments can be observed within the Study Area. It
is possible that these lineaments are the surface expressions of geological fau lts /
contacts or dykes.
I
Key
Findings
The key findings from this example are,

Review the geological map of the study area when considering the photo
geology of the site. Verify the geology by field mapping.
Differences in landform in Hong Kong usually reflect differences in geology, in

particular rock strength or structure. Erodibility of the rocks affects the landform
of the terrain. Verify the geology by field mapping.
Lineaments should be considered at different scales, from the macro to the micro
scale, e.g. the I: I 00,000 geological map of Hong Kong (Sewell et al., 2000)
shows macro scale faulting with a dominant north-east to south-west trend and
micro photo-lineaments that could be dykes or a major joint set developed within
a particular hill slope.
Photo-lineaments could be man made e.g. a pipeline. If the feature looks very
straight or has sharp changes in direction explore the possibility of human
interference. Vis it the site and estab li sh 'ground truth' where there is uncertainty.
Photo scale can affect the interpretation. Low Level photos can record joints
and major persistent discontinuities in rock outcrop but may miss major photolineaments such as regional faulting which may be better observed on High
Level air photos.
Interpreted Photo-Lineaments and Geological Boundaries Marked on the 1963 Rectified Air Photo.
There are More Interpreted Features Than the Published Geological Map Extract Shows.
51
52
6.2
Landform Process
Natural Terrain Hazard Study (NTHS) at Luk Keng Village (Arup, 2005b), see
Figure 6.2a.
Project
Example
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It was obvious that basin areas lay within the hillsides and that these, being
associated with drainage lines, formed the main transportation mode for the
soil to gravitate to lower levels. Mass wasting in the form of landslide acti vity
was observed in many locations around the hillside. Transportation zones were
also reviewed and considered as well as the depositional areas at lo wer level.
Depositional areas could lie within a slope area depending on whether there were
areas of gently sloping ground within the hillside .
The photo interpreter looked for basic slope patterns within the landscape and
linked them to gravitational processes that were active or appeared to have been
active or had ceased as a result of other factors. The interpreter was looking for
grouped features such as sources on steeper terrain, moderate slopes with drainage
lines providing conduits for soil movement and lower level depositional areas.
.-
cj<.1
API
Observations
(con't)
53
..
~;-;~ :::~ ,
110
API
Objectives
As part of the detailed API for the NTHS study area the geomorphological and
landform character of the hillside was to be observed and interpreted (Figures 6.2b
& 6.2c). The findings were used to produce a preliminary geomorphology map,
which was developed during the fieldwork phase of the assignment (Figure 6.2d).
API
Observations
The API identified that there were breaks in slope, convex and concave ridges,
gullies and streams as well as other features that defined the processes of
weathering and erosion of the study area. The photographs were reviewed to
observe the location and character of the hillside features relative to the observed
areas of instability. The interpreter was looking for active areas of landsliding
where source areas appeared to be characterised by breaks in slope that were linked
to drainage lines and retrogressive stream and gully development. Several site
catchments were delineated. Catchment characteristics were not always the same;
some areas appeared to be more developed and active than other areas.
Well developed process basins could be easily observed and these appeared to
be lower angle older depleted basins. Active or more recently activated younger
incised gullies were observed that were actively cutting into the hillside and had not
reached to the crest of the hillside. Maturity of the drainage lines could be inferred
by considering how much material could have been removed from the catchment
and how rounded and wide the basin had become. Triggers to the development
of the drainage lines could have occurred from sea level variations during the
Quaternary and possible undercutting by the sea or streams / rivers running past the
toe of the hillside.
54
Examples of Air Photo Interprelalion in Hong Kong
55
Year 1998 (Photo No. CN21710- 1, Fty;ng He;ght 8,000 feet)
Year 1963 (photo No. GEO RcfY10071-2 & Y1 0138-9, Fly;ng He;ght 3,900 feet)
=====--1
Legend
Ct>neral
StudrArn
LM ndslide Feat ures
ctc~ :fR~~~~
Legend
Mor phologica l Ff'a tu rf'5
GeDH1II I
~ - ~
~
.6. -
1': = -.0.-
v
7
<B
ti9
Rounded Ridgc:line
RCIIlJIIkd Valley
Sharp Back Scarp of Recent
Landslide
Roo ....' Bd S~'p o rRm' " "",I;'"
I)cbris from ReccnlSlidc

Debris from Recent Flow
Note: The examples

noted on the photo
are for illustration
on ly.
CD
Luk Keng Hill forms a re lati vely small pro montory that ex tends into the so uth western
end of Starl ing Inlet. The hi ll is about 700 m long and 500 m wide at the base and rises to
about 120mPD at the centre. Broad estuarine bays are located on the west and east sides.
-[t>-
sharp Conva Break of Slope
Note: The examples

nOied on the photo
are for illustration
only.
SltdyArea
La ndslid e Featur~
The Study Area is located on th e east-facing natural hi llside below a north-south trendin g
ridgeline. Several minor ridgelines radiate down from the main ridge line and extend
towards the toe ofthe hill.
The topography is relatively round ed fro m th e upper to the lower porti ons of th e hillside
with a relatively planar portion in the middl e of the hillside.
Oversteepened slopes are present along most of th e toe of Luk Keng Hill includ ing the
toe of most of the Study Area.
There are two main basi ns in the east-fac ing portions of Luk Keng Hill. The basins are
defi ned by convex breaks in slope app rox imately 5 m to 10m below the main northsouth ridge of Luk Keng Hill. Each of these basins includes two or three inc ised drai nage
channels.
<B
Two main landslide types were identified. Channelised debris fl ows were identified where
the debris tra il coincided with a well-defined channel and it was assumed that the debris
would have become mixed with surface water in the channel.
All lands lides occurring on th e open hillside where the debris did not reach a channe l
were defin ed as open hillslope landslides. The open hi llslope landslides comprised either
debris slides or debris fl ows or a combinati on of these mechani sms. The debris slides had
intact rafts of displaced material typically in the sou rce area whereas fo r the debris flows,
the source material was broken up and debris had travelled out of the source area.
20 open hillslope landslides were identifi ed within the Study Area (5 relict and 15 recent)
and an additional 67 open hi llslope landslides were identified on Lu k Keng Hill outside
th e Study Area (20 relict and 47 recent).
4 channelised debris fl ows were identified wi thi n the Study Area (0 relict and 4 rece nt)
and an additi onal 5 cbannelised debris flows were identified on Luk Keng Hill outside th e
Study Area ( I relict and 4 recent).
Debris fans are located at the lower reaches of these basins.

A number of small, less we ll-defi ned, bas ins are also located on the east facing portions
of Luk Keng Hill.
A series of small, sub-parallel basins are located on th e southwest facing portion of Luk
Keng Hill. These basins have incised drainage channels with numerous relict and recent
landslide scars located near th e head of th e dra inage channels. The fl oor of th ese basins
is hum mocky with gully erosion.
On the west an d northwest fac ing portio ns of Luk Keng Hill th ere are well-defi ned,
elongate basi ns with roun ded back and side slopes and single drainage channels. These
basins are typically densely vegetated .
Figure 6.2b Geomorphological FealUres and Relict Lands lides Identified from the 1945 & 1963 Air Photos
Figure 6.2c Recent Landslides Identified from the 1963-2002 Air Photos
I~--
-----=--~
__ .L.......M... _....L
~_
~.
..2~-X.
56
6.3
landform Processes
_
_
Shallow Recent and Relict Landslide

Retrogressive Basin wi th Repeated
Recent Shallow Landslides
Degraded Basin with Occasional
Recent Shallow Lanpslides
Drainage Basin with Few
Shallow Landslides
Over-Steepen~ Slope at Toe of Hillside
(Relict Coa~tal Cliff)
oebriSFl"
Slopes with Open Hillslope Colluvium

Overlying Saprolite Derived from
Mudstone. Few Landslides.
57
Regolith Mapping
Project
Example
Natural Terrain Hazard Study (NTHS) for Luk Keng Hill (Arup, 2005b).
API
Objectives
An assessment of the distribution of regolith or soil types on Luk Keng Hill was
undertaken as part of the API to assist the development of the NTHS presented in
Section 6.2. The findings of the API (Figures 6.3a & 6.3b) were used to produce
a preliminary regolith map (Figure 6.3c), which was developed and confirmed in
more detail during the fieldwork phase of the assignment. The Regolith map was
needed to identity what soils were located within landslide areas and their general
distribution.
Slopes with Open Hillslope Colluvium

Overlying Saprolite Derived from Tuff,
Sandstone and Siltstone. Repeated
Relict and Recent Shallow Landslides.
APT
Observations
Slopes wi th
Overlying
Sandstone
In general, the regolith classification terms used for the Luk Keng Study were based
upon a classification scheme de veloped during the Tsing Shan Foothills Study
(MFJV, 2002).
Recent landslide debris was usually easy to observe in the air photos. Recent
landsl ides are those with a light tone on air photos and are generally bare of
vegetation. In this example, the recent landslide scars exhibited sharp back scarps
and the source area and trail are generally only sparsely vegetated. Where possible,
the recent landslide debris was assigned as being derived by either a slide or a ftow,
Modified from sketch

by Baynes Geologic
Figure 6.2d
depending on whether or not the displaced material remained intact in the form of
rafts or appeared dispersed with the underlying soil exposed.
Schematic Three-Dimensionall1lustration of the Landform Process Map (Developed from the 1945-2002 Air
Photos together with the Field Mappi ng Data)
Key Findings
Relict landslide debris was associated with rounded , arcuate, convex breaks in
slope and the source area and debris trail were generally re-vegetated but with
a contrasting vegetation type, typically ferns or small shrubs and grass. It was

API is extremely useful in identifying the geomorphological features and
landform process of natural ground especially when the site is large, remote and
typically not possible to determine the extent of the relict landslide debris below
individual relict landslide scars. Relict landslide debris was observed below
inaccessible.
rounded convex breaks in slope but in these areas the debris could not be associated
with a single source area but was likely to be derived from multiple events.
Use of geomorphological models aids understanding (e.g. see Hansen, 1984).

The API interpreter should consider the deve lopment of the landscape by
considerin g the shape of features within the landscape. The landscape is not
static and the interpreter needs to identity different stages of development in a
Valley colluvium is present in the floor of many ofthe drainage basins and typically
forms a narrow band along the alignment of the drainage channel. The valley
colluvium is typically incised by the drainage channel.
process and whether success ion or age relates to climatic conditions or differing
rock strengths / structural integrity.
Debris fans are present where the major stream channe ls reach the foot of the
Geological structure, rock stre ng th, weat hering processes, hydrology /

hydrogeology and gravity generally control the movement of soil particles from
the hills to the sea.
alluvium. The debris fan areas were worked to form agricultural terraces prior to
hillside. The debris fans are interpreted to be accumulations of colluvium and

1945.
Field verification from adjacent vantage point mapping should be considered as

part of the API validation.
A significant proportion of Luk Keng Hill comprises di sturbed terrain including

agricultural terraces located in the floor of drainage basins and cut / fill platforms
for graves on the lower portion of the north facing slopes.
Use both small and large scale air photos for the site history. Large scale
air photo s are particularl y important to ma ximi se the level of deta ils and
Saprolite is deri ved from insitu weathering of volcaniclastic sedimentary rock. It is
interpretation of a site feature. Smaller scale air photos are useful for placing the
interpreted to underlie the ridgelines. The extent of the saprolite was inferred from
site in its overall catchment, geomorphic and process context.
the distribution of exposed soil areas and the presence of grasses and relatively
Principles of landfor m interpretation and definitions of landform are well

documented in Lueder (1959) and Way (1978).
sparse cover of small shrubs.
'-"
-~-
'
58
Examples o f Air Photo Interpretat ion in Hong Kong
59
Year 1998 (Photo No. CN I9630-2, Flying Height 3,000 feet)
Recent Landslide Debr is
~l'}. ;.tJ:,~tact Displaced
. _.
Materia!
Channelised
Debris Flow
. ~\. .
I.::,,:~
tf
\ ::--~.~.'
oeb'i;~~:':::::::::::::::::::'' ' ' ' '

Slide
landslide debris
obscured by
vegetation
General Description
Landslide debris from recent open hills lope landslides and channelised
debris flows.
Debr is Fa n Colluvium
Sell ing 1 Topographical Position

Concentra ted in topographically confined settings and drainage
channels.
Momhology
ran-like shape . Inci sed by current stream channel. Topographica lly
con fined in lower reach of chan nel. Not topograph icall y confined
beyond toe of hi llside.
Vegetation
Bare soil in sou rce area for 1-6 years after event. Part ia ll y re vegetated in some areas with grasses and shrubs (ferns) after 1-6 years.
Re-vegetated with shrubs and smallirees after 6-10 years. Bare soil ill
debris IraU arellS fo r 1-2 years after event. Partially re-vegetated after
1-2 years. Re-vegetated with shrubs and small trees after 2-6 years.
Vegetation
Densely vegetated with sh rubs and trees in some areas. Vegetation
removed for agricultural terraces in past or res idential development at
present.
Yea r 1963 (Photo No. 0161-621 YI0071-72, Flying Height 3,900 feet)
Disturbed Terra in
Genera! Description
Re lict landslide debris from sing le or mult ip le landslide eve nts.
Potential source area(s) and landslide Irail(s) appear degraded and well
vegetated.
Valley floors, lower level ridgclines, lower hillslopes.

Momhology
Narrow terrace platforms separated by small cut slopes or stone walls.
Terraces formed where slope angle is generally low (less than 15).
Typically located on valley floor or along lower level ridge lines.
Morphology
Landslide back scarps generally degraded. Debris trails generall y
hummocky and lobate.
Vegetation
Vegetation
Source area and debris trail generally re-vegetated with grasses, shrubs
and occasional small trees.
Generally abandoned and dense ly vegetated at present with tall trees

andlor bamboo.
Yea r 1963 (Photo No. 9993-94 1 Y I 0138-39, Flying Height 3,900 feet)
General Description
Undifferen ti ated colluv ium deposi ted within draina ge line s and
subj ected to fluv ial processes. Fanning narrow ribbon- like deposits
(sometimes discontinuous) along drainage lines.
Setting I Topographical Position
Topographically confined within drainage lines.
Morphology
Narrow lin earlr ibbon-like deposits along draina ge lin es.
Topographically confined withi n drainage channel. Concave breaks of
slope generall y define lateral extents of the deposit.
Vegetation
Vegetation cover is denser than the surrounding terrain. Common ly
vegetated by trees and tall shrubs especially in the lower portion oftlle
drainage channels
Figure 6.3a Regolith Mapping in Luk Keng Hill (Sheet I of2)
Genera l Description
Flat platforms separated by sma ll (a fe w metres high) cut slopes or
stone walls. Fonned for culti vat ion of rice.
Selling I Topographical Posit ion
Setting I Topographical Position

Occurs down-slope of a potential source area . [n topographically
confined areas and on planar and concave slopes.
Valley Colluviu m
General Descri ption

Colluvial (and alluv ial) debris fan deposited be low degraded basin.
Located at the lower reach of channel with slopes less than IS. Lower
angle slopes reworked to form agricu ltura l terraces in the past.
Selling I Topographica l Position
Located below the degraded basi n and deposited at the lower slope and
hillslope loe with shallow slope gradient.
Morphology
Landslide back scarp sha rp or slightly rounded. Debri s surface
generally hummocky with lobate shape. Channelised debris may be
ribbon-like. Debris trails from flows are longer. Debri s trail s from
slides are broader and shorter.
Year 1963 (Photo No. 0161-62 1 Y I 0071-72, Flying Height 3,900 feet)
Relict Landslide Deposits
Year 1963 (Photo No. 9993-941 Y 10138-39, Flying He ight 3,900 feet)
Year 1998 (Photo No. CN 19630-2, Flyin~ Height 3,000 feet)

Saprolite
Genera l Description
Saproiitic so il derived from in s itu weat hering of volcaniclastic
sedimentary rock.
Setti ng I Topographical Pos ition
Ridge[ine and main spur lines at the crest of Luk Keng Hill .
Momhology
Usually appear s smooth with rounde d convex slopes . Not
topographically confined.
Vegetation
Sparsely vegetated with shrubs and grasses and some areas of bare
soil.
Figure 6.3b Regolith Mapping in Luk Keng Hill (Sheet 2 o f 2)
Legend
Open HiHslcPl' Cclluvium
General
Solid Gcolo!;y
XfS
MudstoncOuterop
~- W~~~~;ri?it~?~~~t~Z)
SrudyArea
Regolith T ype
()PCn Hill~lo~ Colluvium
[9!J
[QiJ
Recent L1ndslide Debris
Valley Colluvium
Relict Landslide Deposits
.""
.,,"
...,"
.,,"'"
."..,
83$100
60
Key Findings
The key findings fro m this example are,

Vegetation types and locations can provide a clue to the location of various soil
types.
Sandstone and Siltstone Outcrop
lfndcrla'n by VOlcanlclaClic
rr.:rr.s~~Zt~~,ks~l~rt~~~ti
[m!]
Ash TuffOutcmp
The AP I helped us to choose sites to verify the regolith types and greatly
increased the efficiency offield mapping.
~ ~~~n:~I(T~fr~~~~~2' s~~I~nC)
[Q.!!]
Agricultural Terrace
[illJ
Cut and FillPlatFonn
Spring lines and wet areas could be evidence for a change of regolith.
~ . Debris Fan Colluvium
..
'"
'"
61
Regolith type is commonly linked to the processes observed within th e site .

Process age and activity can provide clues to the expected nature of the regolith.
Old colluvium or younger recent colluvium.
'"
'"
M'
Large areas of mature tree growth can mask direct observation and needs fi eld
mapping to verify the regolith types.
OT'
om
on
'"
om .
~.,.
on
, om
+--
"'",
'"
'"
'"
Slope angle could relate to the type of regolith, e.g. very steep slopes are more
likel y to be grade IV or III weathered rock. Gentle slopes could be saprolite,
colluvium or alluvium.
M'
'"
'"
'"
<-
The air photos taken between 1945 and 1967 are particularly va luable for the
distribution of colluvial slopes.
'" om'ov '"
O>v
'"
'"
'"
Top Soil
'"
'"
Open Hillslope
Colluvium
.~
"'/~~I"
M'
JPlt. c.,,0.
~C'lbCb
'-
c.s
-:. ~
,,
'"
C<
Top Soil
'" '"
'"
Open Hillslope
Colluvium
",'"
'" '"
,,;,
~
a.
<-
CoS
'"'"
a."'",
co.
CoS
a.
co.",
'"
'" '"
'" '"'" '"
OTO
,M' "" '"
Technical
Limitations
-"
...
..
."
Figure 6.3c Regolith Map for Luk Keng Hill
Silty, gravelly sand

with some cobbles
[Upper Colluvium)
Buried Top Soil

Sandy gravelly Silt
with some cobbles
[Lower Colluvium)
Figure 6.3d Study of Subsoil Layers from Trial Pit
M'
&39700
Present Topsoil
!<'Oloo
It is often not possible, even for the specialist interpreter, to distinguish between
colluvium and insitu residual material at surface without close examination in the
field. The extent of the hillside underlain by colluvium was only revealed by the
fi eld inspection and ground in vestigat ion (e.g. drilling, trial pitting as shown in
Figure 6.3d, etc.).
62
~W;tM":''''dd:;8o:d:'''',~~&Z;;ill:::1",;t:m'~~;!r,;:,,,,:,$.),;,>'''':'''""?'-;X::;;"i.d,;X,:',:'B,m;:,,:-:X)C::;::T,Q:rTffi'i-"'7,:'o:,~2:::~;:-;~'ITZf'~?;::::z!.1Z--:;5j.i':.;,:J
6.4
Boulder Identification
Project
Example
'Boulder Study of Hong Kong' for Territory-Wide Quantitative Risk Assessment of

Boulder Fall Hazards (Emery, 1998).
API
Objectives
To/identify and classify the boulder fields throughout the Hong Kong Special
I
Administrative Region using air photo interpretation technique.
API
/Boulders appear individually as rounded or angular on isolated rough-textured
Observations hillsides. They can cover wide areas of hillside or be found on ridges and in valley
floors. Boulders are usually easier to observe on hillsides with sparse vegetation
than those covered by tall grasses and trees.
Boulders often can be more easily identified from air photos that have been taken
early in the morning or late in the afternoon when shadows may accentuate the
extent and location of the boulders.
Boulders can be very large and in some areas can be described as 'Tor' stones.
These features are usually big enough to show geological structure within the
exposed rock and sometimes it is possible to see geological structure within smaller
isolated boulders. The geological structure may not represent the true orientations
within the underlying bedrock as the boulders may not be in their original positions.
63
g;:::.l::::i:;-:;',;'-7V',;;;:.i:;:;;;;,S2Ji!J?1:,;xiU;;;17"'~,<:>:6,/,~",:"",:',,:"li'('lli:;,,:.::;"'gf'm<:;:a"ZZ.~w:vr!'~~v.wi1&%%'ltg~f2Sr&Ji,%rf,@.'~
Attributel: Percentage Area Covered
Class I: less than 10% ofthe surface area of the map unit covered by boulders
Class 2: 10-20% ofthe surface area ofthe map unit covered by boulders
Class 3: 20-50% of the surface area of the map unit covered by boulders
Class 4: 50-75% of the surface area of the map unit covered by boulders
Class 5: more than 75% of the surface of the map unit area covered by boulders
Attribute 2: Boulder Type
Class I: corestone or tor
Class 2: colluvial boulder field

Class 3: cliff or rock outcrop
Class 4: scree or talus deposit
Attribute 3: Boulder Size, giving the percentage occurrence of each class size, to total 100%
Class I: boulders less than I m in size

Class 2: boulders I-2m in size
Class 3: boulders 2-5m in size
Boulder fields and density of boulders were identified based upon a qualitative
classification system for various attributes (Figure 6.4a). For the various dates of
photography assessed, the general boulder coverage was classified according to
these attributes (Figure 6.4b & Table 6.4a).
Boulder areas can also be found below rock cliffs and exposed rock. These may
form part of colluvial and talns slopes where rockfalls from the cliffs have been
deposited downslope of the exposed rock.
In some areas where there was a high density of boulders which was usually
Class 4: boulders greater than 5m in size

For each map unit (or polygon), the proportions of each boulder class within a
map unit were identified to the nearest 10%. It was a visual assessment only,
using a chart to estimate percentage cover.
Attribute 4: Boulder Shape
associated with rock exposure or thin soil cover. Conversely, some areas where
Class I: rounded in shape
deep weathering has been identified also have a high density of boulder coverage.
Class 2: angular in shape
Under the 'Boulder Study of Hong Kong' (Emery, 1998), four 'attributes' were
mapped and they are: (I) Percentage area covered; (2) Boulder type; (3) Boulder
size and (4) Boulder shape. A small part of the hillside in Tuen Mun is reviewed in
the example presented here.
Figure 6.4a Classes for Each of the Attributes (Emery, 1998)
64
Examples of Air Photo interpretation in Hong Kong
6S
Polygon Attribute Attribute

% Size I
1
2
Number
Year 1964 (Photo No. 3613 0 ' GEO RefY11481, Flying Height 1,800 feet)
1568
1569
1570
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
1579
1580
3
N
2
1
1
2
3
4
3
5
2
4
3
10
Attribute 3
% Size 2
20
Attribute 4
% Size 3
% Size 4
20
50
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
3
1
2
1
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
10
70
70
50
50
50
70
70
70
40
70
50
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
10
10
10
20
10
10
10
20
20
20
10
10
10
20
10
20
10
10
20
10
20
Table 6.4a The Classes for Each of the Attributes
Key Findings
20-50% of boulders
Mainly Corestones
Attribute 1
Attribute 2
Class 3
Class 1
The key findings from th is example are,

The best air photos for boulder survey were those taken in 1963 / 1964. The
photographs were taken at low altitudes and were clear with excellent reso lution.
Vegetation cover was thin providing a generally clear view of ground conditions.
Map Extracted from Boulder Field Inventory Map Sheet No.6 (Original Scale 1:20,000)
Poor definition of boulder field areas can occur where human disturbance has
reshaped the landscape and where vegetation was too dense or overhanging to
identify the boulders. Such areas of poor definition of boulder coverage were
slopes covered by squatter housing settlements, those obscured by shadows
from overhanging buildings or terrain, and north-facing slopes of predominantly
ra inforest or broad-leaved forests where, in 1963 / 1964, the vegetation cover
was relatively thick (Emery, 1998).
It is useful to interpret and observe the dates of photography soon after hill
fires as these sometimes expose boulders not previously visible due to covering
vegetation.
Photographs taken earl y in the morn ing or late in the afternoon somet imes
provide better shadow effects on boulders but this depends on the direction in
which the hillsides face.
Boulder properties (including percentage area cove red, boulder type, boulder
size and boulder shape) can be mapped from the air photos. This is extremely
usefu l for preliminary boulder mapping on a large and remote natural terrain.
Low level photographs are better for identifying boulders.
Technical
Limitations
Figure 6.4b Interpreted Illustration of Boulder Fields Identified from Air Photos
Vegetation coverage and shadow.
6.5
66
Landslide Hazard Assessment
Project
Example
67
Year 1963 (Photo No. 0957, Flying Height 7,000 feet)
Natural Terrain Hazard Study (NTHS) for a hillside at North Lantau Expressway
(Arup, 2005a) (Figure 6.5a).
Year 1994 (Photo No. CN8934. Flying Height 5,000 feet)
API
Objectives
An API was requested to identify all the recent and relict landslides within
and adjacent to the study area to provide the basis for determining landslide
susceptibility.
API
Observations
The API was undertaken in two phases. The first phase was undertaken after the
initial field reconnaissance. The second phase was undertaken during and after the
detailed fieldwork to compare field observations with API observations. Numerous
relict and recent landslides were identified as shown on Figure 6.5b.
'Landslide scars can be divided into recent, which can be observed as a light toned
area bare of vegetation on aerial photographs, and relict, which are covered with
vegetation and their exact date of occurrence cannot be established as they occurred
prior to the earliest avai lable aerial photographs (Ng ef al. , 2003)'.
The scars of recent landslides generally have a distinctive light tone on air photos
and are more easily to identify. In comparison, relict scars are covered with grass,
shrubs or trees but which sti ll has a well-defined main scarp. They were mapped
when concave features with colluvial deposits downslope were either visible or
could be reliably inferred from vegetation characteristics.
Figure 6.Sb Identification of Re lict and Recent Landslides (Locations of Landslides Marked on Ortho-rectified Air Photos)
Examples of Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kon g~_ __
API
Observations
(con't)
68
69
Air photo studies in Hong Kong have shown that the re-vegetation of landslide
scars and trails is relatively rapid (Ng ef aI. , 2003). In general landslide trails are
completely re-vegetated within 18 years of the landslide event. Landslide source
areas re-vegetate rather more slowly. They are typically 70% re-vegetated after 20
to 30 years, and are commonly about 90% re-vegetated in 35 years (King, 1999).
Therefore, air photo interpretation of landslides and field verification of landslides
that are more than 30 years old can prove difficult as the bare exposed soil
/ ecomes re-vegetated and less easy to identify. The landslide backscar and other
geomorphological features usually can still be observed for some time however.
A recent study by Sewell & Campbell (2004) has shown that morphological
features associated w ith landslides can remain visib le in the landscape fo r
considerable periods. The study concluded that relict natural terrain landslides
classified as large in the Natural Terrain Landslide Inventory (i.e. scar >20 m wide)
and Large Landslide Study (i.e. scarp >20m wide) appear to be generally thousands
and tens of thousands, rather than hundreds of, years old. Smaller relict landslide
features (e.g. relict open hillslope failures) that can be identified from API are
generally hundreds rather than thousands of years old, although further detailed
investigation of the ages of these smaller events is required. Older events of this
magnitude are very difficult to identify from the API.
The landslides are usually located in depression areas or near the head of drainage
lines and breaks in slope. Gully erosion and local instability is commonly observed
within stream course areas. Retrogressive activity is also common with landslides
occurring close to or adjacent to previous areas of landslide activity.
Figure 6.5c Summary of All the Recent (red) and Relict (blue) Landslides Identified from API and Verified by Field Mapping
(b) Landslide
Important observations to make about landslides are the textures and possible soil
types within the backscar and any controlling factors . Unusual backscar shapes
which are more angu lar and abrupt can suggest other controlling factors such as
relict jointing or other geological control features. The run-out character, mobility
and distance of the fa iled debris should be carefully observed and how it has
interacted with the surrounding geomorphology, slope angles and hydrology that
existed prior to failure.
VOL , =~rra. b c =~"O, . W,I2. L,I2

=1.,,0. W L,
6
It should be noted that other geomorphological features can provide evidence
for ground movement where the soil has not failed by detachment or large scale
movement. Tension cracks, compression ridges and other features cou ld be
identified from air photos and the interpreter should consider these when reviewing
'
Extracted from "Tllrner & Schllster (1996) . Landslides lnvesti gat';on and Miti gation. Transportation Research
Board, Special Report 247 "Chapter 3 Landslide Types and Process, p 36-71.
Figure 6.5d Estimating Landslide Volume for Hazard Assessment (Turner & Schuster, \996)
the photographs. Obviously, any features identified should be validated on site.

Descriptions of Recent Landslides Identified from API and Field Observations
Volume
Tra\'t~1
(rn ')
Distance
Obsen'ed in
AI'I (A) I Fie ld
Verilled (F)
Length
Width
(m)
Depth
(m)
29,1- 1993- 1
A&F
20
20
12
Plana r
480
29.211 -1 963-14
1.5
Spo<>"
29.211 1 983 13
16
1.5
Spoon
29.21 1- 1993-1 0
L5
29.2/ 1-1 993-1
A &F
27.S
9.5
Landslide Number
Angle of
Reach (0)
Landslide Type
Setting
J5
25
Debris Slide
Open Hill slope
1I
10 1
40
J6
Channclised
Debris Flow
At Head of Drainage
Channel &A t Site
of Recent Landslide
Scar (Reactivati on)
Plnanar
J6
Il
40
Channelised
Debri s Flow
Spoon
274
40
l4
Channeliscd
Debri s Flow
Overstecpened
si de slope of major
dra inage line
Open Hi llslopc
Shape
(m)
(rn)
Table 6.5a TypIcal Details Recorded for Natural Terrall1 Landslides
Sha ll ow
Oversteepened
Landsl ide
side slope of major
(undifferentiated)
drainage line
70
6.6
Key
Findings
Low level photographs should be used to prevent mis-interpretation of features

such as graves and other man-made features.
71
Terrain Classification
Project
Example
The Geotechnical Area Studies Programme (GASP) of the Territory of Hong Kong
(Figure 6.6a).
Rainstorms can generate a large number of landslides within particular areas,
catchments or hillsides. The 4-5 November 1993 rainstorm resulted in a large

number of landslides within the study area (Wong el al., 1998).
//
Field mapping and site measurements are important to validate the findings of
the APT and to enable a well reasoned assessment of any natural terrain hazards
in the study area.
_MtecrvllCa/ Area
51lJd1'>'", Progr.Jmme
Territory of
Hong Kong
Orthorectified aerial photographs can be used to accurately measure and locate

landslides in the study area.
Landsl id e frequency, volume, trav e l distance and angl e of reach can be
determined from the API together with field verification (Figures 6.5c, 6.5d &
Table 6.5a). These data are of great importance in establi shing the landslide
susceptibility model and essential for Quantitative Risk Assessment (Figure 6.5e).
Figure 6.6a Location Map of the GASP Regional Studies
API
Objectives
Th e Geotechnical Area Studies Programme (GASP) was initiated by the

Geotechnical Control Office in September 1979, with the aim of providing
systematic geotechnica l input for planning and land management within the
Territory (Brand el al. , 1982) .

- ' - "-,,ol~
0.0
_
_
<O.~
0.00000.1100.00001
_
_
0.0000 110. 0.000;)1

O.OOOO2lo.Q.OOOOS
_
_
0.00005 10. 0.000 1

0.000 110.0.0002
_
_
o.oolOO.1IOIXIO.l
0.I100002 .. Cl.OOOIm
0.00001100..0000:
_
_
0.0000210 o..oocm
_ O ,OOOl:.,o.~
O.l:llXO.l!l 10 O.ocoll
o..ooooslOo..oool
o.ooo l lOO.ClOOl
_
_
o.~100_00 1
0.001100.002
Figure 6.5e Example of Landslide Susceptibil ity Model & Annual Frequency of Occurrence of Landslide Runout
Technical
Limitations
Identifying subtle features that suggest ground movement such as tension cracks
requires some experience.
The project used various digital maps and data sources covering the territory. These
included topographic maps and landuse maps. Much of the data derived for the
study were gathered by API. These data can be seen in the flowcharts prepared for
the project and reproduced in Figures 6.6b & 6.6c. The study used computers in an
early form of GJS to characterise and ass imilate data from various sources to assess
and define the character of the land.
Some features such as gully eros ion and grave sites can easily be mis-identified
as recent landslides particularly on high altitude air photos.

Identification of re lict land slid e scars is much more interpretative and it is
seldom possibl e to record run-out information.
Air Photos +
Stereoscope
3-D Model of the

Terrain
Earliest aerial photography available for the whole of Hong Kong dates back to
1963. Year 1924, 1940's and 1950's photos do exist but only cover part of Hong
Kong.
Simplified by using a System

of Codes to Summari ze
Terrain features
Landslides within densely vegetated gully areas are usually difficult to observe.
2-D Representation of the
Terrain on a Map or Plan
Figure 6.6b Schematic Representation of the Process of Terrain Classification
72
A erial
Photog raph
I nterpret:~n
(AP I)
/
Terrain
C lassificati on
M ap
Field W ork
Vr
I
I
I
I
I
,
Di stri ct Studies
( Scale 1 :2 SOO )
Generalised
Li mitations and
Engi neering
Appraisal M ap
Geological and
Engineering
Field W ork
Examples of Air Photo Interpretati on in Hong Kong
API
Observations
(con't)
Geotechn ica l
Land U se
M ap
Other
Derivative __
Maps
For a Regional S tudy ( 1 :20 ,000) , the o verlay map s consi st of ( 1) Terrain
Classification Map, (2) Landform Map, (3 ) Erosion Map, (4) Physical Constraints
Map, (5) Engineering Geology Map, and (6) Geotechnical Land Use Map. For a
District Study (I :2,500), the overlay maps consist of (1) Terrain Classification Map,
(2) Engineering Geology Map, and (6) Geotechnical Land Use Map (Figure 6.61).
Select combination of
terrain classification
'- - attributes for particular
purpose, and extract
map.
/
.J
Physical
Constrai nts
Map
The detailed studi es (I :2,500 scale) in the Geotechnical Area Studies Programme
used a detailed terrain classification system which is reviewed by Styles & Hansen
(1989). They compare mapping rates for a range in scales and also the average
map unit / minimum unit diagnostic characteristics of the programme conducted
by the GEO from 1979 to 1989 (Figure 6.6h). The detailed mapping is particularly
relevant to engineering geological and geomorphological applications because
at I :2,500 scale the minimum map unit size is about 3m by 5m in size and is
meaningful for site-specific projects (Figure 6.6g).
Landform
Map
Erosion
M ap
Eng ineering
Geology
Map
Engineering
Data
Sh eet
Apart from the detailed descriptions in Appendix A of Styles & Hansen (1989) the
reliability of the mapping system is revi ewed by Burnett & Sty les (1986) and an
engineering appraisal of the system is discussed by Styles e/ at (1984).
Geological
Field
Work
Slope Gradient
Existing
Data
Search
Surface
Hydrology
M ap
().. 5'
5-15'
15-30'
30-40'
40--60'
>60'
Vegetation
Map
Figure 6.6c
Technique of Data Acquis ition and Derivati on of Maps (Extracted from Appendix A of Styles & Hansen,
1989)
API
Observations
Eleven Regional Studies covering the whole territory of Hong Kong were carried
out in 1980's (Figure 6.6a). For the Regional Studies ( 1:20,000), each land unit is
classified on the basis of three attributes and they are: (1) slope gradient; (2) terrain
component and morph ology; and (3 ) erosion & instability. A brief de scription of
the three terrain attributes which are included in the terrain classifi cation is given in
Figure 6.6d. An example of the classification is gi ven in Figure 6.6e.
The Terrain C lass ifi cati on Map combines a large am ount of the API work and
represents a ph ys ica l land resource in ventory, from w hi ch a large numbe r of
deri vati ve maps were obtained (Figure 6.6c) . These maps were designed for
a ran ge of planning and land management purposes by th e selection of certain
attributes or combinations of attributes. Interpretati ve maps can be obtained on the
bas is of eva luations of combinations of attributes, to enable each land unit to be
ass igned a well-defi ned class.
Code
1
2
3
4
5
6
Terrain Component
Hillcrest or ridge
Sideslope
-straight
---concave
---convex
FOotslope
-straight
---concave
---convex
Drainage plain
Floodplain
Coastal plain
Littoral zone
Rock outcrop
col
---straight
---concave
---convex
Fill
---straight
---concave
---convex
General disturbed terrain
Wave cut platform
Alluvial plain
Recl amation
Waterbodies:
Natural stream
Man-made channel
Water storage
Pond
N otes: 1.
2.
3.
Code
A
B
C
0
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
P
R
S
Erosion and Instability
No appreciable erosion
Sheet erosion -minor
-moderate
---severe
Rill erosion
-minor
- moderate
---severe
Gully erosion -minor
-moderate
---severe
Well-defined recent landslip,
>1 ha in size
Development } ---recent
of general
instability
---relict
Coastal instability
Code
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
,
w
W
X
Z
I
2
3
4
In this classi fication. all footslope and drainage plain terrain corresponds to colluvium (terrain components E. F, G, H).
Disturbed colluvial terrain is indicated by underlining the landform code (terrain components!:/. Q, ~, B. ? I. YJ .
Disturbed alluvial terr ain is indicated by double underlining the landform code (terrain components!;t, 2'~'~ ' g,:]f ~).
Figure 6. 6d Terram ClaSS ification Attributes for Regional Studies (Extracted from Styles & Hansen, 1989)
' .
74
Examples o f Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong
75
Yea r 1978 (Photo No. 23885-86. Flying Height 4,000 feet)
a. BASE MAP
b. TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION MAP
c. ENG INEER ING GEOLOGY MAP
d. GEOTECHNICAL LA ND USE MA P
Part Print of a Terrain Class ification Map
B
Sh
~"~,t5::::~5,~"~,t'::::~'''!"''~''~5::::11'~
SCALE
METRES
Figure 6.6f Example of Terrain Classification Map, Geotechnical Land Use Map and Engineering Geology Map for District
Stage I Studies at a scale of I :2,500 (Extracted fro m Appendix A of Styles & Hansen, 1989)
Figure 6.6e Terrain Classification Using Air Photo
76
1:20 000 Studies

i) SCALE 1:20 000
77
I I
1:2 500 Studies

i) SCALE 1:2 500
Minimum Map Unit (MMU ) for a map of any scale
1000
+ 2.5 mm
X 2.5 mm
MMU = 0.25 ha
/
1 ha a~}.20 000
300
1 ha at 1:2 500
MMU - 0.06 ha
100
ii) MAP UNIT SIZE

300 ha at 1:20 000
80
MMU '" 0.02 ha
ii) MAP UNIT SIZE
20
5 ha at 1:2 500
>
10
MMU
>=
0.003 ha
MMU = 0.0006 ha
0.8
0.1 L----,1;-;000&;----'2o!5ooM--<5,:ooo~---"'0~OOOMii~-'2'"0i;ooo
SCALE
Figure 6.6h Mapping Rates, Scale and Map Unit Size (Extracted from Appendix A of Styles & Hansen, 1989)
Key
Findings
The key findin gs from this example are,

Terrain c lassificat ion is a particular technique wh ic h uses the systemat ic
application of air photo interp retation to produce integrated maps of slope angle,
terrain and geo logical components , erosion and in stabili ty.
Average Map Unit (AMU) - 1.91 ha (138 m X 138 m)
Average Map Unit (AMU) - 0.074 ha (28 m X 28 m)
Minimum Map Un it ( MMU) _ 0.24 ha (30 m X 80 m)
Minimum Map Unit (MMU) ... 0.003 ha (4 m X 8 m)
iii) MAPPI NG RATE AT 1:20 000
It is a special app lication of API where ihe ' design and user requirements' need
to be carefull y matched and usuall y is recommended in cases w here an in ventory
of resource data is derived.
Terrain class ifi cation ca n be appl ied to reg iona l cases, such as the Regiona l
Geotechnical Area Stud ies Programme (Styles & Hansen, 1989) at I :20,000 or
in finer deta il to mid size areas (1 :2,500 scale) or even small catchments.
ii i) MAPPING RATE AT 1:2 500
(based on typical Hong Kong Study Area)
(based on typical Hong Kong Study Area)
15000 ha = 10 weeks
250 he - 10 weeks
1 500 he per week
2S he per week
300 ha per day
5 ha per day
Figure 6.6g Comparison of Sca le, Map Unit Size and Mapping Rate (Ex[racted from Appendix A of Styles & Hansen, 1989)
Te rrain eva luation in vo lves the identificati on of landform an d terrai n re lated

features, usually by the interpretation of air photos.
This technique is used both to identify land use limitati ons and also to assess in
broad terms overall land use su itabili ty. It is used as a planning tool, and has a
major app lication in the field of slope management and geotechnical engineering.
Technical
Limitati ons
There are no rea l technical limitat ions to such a study other than the normal
limitat ion s on AP I such as coverage , shadow, obscured features , photo sca le,
interpretation and experi ence of the AP I practitioner.
78
6.7
Mis-identification of Man-made Slope Features
Project
Example
/
/
Year 1949
(photo No. 6031-32 (81A1133) or GEO RefYOI085-86, Flying Height 8,000 feet)
A slope stability assessment was required for a man-made slope (Feature No.
ISNE-NC321, Figure 6.7a) as part of slope improvement works to be formed by
prescriptive design (standard design based on previous experience rather than a
detailed design for this feature). An existing register of the feature type suggested
that the feature had been formed by cutting into the hillside and therefore was
suitable for such stabilisation measures.
r--
I
I
-L.J."
i "''' ' ' ')('

A~
79
The Feature No. IS NE -A/C32 1 had not

been formed.
The feature area was still a natural hillside
and was moderately vegetated.
Natural valley drainage channels run to the
north-east and south-west of the feature
area.
/.16
Year 1963
(photo No. 6663-64 / Y06698-99, Flying Height 2,700 feet)
The access road and the staff quarters to

the north-west and above the feature were
constructed at some time between 1949
and 1963.
,,
The south-western portion of the

Feature No. ISNE-A/C321 had been
formed probably in association with the
construction of the access road.
The south-western portion of the feature
was formed by fill and the maximum depth
offill is approximately 2-3m.
API
Objectives
API
Observations
An API was carried out to study the general layout of the man-made slope to
identify the general site history, evidence for previous instability as well as the
geomorphology and photogeology of the slope and surrounding area.
Year 1976
(photo No. 15581-82, Flying Height 4,000 feet)
The API identified quite quickly that there were discrepancies between the
landform that would be expected for a cut slope feature and those observed (Figure
6.7b). When the photographs were inspected the sloping ground that should have
been present prior to excavation was not observed. The level differences and
changes from 1949 to 1963 revealed that a road had been built whose south-eastern
outer edge was supported by filling over a depression. The changes in level and the
characteristic edge of the feature, with soil covering in-situ vegetation at the toe of
the slope, were key factors in defining the feature as a fill slope.
The north-eastern portion of the feature had

been formed probably in association with
the construction of the fill platform below it.
The north-eastern portion of the feature was
formed by filling and the maximum depth of
fill is approximately I-2m.
The entire feature was formed by 1976.
The terraced planting area at the toe of the
feature was formed by cut and fill.
To va lidate such observations some simple ground investigation works were

proposed comprising trial pits and surface stripping to confirm the extent and depth
of the fill. These works verified fill within the slope. (Figure 6.7c).
The configuration of the entire feature

is the same now as shown on this 1976
photograph.
Figure 6.7b Site Hi story of Feature No. 15NE-AlC32 I
80
6.8
Feature No. 15NE-AlC321
Reclamation and Seawalls
Project
Example
1<
81
West Kowloon Reclamation (Figure 6.8a).
Existing Gronnd Profile
/~.
Chunam Strip
..........
--Q..,
----
'" '"
-.
.........
"?......
......
......
"l
......
......
......
.... -............
............
...... '!l.. ........
FIll
";
~"".
._. ........
1-....
"".... -.Q.
-.. -.. .c;l... Colluvium
'
-
,.. -
-,-- --1----
Weathered Tuff
PW 0/30
figure 6.8a Site Location Plan
Figure 6.7c Field Verification
Key
Findings
API
Objectives
To identify the previous stages of development of reclamation of the site and to

identify buried obstructions or marine works or reclamation characteristics that
could affect future development ofthe site. Such features as old piers with wooden
piles, seawalls with either rip-rap or concrete sea defences were of major interest.
API
Observations
A series of air photos were viewed to define the present day shoreline and work out
the reclamation stages knowing the dates of photography. It was noted that prior to
the 1990's reclamation, most of the shoreline activity was on the eastern margin of
the site and therefore older maps were considered more appropriate to explore the
historical development of the shoreline in that area.
Where data is provided by others it should be checked.

Identification of fill slopes is relatively easy when changes of landform are
visible.
The presence of fill and its extent can be more easily identified in air photos
taken close to the date of filling because fill has a lighter tone when new but
darkens with age.
Before applying any design, API must be carried out.
The API observations (Figures 6.8b & 6. 8c) identified the general sequence of
filling that was visible at shallow depth or above sea level and allowed a summary
to be prepared (Figure 6.8d). It is important to note that the general method of
construction and a history can be developed when the photographs are taken
frequently and on a regular basis. Old piers could be seen to be covered over as
well as temporary sea walls. The texture of the ground and the placement of rock
armour could be observed along the temporary seawalls. In addition mounds of
soil could be identified suggesting that some form of surcharge ground treatment
was being employed in certain areas for the construction of the reclamation.
Vegetation difference and the form of the edge can signify fill areas.
Old fill slopes, older than the API record, need to be carefully reviewed to
identify whether they fit into the landform and character of the area.
High le vel photographs should not be us ed to verify fill slopes as subtle
differences cannot always be observed.
There maybe a small percentage of registered slopes which have been misidentified and others that may have been missed.
Technical
Limitations
---.
Direct observation of the slopes could be obscured by shadow, clouds, dense

vegetation or building lean or by incomplete aerial survey coverage at low altitude.
-, .
November 1992
(Photo No. A33197, Flying Height 10,000 feet)
The eastern end of the Site had already been reclaimed in the first date of photography (1924).
An existing breakwater for the typhoon shelter was located at the eastern portion of the Site
West Kowloon Reclamation works were underway.
October 1993 (Photo No. CW4768-69, Flying Height 5,000 feet)
82
September 1995
(photo No.
83
eN 11222-24, Flying Height 3,500 feet)
Reclamation works for the western half had been completed by 1994.
A strip of land had been rec laimed between 1994 and 1995 near the central part and an
assoc iated seawall had been built.
The MTRC tunnel and the Western Harbour Crossing were being constructed.
Part of the breakwater for the Typhoon Shelter had been removed between 1994 and 1995.
May 2003 (photo No. CW47298-99, Flying Height 4,000 feet)
Western half of the Site had almost been reclaimed and associated seawalls had been built.
Temporary surcharge embankments were observed in some areas of the new reclamation.
A temporary seawall w ith rock armour was placed along the eastern edge of the reclamation.
Figure 6.8b Site History of West Kowloon Reclamation (Sheet lof2)
The reclamation works for the eastern part of the site were almost complete by 2003.
A box culvert was being built near the -eastern end of the site in 2003.
Figure 6.8c Site History of West Kowloon Reclamation (Sheet 2 of2)
___
_0---
....._
84
Examples of Air Photo interpretation in Hong Kong
Key
Findings
Summary of reclamation history based on air photography and historical maps (Date indicates
period of reclamation)
.
'"
85

Dates of reclamation and the location of piers and breakwaters can sometimes be
easily seen on historical maps that pre-date air photos.
Air photos can also tell us about the sequence of reclamation and could hint at
possible locations of mud waves known to sometimes affect reclamations (not
shown in this example) .
Equipment, such as barges and processes identified on photographs, can

sometimes give circumstantial evidence of activities linked to the reclamation
such as soft clay removal or ground improvement techniques.
Where deep water areas are reclaimed the nature of the seabed prot! Ie cannot
be determined. For shallow wate r areas estuarinal channels, beach deposits and
other coastal features may be observed providing evidence for the distribution of
underlying soils and possible thicker fill areas.
Texture of the fill can sometimes indicate the type of fill whether it is rock fill
(usually rough texture), general fill (usually smooth texture) or rock armour
(us uall y very rough texture), etc.
Locations of piers and wharves can be easily seen and marked. Sometimes these
features are removed or cut off to certain depths as part of the reclamation works
but deeper foundations are likely to still exist.
19981999
Technical
Limitations
Summary of location of old seawall and possible obstructions identified from air photography
and historical maps
,Approximate location of old I temporary seawalls
Deep water activities cannot be observed.

Reduced frequency of photo coverage can miss key construction activities that
might explain the method of construction.
Evidence for removal of features whether marine or within the reclamation can
sometimes be difficult to spot.
Possible obstructions I buried structures
(eg. tunnels, breakwater, culverts etc.)

1992-1993
Figure 6.8d
Date of construction
Summary of Reclamation History and Locations of Obstructions
"
6.9
86
API
Observations
(con't)
Past Land Use and Contamination Assessment
Project
Example
Land Redevelopment (Figure 6.9a).
87
The API could only observe those features that were visible. Some features
and industries that lie within buildings may not be identified through API. Site
reconnaissance and searches of owner's business registrations for the site can
greatly assist definition of the previous land use.
The API was used as an aid to the in vestigation process to add another level of
detail for the ground investigation.
Based on the old topographic map, the site was located close to the original
shorel ine (Figure 6.9b) . Reclamation was undertaken of the shoreline between
1888 and 1895. A shipyard was located along the northern coastl ine, from the
1940s to the 1960s, immediately adjacent to the proposed development. A gas
holder was built adjacent to the site at some time between 1969 and 1973 (Figure
6.9c).
It is important whe n carrying out API for contamination studies to try and
identify the location of tanks, storage facilities and dumps. These are usually
the areas where most contamination is located. It is also important to define the
geomorphology and the adjacent hydrology to understand the potential contaminant
migration paths that could occur adjacent to a site. API can help in identifying
Year 1876 (Empson, 1992)
Area reclaimed and used

as .s~ipyard & sUlli~
refining works
fine...,.
I
API
Objectives
"I
The API was carried out to identify and to locate previous land uses of the site.
Existing land uses were observed and noted from previous owners. Previous
activities giving rise to possible contamination were considered likely.
Suggested location
of old shoreline
\:nay
The API was carried out to review all available dates of photography to determine
past land use and any features of interest that would suggest possible contamination
sources for further study and assessment.
API
Observations
Year 1939-1940 (Empson, 1992)
It was important to gather all available information for tbe site as it was known that
'.
it had been occupied prior to the earliest dates of air photography. Therefore, old
maps were examined to determine the land use prior to the air photography.
.<
Several old maps indicated that the site was formerly occupied by a sugar mill as
well as wharf areas and possible shipyards (Figure 6.9b). Subsequent air photos
showed that the site was located next to a gas bolder (Figure 6.9c). In addition,
previous car repair facilities were corroborated by site enquiries.
,,
As a result of this information a ground investigation could be targeted at suspected

chemical contaminants that may be present in the ground.
Figure 6.9b Site History of Land Redevelopmcm from Historical Maps
~_-
-------------.
~-'
.6-_-'
88
Year 1963
Year 1973
Key
Findings
89

Air photos together with the hi storical maps can help to deve lop a detailed site
history of past land use. Potential contaminants in relation to the land use can be
identified and targeted in the GJ.
Exact definition of contamination cannot be determined. Types and magnitudes
of contamination must be determined by ground investigat ion.
APl on ly provides clues to potential land use that are sometimes associated with
contam ination. Site organisation and site practices can vary from place to place
so the levels of contamination may vary from site to site.
Types of bui lding and associated shape can sometimes provide clues to their
contents, i.e. circu lar usually relates to tanks or silos or containers.
The API should be combined with desk study and local data gathering to identify
past land use. Residents and nearby property owners may have infonnation to
substantiate previous land use and site practices.
The API forms part of a broad data gathering exercise where other data can
highl ight potential contamination sources.
Hydrology and geomorphology in this case could not be defined properly but the
edge of the coastline from old maps provided good information on the potential
zones and leve ls of ground water flow close to the site.
Technical
Limitations
Only visible features can be identified.

Processes that are undertaken within buildings cannot be identified.
Bui lding use may not be evident from air photos.

Accuracy of historical maps needs to be checked, both for descriptions of
facil ities as well as their location.
Fi gure 6.9c Site Hi story of Land Redeve lopment from Air Photos
6.10
90
Other Applications in Hong Kong
Identification of Illegal Structures

Air photos can be used for identification of
illegal structures.
Quarrying Progress Monitoring - The Geotechnical Engineering Office (GEO) uses air
photos to monitor the progress of the quarrying activities. Air photos below show the progress
of Anderson Road Quarry in 1991 and 1999.
Buildings Department sometimes uses air

photos for identification of the presence of
unauthorized building works (UBWs) on private
land which includes construction of illegal
structure(s) and illegal changes of slopes. This
could serve as evidence in court cases.
Vegetation Survey
False infrared photos can be used to classify
vegetat ion types and to help monitoring
environmental pollution.
Construction Progress Monitoring - Highways Department (HyD) sometimes uses air photos
to monitor progress of road construction. Air photos below show the progress of part of Route 3
construction in 1995 and 1996.
Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation

Department (AFCD) sometimes uses infrared
photos for vegetation survey e.g. to help identity
the extent of the plant Mikania (see Glossary of
Terms).
Topographic Mapping
Air photos are routinely used for topographi c
mapping and definition of topographic details
such as roads, buildings, footpaths and graves,
etc. Lands Department uses air photos to
produce the "Hong Kong Guide (Photomap
Edition)" (Lands Dept., 2004) which consists
of photomaps covering Hong Kong. The
background of the photomaps in the Guide is
extracted from a series of orthophotos produced
from air photos taken at a flying height of 8,000
feet.
Low Tide Survey

Air photography can be used for low tide
survey. The photo on the right shows the extent
of oyster beds in Deep Bay and facilitated the
land resumption process for the construction of
Shenzhen Western Corridor for the HyD.
Squatter Survey
Air photos can be used for producing land
occupation evidence which is useful in land and
district administration as well as town planning
sometimes.
Breakwater Movement Monitoring

Air photos are sometimes used for detecting
movement of certain structures, e.g. to detennine
the minor displacement of a breakwater in the
course of time. The photo on the right shows
the breakwaters to the west of Cheung Chau.
91
Housing Department used air photos to assist

with the squatter survey (for non-development
clearance) in the 1980s.
-- .
-----
Maintenance Responsibility of Man-made

Features and Land Occupancy
Poorly documented land ownership and
inadequately recorded construction history
complicate the determination of maintenance
responsibility for 'registered man-made features.
In such case>. air photographic evidence can
sometimes pelp to settle disputes of ownership.
The fig)lTe on the right shows a typical
controversial condition where a registered
feature is located between two Lots.
References
92
7 References
I Responsibitity
Who's
??
LotX
LotY
Allen, P.M. & Stephens, E.A. (1967-1969). Report on the Geological Survey of Hong Kong. The
Government Press, Hong Kong.
Anon (1972). The Preparation of Maps and Plans in terms of Engineering Geology. Quarterly
Journal of Engineering Geology, Vol 5, 297-365. Geological Society of London.
D.
Arup (2005a). Natural Terrain Hazard Study at North Lantau Expressway. Report produced for the
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong.
I
Retaining Wall
I Registered
Arup (2005b) . Natural Terrain Hazard Study at Luk Keng Village. Report produced for the
Avery, I.E. & Berlin, G.L. (1992). Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Airnhoto Interpretation (5th
Edition). Prentice Hall. 472p.
Archaeological Study
Air photos can be used to identify and evaluate
historic sites. Archaeological sites may appear
on air photos as buildings, earthworks, soilmarks and crop-marks (Wilson, 1982).
Beggs, C. (1984). A Review of Investigation and Sampling Methods in the Recent Sediments
of Hong Kong. Geology of Surficial Deposits in Hong Kong. Geological Society of Hong Kong
Bulletin No. I, pp 13-24.
Brand, E.W., Burnett, A.D. & Styles, K.A. (1982). The Geotechnical Area Studies Programme
in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, 22-26
November 1982, Vol. I, pp 107-123.
Cultural Heritage Impact Assessment (CHI A)

is one of the components of an Environmental
Impact Assessment study. In the CHIA, a
desktop study including review of air photos
is usually required to help in establishing
the archaeological potential of the area and
hence developing the subsequent fieldwork
strategy. Peacock & Nixon (1988) provide good
examples of CHIA in Hong Kong.
Brimicombe, AJ. (1982). Engineering Site Evaluation from Aerial Photographs. Proceedings of the
Seventh Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, 22-26 November 1982, Vol. 2, pp 139-148.
Brimicombe, A.1. (1987). Geomorphological Terrain Evaluation for Solid Waste Disposal in
Tropical and Sub-tropical Climates. The Role of Geology in Urban Development. Geological
Society of Hong Kong Bulletin No.3, October 1987, pp 457-462.
Brown, K.D. (2004). Photogrammetry Methods at the Utah Geological Survey: From Field
Mapping to Published Map. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2004-1451.
Some projects in Hong Kong require assessment

of cultural heritage impact. The air photo on
the right shows the potential areas of human
inhabitation in Tai A Chau in the 1960's and
possibly earlier that would be of interest in a
CHIA. Subsequent fieldwork at those locations
successfully identified archaeological artefacts.
Brunsden, D., Doornkamp, lC. & Jones, D.K.C (1978). Applied Geomorphology: a British View.
In: Embleton, C., Brunsden, D. & Jones, D.K.C. (eds.), Geomorphology: Present Problems and
Future Prospects. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 251-262.
Bryant, 1.M. (1982). Engineering Geological Applications of Aerial Photograph Interpretation in
Hong Kong. Proceed ing of the Fourth International Congress of the International Association of
Engi neering Geology, New Delhi, Vo l. I, pp 155-166.
Burnett, A.D., Brand, E. W. & Styles, K.A. (1985). Terrain Classification Mapping for a Landslide
Inventory in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference and Field Workshop
on Landslides, 1985 Tokyo, pp 63-68.
Topographic Map Production and Object

Measurement
Stereo photogrammetry is nowadays
fundamental in the production of topographic
maps. The same technique can be used to make
height or length measurements of objects shown
on the photographs. A 3D digital terrain model
(DTM) can be developed from this infonnation,
given a certain number of ground control points,
but where dense vegetation covers hill sides
accurate measurements of ground levels and
contours can be difficult to establish.
Burnett, A.D., Koirala, N.P. & Hee, A. (1987). Engineering Geology and Town Planning in Hong
Kong. The Role of Geology in Urban Development. Geological Society of Hong Kong Bulletin No.3 ,
October 1987, pp 25-42.
Burnett, A.D. & Lai, K.W. (1985). A Review of Photogeological Lineament and Fault System of
Hong Kong. Proceedings of Conference on Geological Aspects of Site Investigation Bulletin No.2,
Geological Society of Hong Kong, August 1985, pp 113-131.
Burnett, A.D. & Styles, K. A. (1986). A Review of the Reliability of An Engineering Geological
Mapping System Used for the Delineation of Landslide Proc Terrain in Hong Kong. Engineering
Geological Problems in Asia, Science Press, Beijing 1986, pp 321-340.
(Brown, 2004)
..
93
-,
92
Maintenance Responsibility of Man-made

Features and Land Occupancy
Poorl y docum e nted land ownership and
inadequately recorded construction hi story
complicate the determination of maintenance
responsibility for 'registered man-made features.
In such case>. air photographic evidence ca n
sometimes pelp to settle di sputes of ownership.
The fig)lfe on the right s how s a typical
controversial condition w here a regi ste red
feature is located between two Lots.
References
93
7 References
I Responsibility
Who's
17
Lot X
Lot Y
Anon (1972). The Preparation of Maps and Plans in terms of Enginee rin g Geology. Quarterly
Journal of Engineering Geology, Vol 5, 297-365. Geological Society of London.
D.
A llen, P.M. & Stephens, E.A. (1967-1969). Report on the Geological Survey of Hong Kong. The
Government Press, Hong Kong.
I
Retaining Wall
I Registered
Arup (2005a). Natural Terrain Hazard Study at North Lantau Expressway. Report produced for the
Arup (2005b). Natural Terrain Hazard Study at Luk Keng Village. Report produced for the
Avery, I.E. & Berlin, GL (1992). Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and A imhoto Interpretation (5th
Edition). Prentice Hall. 472p.
Archaeological Study
Air photos can be used to identify and evaluate
historic sites. Archaeological sites may appear
on air pho tos as bui ldi ngs, earthworks, so ilmarks and crop-marks (Wilson, 1982).
Beggs, C. (1984). A Review of In vestigation and Sampling Methods in the Recent Sediments
of Hong Kong. Geology of Surfi cial Deposits in Hong Kong. Geological Society of Hong Kong
Bulleti n No. I, pp 13-24.
Bra nd, E.W, Burnett, A .D. & Styles, K.A . (1982). The Geotechnical Area Studies Programme
in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Seventh Southeast As ian Geotechnical Conference, 22-26
Nove mber 1982, Vol. I, pp 107-1 23.
Cultural Heritage Impact Assessment (CHI A)

is one of the components of an Environmental
Impact Assessment stud y. In the CHIA, a
desktop study including review of air photos
is us ually requ ired to h e lp in establishing
the archaeological potential of the area and
hence de ve loping the subsequent fi eldwork
strategy. Peacock & N ixon (1988) provide good
examples of CHIA in Hong Kong.
Brimicombe, A.J. (1982). Engineering Site Evaluation from Aerial Photographs. Proceedings of the
Seventh South east As ian Geotechnical Conference, 22-26 November 1982, Vol. 2, pp 139-148.
Brim icombe, A .J. ( 1987) . Geomorphological Terrain Evaluation for Soli d Waste Disposal in
Tropical and Sub-tropical Climates. The Role of Geology in Urban De ve lopment. Geo logical
Society of Hong Kong Bulletin No.3 , October 1987, pp 457-462.
Brown , K.D. (2004). Photogrammetry Methods at the Utah Geo log ical Survey: From Field
Mapping to Published Map. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2004-1451.
Some projects in Hong Kong require assessment

of cultural heritage impact. The air photo on
the ri ght shows the potential areas of human
inhabitation in Tai A Chau in th e 1960's and
possibly earlier that wou ld be of interest in a
CHIA. Subsequent fi eldwork at those locations
successfully identified archaeological artefacts.
Brunsden, D. , Doornkamp, l C. & Jon es, DX.C ( 1978). Applied Geomorphology: a British View.
In: Embleton, C., Brunsden, D. & Jones, D.K.C. (eds.), Geomorphology: Present Problems and
Future Prospects. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 251-262.
Bryant, lM. (1982). Engineering Geological Applications of Aerial Photograph Interpretation in
Hong Kong. Proceeding of the Fourth International Congress of the International Association of
Engineering Geology, New Delhi, Vol. I, pp 155-166.
Burnett, A.D. , Brand, E. W & Styles, K.A. (1985). Terrain Classification Mapping for a Landslide
Inventory in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the Fourth Intemational Conference and Field Workshop
on Lands lides, 1985 Tokyo, pp 63-68.
Topog raph ic Map Production and Object
Measurement
Burnett, A.D., Koira la, N.P. & Hee, A. (1987). Engineering Geo logy and Town Planning in Hong
Kong. The Role of Geology in Urban Development. Geological Society of Hong Kong Bulletin No.3,
October 1987, pp 25-42.
S t e r eo photogrammetry i s no wadays
fundamental in th e production of topographi c
maps. The same techniqu e can be used to make
height or length measurements of objects shown
on the photographs. A 3D digital terrain model
(DTM) can be developed from this information,
given a certain number of ground control points,
but where dense vegetation cove rs hill sides
accurate m eas urements of ground leve ls and
contours can be difficult to establish.
Burnett, A. D. & Lai, K.W ( 1985). A Review of Photogeological Lineament and Fault System of
Hong Kong. Proceedings of Confe rence on Geological Aspects of Site Investigation Bulletin No.2,
Geological Society of Hon g Kong, August 1985, pp 113-1 31.
Burnett, A.D . & Styles, K.A. ( 1986). A Review of the Re liability of An Engineeri ng Geolog ical
Mapping System Used for the Delineation of Landslide Proc Terrain in Hong Kong. Engineering
Geological Problems in Asia, Science Press, Beijing 1986, pp 321-340.
(Brown , 2004)
..
- .
References
95
[::.r.':;:lili::;'~ZS::::"'.:.:2"" '<:.;.r-'7Y-":::';;:;.,;;:,;t:=:~.~~:~-REZJiT~F;:"07'?7:;T~' "".' ",- ..:-Y:'i7:~i'i%''!'@';{';'t'::;;%""~-$:':::d1'~.&iisru
Civil Engineering and Development Department (2003). Annual Report on Government Slope
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(SIFT 2). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong.
Civil Engineering and Development Department (2005a). Operating Procedure II, Planning and
Design ofLPM Works. Civil Engineering and Development Department, Hong Kong.
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Hong Kong.
Civil Engineering and Development Department (2005b). Operating Procedure 16, Safety Screening
of Slopes. Civil Engineering and Development Department, Hong Kong.
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12, Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong.
Dumbleton, M,/(l983). Air Photographs for Investigation Natural Changes, Past Use and Present
Condition of/I;ngineering Sites. TRRL Laboratory Report 1085. Transport and Road Research
Laboratory!Crowthorne.
Terrain Studies. OEO Technical Guidance Note No. 22, Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong
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Ministry of Transport, RRL Report LR369, Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
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Appendix B: Sources of Information. GEO Technical Guidance Note No.5, Geotechnical
Engineering Office, Hong Kong.
Emery, K.A. (1998). Boulder Study of Hong Kong - Final Report. Water Resources Consulting
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Geotechnical Engineering Office (2004d). Management of Natural Terrain Landslide Risk. GEO
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Empson, H. (1992). Mapping Hong Kong

Hong Kong. 256p.
A Historical Atlas. Government Information Service,
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Emergency Repair on Stability of Land. Works Bureau Technical Circular No. 26/99, Environment,
Transport and Works Bureau, Hong Kong.
Griffiths, J.S. (2002). Mapping in Engineering Geology. Key Issues in Earth Sciences Vol. I, The
Geological Society of London.
Fletcher, C.J.N., Massey C.L, Williamson, S.J. & Parry, S. (2002). Importance of Bedrock and
Regolith Mapping for Natural Terrain Hazard Studies: An Example from the Tsing Shan Area, Hong
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Kong.
Halcrow Asia Partnership Ltd (1998). Report on the Ching Cheung Road Landslide of 3 August
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Hansen, A. (1984). Engineering Geomornhology: the Application of an Evolutionarv Model of
Hong Kong's Terrain. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, N F Supplementband, vol. 51, pp 39-50.
Fookes, P.G., Dale, S.G. & Land, J.M. (1991). Some Observations on a Comparative Aerial
Photography Interpretation of a Landslipped Area. The Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology
Vol 24, No.3. p.249-265. Geological Society of London.
Hansen, A. & Lichti, D.D. (2002). Using Digital Imagery to Obtain Geomomhometric Infonnation
for Landslide Susceptibility Assessment. Proceedings of the Conference, IMM Hong Kong Branch,
Fookes P.G., Frederick, J.B. & Hutchinson, J.N. (2000). Total Geological History: a Model
Approach to the Anticipation, Observation and Understanding of the Site Conditions (invited
paper). Proceedings of the international Conference on Geotechnical and Geological Engineering
GeoEng2000. Melbourne, Vol I, pp 523-602.
Hart, J.R., Ho, K.K.S. & Koo, Y.C. (2001). The Significance of Massive Relic Landslides on Recent
14 November 2002, pp 151-163.

Slope Failures in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the 14th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference,
Hong Kong, 2001.

Ho, H.Y. (2004). Application of Aerial Photograph Interpretation in Geotechnical Practice in Hong
Kong. MSc Dissertation, University of Hong Kong.
Fyfe, J.A., Shaw, R., Campbell, S.D.G., Lai, K.W. & Kirk, P.A. (2000). The Ouaternarv Geology of
Hong Kong. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 208p plus 6 maps.
Hughes, M.P., Hart, J.R., Ho, K.K.S. (2002). Slope Deter\oration and Relict Instability in Natural
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Surficial Deposits in Hong Kong, Geological Society of Hong Kong Bulletin No. I, pp 35-47.
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Jukes, A" Irfan, T.Y., Burnett, A.D. & Koirala, N.P. (1987). Preliminary Stability Assessment of
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Geotechnical Engineering Office (1992). Hong Kong Geological Survey Map Series HGM 20,
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Terrain: Case Studies and Practical Implications. Proceedings of the Conference, llVIM Hong Kong
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[=~=::=.=.=:.=::::==::::-:C-=::':==.=:=-:=::="---:-_-===:::::,:-.::'-::=:::':'':'.::'.:---::::;.=::-:::=.:=~'=:''::.:.::::::=.=::::::=='_:::::::::::=:J
Langford, R.L., Arthurton, R.S. & Lai, K.W. (1987). Geological Survey and Ground Investigation in
Tuen Mun, Western New Territories. Hong Kong. The Role of Geological in Urban Development,
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Sewell, R.I. & Campbell, S.D.G. (2004). Report on the Dating of Natural Terrain Landslides in
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Sewell, R.I. & Fletcher, C.I.N. (2002). Regolith Mapping in Hong Kong and its Application to
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Kong, 98 p.
Photo Gallery
98
;:-b...:.i-.~~:oo o ..;:.;.:L,;;!.:;.,,:-:,,;:,:";o,,;LZ:22!"-:Y:7 "oo:: "ooi"~oo "".c17..z:--=ZZ:E3I::."Ss:.:-::2""' c.'i: . _'iL:... o_::.:oo:::::7i:=:'Z:Z::::C:-:":'I;::~::::::"==-2::J
Photo Gallery
This photo gallery gives a series of useful images of typical examples of features observed in air
photos in Hong Kong. The set of images provides a compendium of landforms, geomorphology,
human disturbance and features of interest to air photo interpreters .
These are typica!lexamples and it is not an exhaustive list of the all the potential types, variations
and differences1hat could be observed. The air photo interpreter should always consider the types of
features ob~eh,ed and identify the true nature and reason for their existence. He or she should obtain
ground truth wherever possible of the features that are observed.
Ground truthing is sometimes not possible, especially when studying past land use. Land use
practice may have changed radically, and the types of features that are observed may no longer
be produced. For example it was common agricultural practice in the 1950s and 1960s to make
I) Rock Exposures I Rock Cliffs (some geological

structure visible) Mid Levels, Hong Kong
2) Boulder Field
Soko Islands
Year 1996 (Photo No.A44324)
haystacks, which can be seen as distinctive mounded circular features in some rural areas. In the
1970's and 1980's it was common to use bale making machines which produce rectangular bales
of hay. These days the type of machine producing hay generates circular bales and so the features
observed in the air photos may vary according to the different processes used to make the features
that are visible in the photographs.
The authors would be pleased to receive any other interesting examples for the photo gallery to
include in any future edition ofthis book.
3) Sea Inlet (Marine erosion feature along line of
4)
Tombolo (Sand bar linking the rocky island to the

'mainland'). Soko Islands
Year 1996 (Photo No. A44323)
Sheet & Gully Erosion

Shek Kip Mei, Kowloon
6)
Coastal Instability I Rock Fall

Lamma Island
7) Salt Pans
Tai 0, Lantau
8)
Estuarine Deposition I Mudflats

Tong Fuk, Lantau
weakness). Soko Islands

Year 1996 (photo No. A44308)
5)
100
Photo Gallery
9)
Open Hillslope Debris Avalanche

Shek Pik, Lantau
10) C hannelised Debris Flow

Tung Chung, Lantau
Year 1993 (Photo No. A3631 0)
11) Channelised Debris Avalanche

Ngong Ping, Lantau
12) Relict Landslides

Hau Tau Reservoir, Sheung Shui, N.T.
Year 1963 (Photo No . 9870)
13) Fresh Landslide Scars
14) Rc-vegetated Landslide Scars (after 5 yea rs)

Above Po Shan Road, Hong Kong
Above Po Shan Road, Hong Kong

Photo Gallery
15) C ut Slope Failure

Ch ing Cheung Road, Kowloon
Year 1997 (Oblique Photo)
17) Abandoned Tea Terraces

Shek Kong, N. T.
Year 1963 (Photo. No. 8292)
18) Vegetation C learance I Plantation

Tong Fuk, Lantau
Vear 1963 (Photo No. 6279)
19) Agricultural Terraces
20) Hay Stacks

Kat 0, Islands
Luk Keng, N.T.

Year 1963 (Photo No. Y I 0071)
~~~~~
16) Fill Slope Failure

Sau Mall Ping, Kowloon
---
101
21) Squatter Area

Sai Wan Ho, Hong Kong
Year 1963 (Photo No.7445)
22) Mineral Exploration Trenches

North Lantau
23) Hill Fire

Luk Keng, N.T.
Year 1998 (Photo No. CN1963 1)
24) Graves
Tuen Mun, N.T.
Vear 1984 (Photo No. 555 ! 6)
Photo Gallery
102
25) Barbed Wire / M ilitary Redou bt

Ying Pun, Yuen Long, N. T.
Year 1963 (Photo No . Y9710)
Photo Gallery
33) Typical Cut & Fill Construction

Tong Fuk, Lantau
Year 1963 ( Photo No. 6279)
26) M ilitary Trenches / Pill Box (War relic)

Ying Pun, Yuen Long, N T
Year 1963 (Photo No. Y97 10)
103
34) Re-vegetation of Fill Slope After 10 Years

Tong Fuk, Lantau
fJJ S!ffj'IJJMg @I~ 'mum I

@!fi .' rJiI' ~ '; t1[jfJ Iii i Ii ~
fiIJITiImm~~
, "'-'JfJ fJ/;JrJfil!fI ,
, IffJ
ill
Iii 1i ~, ~ /I !\HI
'
iJJJ , IJJi !mJ I!lI iil
~~. :3If.~.;..:..i:'~
27) Fort with Gun Batteries (War Relic)

Mo unt Davis, Hong Kong
28) Cemetery
Aberdeen, Hong Kong
Year 1977 (Photo No . 20556)
35) Log Storage

Yam 0, Lantau
Year 1985 ( Photo No. A03958)
36) Fish Farm

Cheung Sha Wan, Lantau
29) Old Quarrying / Borrow A r eas

Yau Tong, Kow loon
30) Former Borrow Areas

Tai Po Industrial Estate, N T
Year 1982 (Photo No. 46221 - oblique)
37) Oyster Beds

Lau Fau Shan, N T
Year 2000 (Photo No. CN26520)
38) Shipyard
Ap Lei Chau, Hong Kong
31) Filter Beds & Service Reservoir

Tai Hang Road, Hong Kong
Year 1949 (Pholo No. 6028)
32) Catchwater
Ting Kau, NT
39) Oil Tanks

Tsing Yi, N .T.
Year 1987 (Photo No . A I 0593)
40) Gas Holder

Quarry Bay, Hong Kong
Year 1973 (Photo No. 698 1)
~ $' i!lJ ~ ~ iN
Glossary of Terms
L.-=:;=-=::::::-:===;=:-"::;:~,,==__ o:.::.=.==:_;=:-::=:: :::.:
Glossary of Terms
::: ~::==::::. =-::.--: ::::
105
==:--::"'=:'::=':-=====J
Focal Length. Approximately, this is the distance from the lens to the film; precisely, it is the
distance in the camera along the lens axis from the rear nodal point of the lens to the plane of the
best average definition over the entire field.
Altitude. The height of an aircraft above a specific datum point or reference elevation (usually mean
sea level).
Grey Tone Scale. A shade between black and white on a photograph representing a colour and
brightness reflected from the scene captured in the photograph.
Boulder. A rock fr~gment greater than 200 mm in size that is not part of a rock.mass.
Boulder Field. An area covered by a veneer of boulders.
Grey Tone. Brightness measure on a black-and-white image.
COlluvium.ZnerallY structureless and heterogeneous mass of soil and/or rock material and
sometime/organic matter, deposited on, and at the base of, natural slopes predominantly by masswasting processes. It is usually landslide debris.
Intensity. Measure of the amount of black in a colour. It is that attribute, for example, which makes
scarlet red different from maroon red or royal blue different from navy blue. As a hue becomes less
bright, it approaches pure black. Also called 'brightness'.
Colluvial Fan. A colluvial deposit shaped like a fan or cone, usually with the apex at a point where
a drainage line ends. Such a feature is usually the result of deposition from a number of debris flows
over a period of time (Figure 4.7).
Infrared. That part of the electromagnetic spectrum between the visible region and microwaves.
Near infrared should not to be confused with Thermal Infrared (TIR) which does not register on
photographic film and requires a thermal sensor in specialised digital camera.
Colour Infrared. A type of colour camera film that is most often used to map or evaluate growing
vegetation. It is sensitive to green and red light as well as near infrared, but is insensitive to blue.
Large scale vs. Small scale. A large scale (example : I: I ,000) implies that the ground features
are larger as opposed to larger coverage area. A small scale (example: 1:5,000) implies a larger
coverage area but lacks the detail of large-scale photo.
Contact Print. A photograph produced directly from a negative of the same size, usually 9"x9",
without an enlarger or projector.
Lineament. Simple or composite linear feature on a surface, whose parts are aligned in a straight
Diapositive. A positive image on a transparent medium such as glass or film; a transparency.
or slightly curving relationship, and which differs distinctly from the patterns of adjacent features.
Sometimes called lineation.
Digital Orthophotos (DOPs). Created by scanning the original photograph and applying a process
called differential rectification to each pixel in the image. In creating digital orthophotos, it is also
possible to remove the effects of tangential displacement (Figure 2.6).
Mikania. Mikania micrantha is an exotic climber which grows rapidly in open and disturbed areas
such as roadsides and derelict land. Overgrowth of Mikania causes damage to other plants by cutting
out the light and smothering them. To prevent the proliferation of Mikania in sites of conservation
value, the Agriculture and Fisheries & Conservation Department (AFCD) has used infrared air
photos to find out the extent of Mikania and has deployed more manpower and resources to clear
Mikania found in country parks, special areas and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI).
Digital Terrain Model (DTM). A DTM is a topographic model of the bare earth that can be
manipulated by computer program. The data files contain the elevation data of the terrain in a digital
format which relates to a rectangular / triangular grid. DTMs are used especially in civil engineering,
geodesy & surveying, geophysics, geography and remote sensing (Figure 2.7).
Mirror Stereoscope. A stereoscope designed to view the whole area of overlap of a stereo pair of
air photos. The image is reflected into the viewing lens by mirrors (Figure 4.IS).
Distortion. Any shift in the position of an image on a photograph which alters the perspective
characteristics ofthe photograph.
Natural Terrain. Terrain that has not been modified substantially by human activity such as site
formation works, agricultural terracing, cemetery platforms or squatter habitation. Note that in most
of Hong Kong natural terrain has been influenced by def9restation and fire and locally may have
been influenced by prehistoric agriculture.
Drainage Line. A channel with a stream bed in which water flows for at least part of the year.
False Colour. Colour image with different colouring to true colour so that the image appears in
unusual colours. Usually used either to portray coloured images extending beyond the visible part of
the electromagnetic spectrum, density slicing, or combining different types of imagery of the same
scene. Used as a name for infrared colour photography.
Fiducial Marks. Index marks (usually S) imprinted from the camera body onto the negative of an
air photo to enable the photo to be precisely oriented for photogrammetry (Figure 2.4). There are 4
crosses in the comers and usually 4 V-notches in the middle of each side to provide an alternative
method of finding the principal point. Basically the latter set is a back up if one the comer marks is
faint or dark. The intersection of lines drawn between opposite fiducial marks defines the principal
point.
Flying Height. Vertical distance of the aircraft above mean ground level of the area photographed.
The altimeter in the marginal dials gives an altitude above sea level.
Oblique Photos. These photos are taken with the camera axis at an angle other than 90 to the
ground. The image can be a high oblique, which includes a horizon, or a low oblique, which does
not (Figure 4.9).
Orthophoto. A reconstructed air photo in which the effects of camera tilt and relief displacement
are eliminated. The ground geometry is recreated as it would appear from directly above each and
every point, in other words, every point is at its correct location in plan.
Overlap. The extent to which adjacent images or photographs cover the same terrain, expressed as a
percentage ofthe image area (Figure 2.2).
Appendix A
diR}" %,i4lt&Z:&'iWT1f1'Tf3fm1iiWi*&@,*{~
Photogrammetry. The process of making accurate measurements from photographs, and the
analysis of such measurements particularly the measurement of heights and volumes using
stereopairs of survey quality photography. The precision and accuracy of measurements requires the
elimination of distortions introduced by aircraft tilt and lens characteristics and the skill and good
vision of photogrammetrists.
aM gi.t4 WMH
Photo-lineament,.See Lineament.
Pixel. Abbre;:Jation for picture element. It is the smallest part of a digitised or digital image. The
size of a pixe1 is an indication of the resolution of a digital image.
I
Pocket Stereoscope. A stereoscope consisting of two lenses in a frame (Figure 4.18).

Principal Point. The geometric centre of an air photo, positioned on the lens axis (Figure 2.4).
Rectification. Rectification is normally used to mean the digital process required to correct
distortions in the photographic image to fit a 2D digital topographic map. This is intended to fix the
true plan distances on all parts ofthe air photo image relative to its equivalent basemap. Errors occur
when known locations on the air photo cannot be properly translated onto actual plan locations
such as in very steep terrain or for tall buildings, where large lean or distortion on the photo leads to
variable digital stretching ofthe image.
Appendix A
Regolith. A general term for the layer or mantle of fragmental and unconsolidated rock material
(engineering soil), whether residual or transported and of highly varied character, that nearly
everywhere forms the surface of the land and overlies or covers the bedrock.
Resolution. The ability of an optical system to record fine detail. Fine or high resolution is necessary
to express detail. The resolution of an image is the function of the recording system - camera, lens
and film - or lens pixels per cm of a digital sensor - the distance of the camera from the subject,
compensation for fornrard motion and suppression of aircraft vibration. Film resolution is affected
by the grain size of silver halide crystals in the film emulsion. Grain size can be extremely small but
the finer the grain size the slower the film speed. An excellent aerial film at 1: 3,000 scale is capable
of capturing a credit card laying on a pavement (but you have to know where to look) with sufficient
contrast. Digital image resolution is expressed by the number of pixels in a frame or by the frame
dimensions in pixel units.
Example API Report for a Slope Study
Site catchment. The area from which surface runoff would intersect the site boundary or flow into a
drainage line adjacent to the site, effectively the water catchment to the site.
Stereoscopic Vision. Binocular vision which enables the observer to view an object simultaneously
from two different perspectives (as two photographs taken from different camera stations) to obtain
the mental impression of a three-dimensional model.
Terrain Attribute. Characteristic of the terrain as defined within the terrain classification system.
Terrain Classification. Systematic terrain evaluation based on the use of terrain attributes for the
production of a landscape model for engineering or other purposes (Section 6.6).
Vertical Air Photo. An air photo made with the camera axis vertical or as nearly vertical as
practicable in an aircraft (Figure 4.8).
ill
Appendix A
109
W%;",-";,'<,,,,,;,;,;';':,,r;:;~''2''@il.~:ill;'1,r'i,:s~~?,;,"W>i.r-;":-_"";'---d5..W'*'%wift''~<1-0;"W-:'-g';~~'iiZ,w;;:)~;';i:A~'%M,,",>'/N~.&iti:1:;.:&}ill~
AI.
AIR PHOTOS EXAMINED
A total of 19 sets of air photos taken between 1945 and 2003 were examined. The air photos
examined are listed in Table I.
Table 1 List of Air Photos Examined
AS.
FILL
Featnre No. llSW-DIFR400 was initially formed by fill prior to 1945 for the construction ofStnbbs
Road. The approximate extent of the fill bodies appeared to be more extensive than that suggested
by the original featnre boundary (Figure 4). A landslide occurred within the fill layer in June 1972
and the entire featnre was formed between 1972-1973 after the landslide. Therefore, at least two
different fill layers may exist below the featnre footprint.
Featnre No. IISW-DIF402 was formed prior to 1945 for the construction of Stnbbs Road. Again, the
extent ofthe fill bodies appears to be larger than the present extent ofthe featnre boundary.
The depth of fill is expected to range from about 1m at the edge of the fill bodies to around 6-8m
at the centreline of both stndy featnres based on the surrounding topography. The exact depth and
extent offill shall be determined by ground investigation.
A6.
COLLUVIUM
Colluvial boulders were visible along the natnral stream course immediately below the Featnre
No. llSW-DIF402. Bouldery colluvimn was also noted to cover the hillslope area between the two
featnres and is likely to be encountered below the overlying fill.
A7.
EROSION
No significant erosion was observed on the two stndy featnres.
AS.
VEGETATION
Vegetation started to grow on Featnre No. llSW-DIFR400 after the remedial works in 1972. The
featnre became moderately vegetated with shrubs and trees since the late 1970's. The upper part of
the featnre appeared to be covered by some surface protection. No unusual variation of vegetation
could be observed in the area.
*Significant years of air photos reviewed.
A2.
DETAILED SITE HISTORY
The detailed site history of the two slope featnres is presented in Figures I to 3 and theAP! findings
are summarised in Figure 4.
A3.
PHOTOGEOLOGY
The two featnres are located on an east facing hillside. Featnre No. llSW-D1F402 is located at the
axis of a valley with a major natural stream course running through it. Rock exposures were visible
on the upslope area suggesting that the rock in the study area lies at shallow depth. No photolineament was observed to run across the featnres based on the published geological map and the air
photography.
A4.
PAST INSTABILITY
A landslide had occurred on Feature No. 11 SW-D/FR400 probably after the major rainstorm
in June 1972. One of the lanes of Stnbbs Road was affected by the landslide. It seems that the
landslide occurred entirely within the fill layer. Dimensions of the landslide were estimated to be
approximately 25m wide, 20m long, 3-4m deep. A possible washout was observed on the central
part of Featnre No. IISW-DIF402 in 1972.
No vegetation had grown on Featnre No. llSW-D1F402 in the 1940's suggesting the featnre might
have been covered by some hard surfacing. Sparse vegetation appeared on the featnre surface in the
1960's and the featnre now has a moderate cover of vegetation.
A9.
ROCK OUTCROPS
Rock exposures were visible on the upslope area of Stnbbs Road and suggests that rock in the stndy
area lies at shallow depth.
AIO. SURFACE HYDROLOGY

A major natnral stream course runs through Featnre No. llSW-D1F402 and a man-made drainage
channel was constructed on the central part ofthe featnre.
Man-made drainage channels were formed down the central part and along the northern edge of the
Featnre No. llSW-D/FR400. Another man-made drainage channel was constructed on the uphill
side of Stnbbs Road at some time between 1945 and 1949. This channel appears to catch the surface
runoff from the uphill area and transfer it to the drainage channel along the northern end of the stndy
featnre.
Appendix A
All.
Appendix A
110
III
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Year 1945
It is interpreted from the air photography that Feature No. IISW-D/FR400 was constructed by
The feature was located on an east facing hillside with

moderate vegetation.
filling prior to 1945 for the construction of Stubbs Road. Subsequently the feature was significantly
modified at some time between 1972 and 1973 due to a landslide.
Stubbs Road, along the crest of both features already

existed prior to 1945.
Feature No. II SW-D1F402 was formed by fill before 1945 as part of the Stubbs Road construction
and no significant change to the feature was visible. Groundwater and seepage could be more
concentrated ~ehg the fonner buried drainage line.
Both features had been formed by fi ll at some time

before 1945 probably for the construction of Stubbs
Road.
Based on the topography and vegetation anomaly, the
extent of the fill bodies appeared to be larger than the
original feature boundaries.
The approximate extent of the fill bodies appeared to be more extensive than that suggested by the
original feature boundary (Figure 4). Depth of fill is expected to range from about I m at the edge
of the fill bodies to around 6-Sm at the centreline of both study features based on the surrounding
topography. The exact depth and extent offill shall be detennined by ground investigation.
Depth of fill is estimated to range from around I m at

the edge of the fill bodies to a maximum of around 6-8m
along the centreline of both study features based on the
surrounding topography.
A12. NOTES OF SITE VISIT

A field inspection was carried out in August 2005 to verify the API findings and the following
observations made. A summary of the field observations is presented in Figure 5.
Possible bouldery colluvium was observed in the area

between the two fill bodies. Fill pockets or very thin
layer offill could exist within that area.
Feature No. II SW-D/FR400 is a fill slope with a concrete retaining wall at its toe. The slope portion
was up to 13m high with an average slope angle between 30 and 40. The slope was observed to
be moderately vegetated with trees and shrubs. Fill was exposed at some locations and was noted
to comprise slightly gravelly, sandy Silt with some cobbles and boulders. The approximate extent
of fill based on the surface mapping is consistent with the API findings. The retaining wall located
near the toe of the slope had a maximum height of 2. 7m and was covered by masonry facing. The
wall appeared to be in fair condition and there were no signs of seepage or distress noted at the time
of inspection. The existence of man-made surface drains were more clearly identified from the field
inspection and a number of surface channels were observed on various parts of the slope and most
of them were found to be blocked by debris.
Both study features appeared to have been covered by

some hard surfacing.
Feature No. II SW-D/ F402 is a fill slope which has a maximum height of about 20m with an average
slope angle of about 30 - 40. The slope is moderately vegetated with shrubs and trees. The
suspected wall feature at the mid-height of the slope as observed from the API was confirmed to be a
vertical masonry wall of height ranging from 1m to 2m. The major stream course that runs along the
centreline of the feature is all covered by boulders. A local washout was noted immediately to the
north of the feature which was not observed in the APT and was believed to have occurred recently.
An area between the two study features was found to be covered mainly by bouldery colluvium with
some fill pockets oflimited fill thickness.
A lineation, probably a small retaining wall, was noted

near the toe of Feature No. II SW-D/ F402. This feature
was not recorded in the exist ing slope documents.
A man-made drain was visible along the northern edge
of Feature No. II SW-DIFR400.
The ground below the two features had been disturbed
by some small cut and fill platforms and footpaths.
Year 1949
A lineation, probably a toe wa ll , was first visible on
Feature No. II SW-DIFR400 in the 1949 photos but it is
believed that this wall had already ex isted prior to 1945.
A man-made drainage channel had been constructed on
the uphill side of Stubbs Road and is diverted towards
the drain a long the northern edge of Feature No.
IISW-D/FR400.
The wall along the toe of Feature No. IISW-DIF402

was clearly visible in the 1949 photos.
A steeply dipping surface, about I m high was visible
between the two study features . This is probably a toe
wall or a minor cut.
The possible extent of fill based on the API and field observations is outlined in Figure 5 which
was found to be more extensive than that suggested by the original feature boundary. The proposed
ground investigation shall be targeted to confirm the soil stratigraphy of the area, fill extent, depth
and its degree of compaction as well as to confirm the underlying groundwater condition.
Rock exposures were visible on the upslope of Stubbs

Road suggesti ng that rockhead in the study area
probably lies at shallow depth.
Job Ti~e
Drawing Title
Feature No. 11SW-DIFR400 &

11SW-DIF402
Stubbs Road, Hong Kong
ARUJP
Scate
1:1,000
Om.
Date
HHY
Ove Amp & Partners

Hong Kong Limited
07/2005
Chd.
MIW
Figure No.
Job No.
23928
Passed
112
Appendix A
Appendix A
113
,
Year 1963 - 1967
Year ! 973
A crest upstand wall, approximately I m high, had been

formed along the crest of both featu res at some ti me
between 1949 and 1963.
Feature No.
11SWD/R165
was built
between
The collapsed part of Stubbs Road had been repaired by

1973.
19721973
T he ent ire Featu re No. I I SW- D / FR400 a nd the

reta ining wa ll IISW-D/R165 along its crest had been
formed between 1972 and 1973 as part of the landslide
repair works.
Vegetation on the slope immed.iate ly below the crest

wall had been cut down. No significant fill was noted
to have been placed be low Stubbs Road due to the crest
wall construction.
Feature No. IISW-DIR165 consisted ofa vertical wall,

a few metres in height.
It is not c lear if there had been any s lope wo rks
undertaken on the study features at the same ti me as the

crest wall construction except a new man-made surface
drai n appeared to ha ve been fo rmed on Featu re No.
II SW- D/F402. Thi s drain was not visible in the earlier
air photos.
It is not c lear from the air photos whet her all th e
landsl ide debris had been removed.

The maximum dept h of the subseq uent fi ll after th e
landslide was estimated to be around 3-4m behind the
wa ll II SW-D/R 165 and about 2-3 m on the Feature No.
I I SW-D/FR400 assuming that all the landslide debris
had been removed.
T he u pper part of Feature No. II SW- D/ FR400
appeared to have been covered by some hard surfac ing
with a man-made drainage channel constructed running
down the centra l part of the feature.
The lower portion of Feature No. I ISW-D/FR400 was
covered by vegetat ion and its condition could not be
determined.
Year 1972
A landsl id e had occurred on Fea ture No. II SW-DI
FR400 as noted from the 1972 air photos. One of the
lanes of Stubbs Road was affected by the lands lide.
The wall pan of the Feature No. II SW-D/FR400 was

not visible on the air photos but if it did ex ist, it shou ld
have bee n buil t by 1973 as there is no change to the
configuration of thi s feature after 1973 .
The a ir photos we re dat ed 24 Jun e 1972 a nd the

lands lide scar appeared to be fresh, suggesting that the
lands lide could have happened after the major ra instonn
in June 1972.
Feature No. II SW-D/F402 was covered by vegetati on

after 1973.
It seems that the landsli de occu rred en tirely within

the fi ll layer. Part of the feature was covered by the
landslide debris.
Di mensions of the landslide were estimated to be 25m

wide, 20m long, 34m deep (approx).
Job n~e
year! 976 - 2003
A white patch, possible washout, was observed on the

central part of Feature No. II SW-DIF402.
No change to the two study features was visible during

this period except that the vegetat ion on the fea ture
became denser in the subsequent dates ofphOlography.
The natura l drainage line immediately below Feature

No. II SW- D1F402 was cleared of vegetation which may
be due to some drainage improvement works but details
were no t clear from the ai r photography. Colluvial
boulders were shown to cover the whole natural stream
course.
Stubbs Road above Feature No. IISW-D/FR400 had

been widened in the late 1970's. The road widening
works were done by excavation into the uph ill side of
the road and no change to the study feature was visible.
Dra"';ng Title
Feature No . 115WDIFR400 &

11 SW DIF402
ARUP
Dye Arup & Partllers

Hong Kong Limited
Dale
Om.
HHY
Dra"';ng TIlle
Featur e No. 11SWD/FR400 &

11SWD/F402
1:1,000
Scale
Job TItle
0712005
end.
MIW
Pused
23928
Scale
1:1,000
Om.
Dale
HHY
FlgoureNo.
Job No.
ARUP
Air Photo Interpretatio n
Qye Arup & Partners

Hong Kong Limited
07/2005
Chd.
Passed
MIW
Figure No.
"" No.
23928
114
Appendix A
Appendix A
115
U5W-D/C675
, , - " .
HSW- D/CR434
115W-D/R 166
115W-D/CR1477
Concrete retaining wall

11SW.D/R165, no signs of
distress were observed
ll SW
Slope surface generally covered by
shrubs and trees. Fill material
exposed in a few locations.
SW-D,IC1497
li-5W - D/C675
, , - " ..
il5W- c/FR400
~~
o,'
115W-D/
/('
, - - - -- - -'---1 1'6'
Feature No. 11SW
D/R165 constructed
between 19721973
after the lands lide.
I
I
I
I
llSW-D/C149~
9',.9
Feature No. 11SW D/FR400 initially

formed by f ill prior to 1945 for the
constructi on of Stubbs Road.
Lands lide occurred in 1972 and the
entire feature was formed between
19721973 after the lands lide. Two
different fill layers may exist be low
the feature footprint.
lllSW-D/R 77;1 '
49
Area mainly covered by

bouldery colluvium with
some fill pockets
I
I
Existing Man-made drains

collect surface runoff and
transfer to the downhill via
the cross road drain and
across the stud feature
115 W-D/C 14,??
Area likely covered by

bouldery colluvium. Fill
pockets or very thin layer
of fill may exist.
/~ f
Existence of wall feature

to be confirmed by the
field inspection.
u'\( "
\
\\
Approximate extent of fill based on air
photography. Thickness of fill is expected to
range from around 1m at the edge of the fill
bodies to around 68m at the centreline of both
study features. Maximum depth of fill should be
found at the centreline ofthe Feature Nos . 11SW
DfFR400 & F402.
'"
Job Title
it!!
, .
' '\
/
Feature No. 11SWO/F402

formed prior to 1945 for the
construction of Stubbs
Road . Possible washout
occurred in 1972.
\
/
~~~~~~~~~_--:115W-D/C391
LEGEND
llSW-D/FR511
ORIGINAL FEATURE BOUNDARY
' ..... I
Orawingnle
Feature No. 11SWO/FR400 &
11 SW-D/F402
Summary of API Findings
POSSIBLE EXTENT OF FILL AS REVEALED

BY API AND FIELD OBSERVATIONS. EXACT
EXTENT AND DEPTH OF FILL SHALL BE
CONFIRMED BY GROUND INVESTIGATION .
'-
ARUP
Scale
Om
Dve Arup & Partners

Hong Kong Limited
Date
07/2005
Chd.
M1W
Figu re No.
Job No.
23928
Dve Arup
Hong Kong limited
Drawi ng Title
Feature No. 11SWO/FR400 &

11 SWOfF402
1:1,000
HHY
Job TIUe
115W-D /C~6
Passed
Stubbs Road , Hong Kong

Field Observations
Figure No
JobN O
23928
A Basic Guide to Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong

This book is a basic guide to air photo interpretation. It will
be of use in civil engineering, planning, land management,
environmental management and related fields.
The book takes tbe reader through these steps;
where to buy, refer to and borrow air photos
how to choose air photos and viewing equipment
how to use a stereoscope to form a 3D image
how to describe what you see on the image
how to report your findings
Case studies show the reader how to carry out air photo
interpretation to examine:
when and how the site was formed
history of reclamation
past land use
site development
site contamination
geological features
landforms
landslide hazards
The autbors are engineering geologists.
Ho Hoi-Yan and Mark Wallace are with
Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd. and
Jonathan King, an independent consultant,
formerly worked for the Geotechnical
Engineering Office in Hong Kong.
HayStacks
Kat 0, Year 1963
Landslide
Po Shan Road, Year 1972
ISBN 988-98896-l.-7
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A Basic Guide to Air Photo Interpretation

A Basic Guide to Air Photo Interpretation

Ho HY, King JP & Wallace MI

Applied Geoscience Centre, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Hong Kong

A Basic Guide to ~u: Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong

ISBN 13: 978-988-98896-1-6

University of Hong Kong

2 Principles of Air Photography

Acquisition of Air Photos

3 Air Photo Interpretation Techniques

4 Air Photography in Hong Kong

The Development of Air Photography

Availability of Air Photography

5 Applications of Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong

6 Examples of Air Photo Interpretation in Hong Kong

Appendix A - Example API Report for a Slope Stndy

Objective ofthe Guide

Air Photo Interpretation

2 Principles of Air Photography

Acquisition of Air Photos

Figure 2.2 Photographic Overlap

Principles of Air Photography

Stereoscopic 'dea d ground'

---- ----- .---

Typical specifi cations for air

Information on the Air Photo

Figure 2.4 Panel of Information on the Air Photo

h ~ the height of the land above sea level

Principles of Air Photography

Principles o f Air Photography

Vertical Exaggeration (and Compression)

Figure 2.5 Scale of an Air Photo (Dumbleton & West, 1970)

Principles of Air Photography

Principles of Air Photography

Types of Photographic Film

Infrared (IR) False

Relat ively more expensive than B& W

Figure 2.6 Orthophoto with Topographic Map Overlay (Arup, 2005b)

In this format they can also be processed using computer

Figure 2.7 Digital Terrain 3D Model (A rup,2005b)

Air Photo Interpretation Techniques

Selection of Air Photos

Be aware of the direction the site faces

Figure 3.1 Se lection of Air Photos

Orientation of Air Photos in Relation to Shadow and Topography

The Photo Survey

3 Air Photo Interpretation Techniques

Air Photo Interpretation Techniques

For favou rable lean, site faces towards

Procedure for Forming a 3D Image Using a Mirror Stereoscope

Air Photo interpretation Techniques

Air Photo Interpretation Techniques

important to/take care of them.

Using a Mirror Stereoscope

If ~ higher magnification view is required then x3 magnifying eyepieces can be used.

I. Locate the Principal Point for each

2. Overlap the two images to detennine

4. Align flightline w ith axis of

Figure 3.2 Setting up Stereo Pairs

Figure 3.4 Tracking Device (Sokkia Co., Ltd.)

Air Photo Interpretation Techniques

Procedure for Using Pocket Stereoscope