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BERNARD ALBERT

SINN

COLLECTION

NAVAL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY

THE GIFT OF
A. SINN. 97

BERNARD

1919

Cornell University Library

V167 .B16 1894

Elementary naval tactics

olin

The

original of this

book

is in

the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

restrictions in

the United States on the use of the

text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924030751 91

ELEMENTARY

NAVAL TACTICS

BY

Commander

WM. BAINBRIDGE-HOFF,
United States Naity.

FIRST EDITION.
FIRST THOUSAND.

NEW YORK

JOHN WILEY
53 East

& SONS,

Tenth Street.
1894.
L

UNI
1,1

VI
1;

,;;M

U A

MY

Copyright, 1894,

BY

WM. BAINBRIDGE-HOFF

nig

Son,

AN OFFICER OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY, SERVING

GENERATION,

DEDICATE THIS LITTLE

WITH GREAT AFFECTION.

IN

THE FOURTH

WORK

Hcfenowle&gment.
As

design the following pages to form an elementary treatise on Naval

Tactics,

and

omitted

in the

many
ideas

to

be used as a text-book,

body of the work

therefore take this

writers
I

have

upon

this

all

means

have,

in

of expressing

my

subject from whose books

to a greater

order to simplify matters,

reference to authorities by name.

great indebtedness to
I

the

have quoted, and whose

or less degree appropriated.

WM. BAINBRIDGE-HOFF,
Commander,
Washington, D. C,

April, 1894.

U. S.

Navy.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Acknowledgement
I.

I.

between

tained

them

Classes

of

weapons used against

the

ship.

Tactical survey.

II.

Chapter
I.

iv

Definition and General Scope of Naval Tactics

Units of offence Units of defence Ratio to be mainDefinitions

Chapter

War

II.

Vessels
the

Constitution of

fleet

General

required by each class of vessel.

equipped for general work.

qualities

II.

Particular

qualities

Necessity for each ship to be

Chapter III. The Ship

I. Demands upon the Captain The

necessity for his familiarity with

methods. II. Manoeuvring qualities of the ship Helm and

Engine power The Water Envelope Manoeuvring area Advance
and transfer The " Neck " Twin rudders. III. Definitions relating
V. Determination
to the ship.
IV. Discussion of the turning-circle.
VI. Analysis of the turningof the turning-circle and its functions.
signal

VII.

upon
ment

the ship in

I.

turning Drift

to turning.

VIII.

The Ship

IV.

in

vessels Forces acting

Heeling as an accompaniTable Speed Table Tactical Table.

of twin-screw

Turning-circles

circle.

Chapter

Helm

angle

Action

Discussion of the use of weapons during the engagement

parison of ships, and general rules for entering the

values of weapons.
rapid speed

is

III.

The

fight.

The com-

II.

value of gun-fire and rules for

Firing

forced upon combatant vessels

Tactical

use

its

-A

of guns in duels,

not to be from central point of control, but toipedoes are best fired
from such a point The rudder not to be used to a great degree in
sighting guns. IV. The ram in action Theorems and rules for its use,

with ships of different tactical qualities

" position
tion

of greatest danger."

Stern

ing one.

installation

VII.

Two

The

V. The torpedo

Broadside installation.

ships against two.

"danger-field"

in action

VI.

Bow

The

installa-

Two ships

engag-

VIII. Three ships against two.

The Sea Army

The Organization and Command of the Fleet
batant fleet and its non-combatant consorts.

Chapter V.

reserve

Vedettes Skirmishes The

I.

Its factors

The com-

II. The line of battle and

intercommunication to be main'

vii

47

CONTENTS.

Vlll

PAGE

Convoy.

Composition of the combatant and non-combatant force. IV. Coaling. V. The Admiral His battle plans Signalbooks His Captains Organizing the fleet. VI. Post of the Admiral
tained

III.

in action.

The Fleet under

Chapter VI.
I.

Definitions

Concentration
fleet

Natural

column

VII.

Formations

Line Double

III.

Their main object,

Indented

Ideal

Echelon

Groups.

Alternate column

or

formation Tactical

Basis of

IV.

line

V. Naval square

angle and retreat formation.

tions.

57

II.

Condition of the formation for attack Division of the

and inverted order Close and open distances Utility

of simple formations.

Double

Dkili

Table of distances

Chase
Column

VI.

Column

of sec-

VIII. Evolutions

units.

The

manoeuvres What constitutes the value of

Rules applying to steaming information Proper prinmanoeuvres.
IX. Discussion of the several movements.

methods
manoeuvres

six

all

ciples

Remarks concerning

X.

Chapter
I.

of

The Fleet

VII.

evolutions, etc.

Action on the Open Sea

in

.81

Requirements of a good battle formation

force should attack Example Torpedo-boats.

Necessity for formation

Order

in which the
Fundamental tactical directions

II.

Plans

be

battles to

of

prear-

Axiom concerning attacking Rules for gun-fire and concentration of

Ramming concentration Concentration for torpedo
ranged

fire

attack.

III.

What

concerning gun-fire

is

imposed upon the

Breaking

Battle-ship Speed a necessity.

ships

Necessity

of

battle

formation Remarks

through the enemy's

IV.

Smoke

the

formation

preserving

in battle

line

Cruiser

Ramming

Concentration,

v.

rear
total

and partial Automobile torpedoes in fleet actions Cruisers in fleet

actions Torpedo-cruisers and sea-going torpedo-boats in fleet actions.
V. Unexpected meetings of hostile fleets
Attack upon a fleet at

anchor.

Chapter
I.

VIII.

The Sea Army for Offence and Defence

Setting out of the sea

tion

Sea march.

II.

army

What

offensive operations

for

the attack

upon

the

lis

composi-

enemy's position by a

Countermining Telegraph-cable
ships Protection of ships at anchor What the blockader
exposed
to
the way of attack.
Blockading Attacking the enemy's
position The defence of a vessel against torpedo-boats.
IV. Attack
of torpedo-boats upon ships or a ship under way Automobile torpedo
Spar-torpedo Conclusions concern. ng each. V. Distribution of
sea force involves Ships

v.

Forts

is

in

III.

v.

naval elements
coast defence

Plates.

in

the defence

Conclusion.

of

the

coast The two categories

of

92

ELEMENTARY NAVAL TACTICS.

CHAPTER

I.

DEFINITION AND GENERAL SCOPE OF NAVAL TACTICS.

Naval Tactics

is

the art of

Disposing and installing

1st.

naval warfare, so that they

upon the enemy, and

the greatest

amount

2d. Disposing

at the

in ships

may

inflict

the weapons used in

the greatest

same time preserve

damage

to themselves

of protection.

the defensive qualities of ships so as to

permit the greatest liberty of movement

weapons, while protecting

in the best

in

regard to their

manner

all

these parts

necessary to gain this end.

Moving

3d.

or manoeuvring the ship

and propelling power, so

as to gain

by means

of the

some advantage

helm

as regards

position in respect to the enemy.

Combining and moving ships

4th.

or to

some

best to

in respect to

each other,

natural or artificial obstruction or defence, so as

employ each and every weapon, while maintaining the

amount of support between the vessels.

greatest

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

Moving

5th.

by general

trolled

TACTICS.

and formed so

vessels in force

as to

be con-

signal.

patent from these definitions that the study of naval

It is

embraces the planning and construction of the ship, as

tactics

and fighting of

well as the organization

fleets.

In the ship, the units of offence are divided

weapons,

the gun, the ram, and

of defence are all

tribution

embraced

in

the torpedo

direction,

three

the consideration of armor-dis-

the intimate division of the hull by bulkheads

and water-excluding devices

rafting

among

while the units

the celerity of change of

and the gathering and losing of way, through rudder

and engine power.

There

a certain ratio which

is

must be maintained

between her offensive and defensive

mnst be so placed that

it

qualities.

cannot be employed at

through the insufficiency of

its

defence.

For

in a ship,

No weapon
its full

value,

instance, a

gun

capable of doing certain work against an enemy's armor must

be put behind a protection sufficiently strong to enable

to

it

be brought acceptably into action.

The
of

ship will have to defend herself against three classes

weapons which attack the

hull at different depths

A. Obstructions or Mines, which operate against the bottom, between the turns of bilge.
B.

Rams and

tween the turn

C. Shells

No gun
stop short
at her.

Torpedoes, which act against the side be-

of bilge

and

a line

or torpedo can be
in

made

this line.

so powerful that

it

can

her career a ship laid on to ram the vessel firing

Hence the ram

Fortunately

below the water-line.

and Shot, which assault the ship above

it is

Ram-blows

the

weapon to be most dreaded.

weapon most difficult to use.
is

the

given, or ram-blows received, are best absorbed

DEFINITION AND GENERAL SCOPE.

by

distributing the strength

whole

fabric.

The blow

and thickness

ram

of a

must have

its

is

of the hull over the

comparable to the

To

ing of an object with an axe.

weight distributed over the external

must resemble A, and not

It is of vital

moment

(See Plate

B.

strik-

be serviceable, the axe

not concentrated at some point remote from

It

cutting edge.

its

I,

Fig.

to protect in the best

figure, .and

I.)

manner

possi-

ble the ship's engines and boilers, rudder and connections.

ship in action that cannot

matter

how

powerful she

move

may

is

doomed

to destruction,

no

be.

However, no defence can be made strong enough to shut

out the heaviest assaults of offensive weapons.

Therefore the

constructor must strive to gain for his hull as slow sinking

conditions as he can, and endeavor also to have his ship sink

on an even keel

in

the event of disaster incident to extensive

penetration.

The

precision of gun-fire

depends

in a great

degree upon

the steadiness of the platform, and upon the large slow-firing

guns being

installed as near as possible to the pivoting-point

of the vessel, so as to be free from the aberration in pointing

due to the traverse

of the ship,

guns were placed

at

pecially to stern

The

which would be the case

the extreme

ends.

if

the

This applies

es-

fire.

use of the ram depends upon the ability of a ship to

turn quickly, and to change with the greatest promptness her

rate

of speed and

her direction

either

ahead or

astern

through the water.

The torpedo
of

usefulness

is

when

dowed with modest

qualities

weapon which

the

installed

speed, to

and slowness

and

in

finds its greatest sphere

heavy-armored

offset

also

when

their
fitted

ships

inferior

en-

turning

to the lightest

ELEMEN TARY NAVAL

vessels of small size possessed of

TA C TICS.

enormous speed, which are

intended for the sole purpose of destroying the heaviest ships

at great risk to themselves,

and with the chance of only deal-

ing a single blow.

II.

For these reasons, and to serve best the ends

was

built,

every vessel must be surveyed

which

for

in a tactical

it

sense.

As the human body, although symmetrical to outward appearances, has, as far back as we can reason, been developed on
so it is with the
lines seemingly opposed to this symmetry

For

ship.

instance,

man

probably because his most vital organ

side

so that,

right-handedness

has developed

situated on his left

is

by advancing his right side and employing his

hand more dexterously, he affords better protection to

right

his heart.

To
she

apply this reasoning to the ship,

other

that there are

certain qualities

be found that

will

it

changes direction better with one

helm than with the

the screws which

of

make her turn more favorably towards one

particular side, or

which cause her to gather or lose speed more quickly under

certain conditions not at

first

apparent.

some common bearing where her guns

most execution, where

their

There
will

will

be, too,

unite in doing

supply of ammunition

will

be

the most easily kept up, and where their crews will be best
protected.
will

Taking the ranges

of the

guns into account, there

be some particular distance at which you

enemy
outfit.

at the greatest disadvantage.

It will

Then

facility,

have the

as to her torpedo

be decided which installation

with the greatest

will

is

to be used

and against an attack from what

DEFINITION AND GENERAL SCOPE.

quarter will

be most

it

Also what rate of speed

effective.

can be attained without interfering with the precision of

fire

with this weapon.

When we

have discussed

in

order every factor of the

offence, then a consideration of the defensive qualities

On what

order.

is

in

bearing does her armor, or protection of coal,

or bulkhead arrangement best cover her vitals, this important

steam-pipe or outboard connection, or that ammunition-supply

And

so on through every question entering

into the

fighting of the ship.

Out

of this

all,

by drawing comparisons between advan-

and disadvantages comes a settlement upon three things:

tages,

Some

ist.

presentation

enemy

strongest to offer to the

2d.

Some

the

of

rate of speed,

ship,

which

for offence

which

shall

shall

be the

and defence.
serve your weapons

best.
3d.

damage

Some one
will

Doing
upon

be

range for your guns at which the greatest

inflicted.

all this is

making a

this bearing, with this speed,

must endeavor

survey of your ship

tactical

and

to keep and fight your

Further on we

will see that

of ships in combination

and

what

is

and

at this distance

you

enemy.
true of one ship

that, in solving the

cerning the position to be occupied by ships

battle, the question of

hardly even enters.

is

true

problem con-

in

the line of

rank of the several commanding

officers

CHAPTER

II.

WAR-VESSELS.

To
a

fleet

be able to meet the enemy, we must oppose him with

own in numbers, construction,

To protect our coast, we must be

equal, at least, to his

speed, and offensive power.

supplied with proper vessels which can keep the sea, yet be
of

draught to enter most of our harbors.

light

sufficiently

They must be

either very swift, or else adequately defended

against the

of the

fire

enemy's ships which they are likely to

encounter, and must also possess weapons of the very best

pattern.

To

these

assist

size-termed cruisers

fleets,
;

we need

protected vessels of large

also a smaller class of the

same name

corvettes and gun-vessels.

Torpedo-vessels of good size

able to keep the sea,

in

fact, torpedo-cruisers,

armed with automobile torpedoes and

machine-guns, are most necessary, but are not of the line of

battle.

Torpedo

craft to act in

smooth water, armed with auto-

mobile torpedoes, must be provided

in large

Each war-vessel should possess as many

numbers.
as possible of the

following qualities
1st.

Good

speed, with a reserve speed immediately avail-

able.
6

WAR-VESSELS.
2d. Resistance

to

sinking

great

water-discharging

ca-

pacity.

Quick turning; great helm power.

3d.

4th. Strong

ram

ability to

in its class.

looking to the greatest penetration

fire,

the largest, most destructive missile that the fighting of

for
its

ram bow

Heavy bow

5th.

and

particular class
6th. Broadside

size of

and stern

enemy
fire

will

demand.

of as

many and

as

large

quick-firing guns as she can carry.

7th. Fair

weight of secondary battery.

8th. Ability to use all

weapons under

all

conditions of the

sea.

The foremost
battle

the battle-ship.

She should have,

mentioned above

is

qualities

factor for war: the ideal unit of the line of

Armor-resistance to the

1st.

(This weight of armor to

call for

in

penetration

addition to the

of

large

shells.

a sacrifice of coal- and stores-

carrying capacity.)

A merging

2d.

number

of the

of broadside

guns into an

in-

creased weight of gun, designed to augment the strength of

stern

fire.

A complete all-around

3d.

installation of the heaviest auto-

mobile torpedoes.
4th. Largest possible secondary battery.

Since the battle-ship has not the speed of the large cruiser,
herself adequately protected against a fairly
gun-fire, she

must

offset

by the

of

ramming

her,

by means

of her tor-

and the torpedo-cruiser, and her smaller congeners,

fire

The

class

her inferiority of speed by being able

to keep the cruiser from

pedoes

heavy

from her secondary battery.

cruisers of

both classes must have

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

t>

TACTICS.

Armor-resistance to quite a heavy class of gun-fire.

1st.

2d. Great speed

great reserve force for speed.

3d. Broadside installation for

4th. Greatest coal-

automobile torpedoes.

and stowage-capacity.

5th.

Non-fouling protection for the bottom.

6th.

Largest secondary battery.

and transport large crews.

7th. Ability to berth

The reason
torpedo

is

for

bow

or stern installation of the automobile

not apparent.

torpedo ahead, she

is in

If

the ship

a position for

is

on

laid

ramming

for using a

and

be wiser for her to go ahead at the great speed she

making, and ram her opponent,

of

weapon

of

less

precision

rather

and probably

than

less

Again,

in

running away from a ship

in

is

would

capable

to

use

effective,

which, under the circumstances, might affect or

firer.

it

and

damage the

chase, using a

stern installation, and firing a torpedo through the disturbance

created by two or three screws turning at their fastest speed,

would be

less effective

devices of strewing the

As

than the using of some of the older

wake with

floating torpedoes.

a large cruiser has a large tactical diameter, a complete

installation of torpedoes in broadside will be

To

most

effective.

protect herself from torpedo craft, the ability to maintain

a heavy

The

fire

from her secondary battery

corvette should be

roomy and

capacity, be of strong scantling,

per.
sail,

She should be capable

of

is

most

have a large coaland be sheathed with copmaking good speed under

and be suitably sparred and square-rigged.

built of

steel,

or constructed in

vital.

fast,

She may be

a composite manner.

She

should have no fitted torpedo installations.

Ships other than those protected by armor should be constructed to shut out secondary fire from entering their

WAR-VESSELS.

primary battery, and their secondary battery should

manner be defended from machine-gun

The larger the ship, and the more

in like

fire.

feeble her protection

against gun-fire, the greater must be her speed and her coal-

Such a

endurance.

but she

battle,

sary, such

vessel

is

may be needed

of

value to the line of

less

for other

duty quite as neces-

as commerce-destroying, or carrying or

convoying

an expeditionary force to some strategic centre.

The

exterior of ships

must be smooth, so that a scraping

past of the enemy, which might possibly occur, would not de-

molish sponsons and so disable guns.

The
as

conning-turret, wherever fitted,

heavy

fire

as the ship

must be protected from

would be called upon to stand.

must be roomy, have the most approved means

of

It

communi-

cating with the different parts of the ship, and be easy of

access and exit.

The armored
become

tops must be so designed that they do not

Fire from aloft

death-traps.

and marksmen,

to

do

their

work

is

well,

most advantageous

must

feel

measurably

safe.

Cruisers and corvettes are not only the eyes of the

fleet,

but they become commerce-destroyers, convoy-ships, and defenders of temporary bases.

The

gun-vessel of any class, and the torpedo-vessel of any

size or peculiar designation,

utilized for supply,

be

fitted

with

belong with the

and dispatch-vessels.

bow torpedo-tubes.

fleet,

and may be

Gun-vessels should

Torpedo-vessels should carry

machine-guns, and the smaller ones spar-torpedo

fittings.

Torpedo-nets are generally furnished to line-of-battle ships

they

will

probably keep out

mobile torpedoes.

all

but the largest class of auto-

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

JO

TACTICS.

II.

All ships must be fighting ships.

Although

it

may

be said

that unarmored vessels should not engage armored ships or

fortifications,

men-of-war
fore

still

will

we should

it

will

have to do
strive to

that

unarmored

just that very thing,

and there-

probably happen

have our ships as good "all-around

ships as their inches will permit

them

to be.

"

CHAPTER
THE

III.

SHIP.

Formerly, when the ship was put

officers, and men could go to

in

commission, the cap-

their

tain,

recognize

posts,

everything within their jurisdiction and care, and be up with

Nowadays, so

from

the

requirements of their stations.

this

being the case, the joining of the ship means for each

one the taking up,

his special

in

plication of science or
it

and mastering

For the

far

department, some novel ap-

some new mechanical

device, studying

it.

captain,

it

means the constant oversight

of his

subordinates to determine whether the results they give him

in

their

departments are adequate and good.

special

must supply the

intelligence,

of his
fulfil

which

command
in

vital

strength, nerve-power, and

shall circulate

give

it

life,

the most laudable

things for which

What one

it

throughout the whole mass

and infuse energy

manner the earnest

was assembled

lize

of

make
all

it

those

of the oldest naval fathers said of his time ap-

" Absolute force

in

to

as a righting unit.

plies perfectly to the captain of to-day

compete

He

necessary

amounts

to nothing

capacity with another which

and control the elements

if

one

is

not able to

knows how

of such force.

The

to crystalship which

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

12

attacks another

know how

not

is

sure to triumph

to fight or

TACTICS.
the one attacked does

if

not able to do so."

is

Being endowed with the necessary nerve, the captain must

come
drill

to his

command

with a fundamental knowledge of naval

and a complete mastery

With

equipment he

this

most intimate and

of his

own

is

methods

the

of

fitted to

signalling.

of

begin his research into the

understanding of the individuality

intricate

ship, and, in a general sense, the

knowledge of the

requirements of his consorts.

Signalling has passed out of the phase of a looking into

moment, with

the signal-books at the last

nation of the compilation

know how

cause you do not

was plenty

at not

finding

to look for

takes before the execution of the signal.

fore the

in,

to carry out

its

be-

and correct mis-

Now we

and no chance to correct

modern captain must not be

fail

condem-

Formerly, there

it.

of time to learn at the minute,

seconds to work

brain

a general

what you want,

have only

errors.

There-

willing to let his fertile

ideas because he

ignorant of the

is

methods by which he can transmit them beyond the range

his voice.

by

all

When

methods

this point is reached,

of signalling,

how

kept up, and must employ as

ary.

By

this

means time

the communication must be

little

is

of

he must know himself,

as possible

any intermedi-

saved and time wasted means

inevitable disaster for the ship.

II.

The manceuvring
of

qualities of a ship lie in the application

the forces supplied by her helm and her engines, acting

though the rudder and propellers.

The screw

general means of propulsion applied to vessels

is

the present

and where

sail-

THE
power

SHIP.

13

not furnished, the screws are two or more

is

By means

of these the ship

momentum

having acquired
the screws

is

in

number.

given speed ahead or astern, or

in either direction, a reversal of

used to absorb this force and bring the vessel to

During any time that the ship

a standstill.

movement

water, a

is

is

of the rudder will cause a

moving

in

the

change

in

the

direction of the ship's head.

moving

ship

carries along with her a

velope,

which

is

body

of water called the

made on

being constantly

near the bow, and which

is

of this accretion of water

water en-

the forward edge

constantly losing the exact weight

off

the after edge,

This causes the ship to swim, as

astern.

which she takes along with

fluid

speed through the water

at a high rate of

it

some distance

were, in a tank of

The phenomena

her.

enter-

ing into the water envelope are quite complex and elaborate
in their

nature and discussion, but only those parts concern us

which govern the

ship's

movement under the

influence of her

helm and engines.

The rudder power

stant

rudder.

which

is

at all times active,

passage of the water particles on

It

is,

however, very different with the engine power,

slow to

is

owing to the coneach side of the

act,

owing to the screws working

in a

com-

plex condition of currents created by the screws themselves

and the passage

For

this reason,

of the bulk of the ship

although the screws

verse way, their effort to absorb the

apparent

will

through the water.

be turning

momentum

is

in a re-

not at

first

and the screws do not get out of the influence of

the water envelope until the ship has advanced more than twice

her length, and do not operate

state of rest for the ship,

times her length.

much

in

good water, and produce

before she has advanced four

Indeed with very large

ships, this condition

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

14

TACTICS.

does not come about until the vessel has gone ahead five or

becomes a very important

six times her length, which fact

one when taken

in

connection with naval

by a

shortly that the time and distance occupied

ceeding at great speed

best

will,

power even, advance

So

ramming

ship's

To
of sea

very nearly the

would

distance, that she

helm enters into the ques-

or avoiding collision,

six points of turn of the ship's

straight.

vessel pro-

she had kept her engines going steadily ahead.

far as the consideration of

tion of
first

if

will see

on reversing her engines at their

for four lengths at

same speed, and nearly cover the same

have done

We

tactics.

it is all

embraced

in the

head on either side of the

This governs the extent of what

known

is

as the

manoeuvring area.
define

it

more

closely, the

manceuvring area

which a ship must pass over to avoid

use of the helm or speed, or

ahead of reversed.

is

that area

Referring to Plate

I.

Fig.

2,

we have

positions of a large ship, steaming at the speed of

knots, plotted

every

the

twelve

consecutive seconds, taken

five

by

collision, either

both, with the engines going

when

steaming ahead on the straight, and with her helm hard over
in

At

each direction.

and

her speed

is still

twelve knots

at

she has changed the direction of her head six points,

with the speed reduced to 9.5 knots by the effort of turning,

and she has advanced from O,

3.5 lengths,

the side, or transferred, nearly two lengths.

and traversed to

Now

then,

mark

the side boundaries and the boundary to the front, which

govern her movements during the time necessary for her to

avoid a collision or ram an enemy.
If we take intermediate
helm-angles for the same elapsed times,
side of
as

a series of points

B A C (see

PL

I.

Fig.

and

3),

we

if

we

we trace

will

have on each

a line through them,

will inscribe

an area which we

THE

15

This description refers to the area

the manoeuvring area.

call

SHIP.

occupied by the ship when going ahead.

For a

fact,

should the ship,

when going ahead

at twelve

knots speed, suddenly reverse her engines in order to stop her

way

as soon as possible, or should put her

either side, as in the former

resemble very nearly,

in all its

area for going ahead

helm hard over to

manceurving area would

case, her

measurements, the manoeuvring

if we place
this manoeuvring area
we have done in the figure referred
we will be surprised to see how little

and

exactly over the other, as

to (see PI.

difference
this time,

we

see

point

we go

It

the same time that

in

At A' we
is

will

and

C,

we

arrive at the

and that these points are very near

are,

however, dead

in

corresponding positions

At B' and C, however, the

be noticed

way

at the figure,

that these

The

the water.

to be observed in the positions B'

ahead " diagram.

quickest

A'

arrive at

each other.

Looking

astern with them.

in the first case,

same thing
are near

3),

makes, as regards the position of the ship during

whether we continue to go ahead with the screws,

or whether

we

Fig.

I.
it

and

in

"

the

ship

is

both
going

stopped.

diagrams show that the

to stop the advance of the ship

is

to reverse the

engines and heave the helm hard over.

The narrow
plate and figure)

Corollary to

portion of the

is

all

manoeuvring area

(same

called the neck.

this

showing of the quickest method of

stopping the advance of the ship,

it

may perhaps

occur that

the fitting of twin rudders, to the stern-post might be serviceable,

each rudder to be hung on an edge of the stern-post

(see PI. II. Fig.

1),

and be capable, through their being inde-

pendent of each other, of swinging out on their own

so act as a water-brake.

sides,

and

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

i6

there would be

Theoretically

TACTICS.

no transfer, and their use

should prevent the advance of the ship at least one-third from

what

it

would be without using the helm and only reversing

The

the engines.

strain

and weight would be very much

creased on the stern-post by these twin rudders

seem that

their fitting

could supply.

Again,

but

it

in-

would

was not beyond what mechanical

skill

case one rudder was disabled,

you

in

would have a spare one immediately

available.

III.

The

explanations and definitions relate to the

following

manoeuvres of the ship

Change of course

change of head ; change of direction.

Bringing the ship's head on some compass point other than

the one previously occupied.

Moveynent or manoeuvre.
turn.

component part

Evolution.

of

Making

a turn, or less than a

an evolution.

-The movement

proceeds from one position to

movements by which a ship

another to gain some tactical
or

advantage.

Sea gained towards the side or flank turning.

Sea gained towards the front turning.

Transfer.

Advance.

in

in

NOTE. The advance

abscissa,

of

Octant.

head

the curve at

That

the ordinate,

is

any

and

the transfer the

point.

part of the turn included in a change of

of four points.

Quadrant.

That

part of the turn included in a change of

head of eight points.

Final Diameter.

The

diameter of the

final

circle,

when

THE
all

17

SHIP.

the forces controlling a ship's

movement have assumed

fixed relation to one another.

Tactical Diameter.

The distance between the position of a

when she commences

vessel heading in one direction,

and her position when she has turned and

is

to turn,

heading

an

in

opposite direction.
Front.

she

is

The direction

in

which the ship heads, except when

obliquing.

Right Flank.
Left Flank.
Rear.

Sea

Sea to the right of the

Sea to the

ship.

the ship.

left of

astern of the ship.

Oblique (see

PI.

three (3) points

II.

Fig. 2 A).

change of course of

used to gain sea to the right or

left

em-

ployed to diminish or increase the distance between ships

line (see Fleet definitions)

Half Turn

where the front

(see PI. II. Fig. 2 B).

four (4) points

is

in

unchanged.

A change

of course of

used to gain sea towards a flank, and so

change the front four points.

Turn
(8)

(see PI. II. Fig. 2 C).

points.

Used

for

A change

moving towards

of course of eight
either

flank,

or

to

charge front eight points.

About

teen (16) points.

Circle

(see PI. II. Fig. 2 D).

(see

Used
PL

through thirty-two

II.

to

change of course

change front to

Fig.

E).

of six-

rear.

continuous

turning

under the influence of either

(32) points

helm.

Figure of Eight (see

through sixteen

PI. II.

throwing the helm hard over

complete turn of thirty-two
the helm again,

Fig

3).

Performed

by moving

(16) points with either helm, then

in

the other direction,

(32) points,

make a complete

and

circle in

finally,

quickly

making a

by reversing

the other direction,

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

and so

The movements

on.

TACTICS.

Used

are to be continuous.

enemy

present alternate sides of your vessel to the

to

firing at

you from a fixed point.

IV.

The
circle
is

due

moving

continue.

to the fact that

in

a straight

It

is

line,

will

The quicker

it.

when

the helm

which her

is

put over she

momentum

seeks to

only by degrees that she yields to the power

of the rudder, and then she

hind

not describe a

reason that a ship, in turning, does

is

is

always an observable time be-

the helm can be put over, the quicker

the vessel respond, and also more rapidly will the diame-

ter of the turning-circle decrease,

angle can be decreased to 40

and the time,

quick-acting

The
vessel

must have great

connections, and

the turning-circle

of

an ordinarily large

about 300 yards, with a speed of twelve knots on

the straight,

Some

their

the helm

power immediately available to move the helm.

radius of

is

We

or more.

angular movements for rudders and

if

and a helm angle

qualities of

tactics than do others

of

about

30.

the turning-circle bear

more on naval

for instance, the advance

and transfer

for the first six points of turn are of the highest importance,

as
is

we have

seen.

The determination

of the tactical diameter

also imperative.

The

loss

assumed

of speed'in turning through a whole circle

may

be

at three times the length of the vessel.

vessel with

two screws,

if

she goes ahead on one and

backs on the other, describes a spiral which constantly

minishes until

its

diameter becomes nothing, when

of translation ceases.

If this vessel

its

di-

motion

went ahead on one screw

THE

SHIP.

19

and stopped the other, she would describe a turn

eter than

if

of less diam-

she went ahead on both screws and used her helm

hard over.

The

curve which a ship with a single screw makes in

turning has generally been set

the helm

is

righted she

to this circle.

is

down

supposed to

As we have

drill,

it

start off

before stated, this

though the assumption may answer

of fleet

as a circle,

for the

and when

on a tangent

is

not

Al-

so.

ordinary purposes

would prove wofully inaccurate

fighting

in

with the ram.

V.

The methods

in

practice for plotting the turning-circle are

The

generally very crude.

been found to answer very

work by where the

ship

is

following method, however, has

well,

of

and furnishes a giod

good length.

The

rule to

question of

length enters, because you measure from a base-line on board

ship

and the shorter the

for errors to creep into

Choose a calm,

base-line, the greater

chance there

is

your work.

still

day

in

the open sea, but in view of

a distant point of land or object sufficiently conspicuous for

observation.
to be

Prepare two casks with flags or

of a different color.

staffs,

each flag

Care must be taken to weight the

casks, so that a very few inches remain

above the water:

this

in order to prevent wind-drift, an element calculated to

mar

the accuracy of the experiment.

Range-finders, or plane-tables

equipped as range-finders, are used to take cross-bearings from

the ship on one or the other of the buoys.
to

fit

In case you have

the instruments yourself, they are to be placed, one for-

ward and one

aft,

on the side towards which the turn

is

to be

"

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

20

TACTICS.

These sighting-instruments are to be put the same

made.

distance from the fore-and-aft middle line of the ship

them

distance between

zero point, which

to be as great as the length of the

the

is

graduated ring of the

mounted thereon,

The

right abeam.

is

sighting-instruments

will

distance between the

the triangle.

of

base-line

The

compass, and the alidade

standard

be used for observing the distant point

Four observers

are necessary

one to note the suc-

cessive bearings of the distant point, and

of the ship's head for every four points

and one

the

All angles observed will be reckoned from a

ship will allow.

of land.

change of direction

one to note the times

at each alidade to note the angles

between the per-

pendicular to the base-line, and the bearing of the buoy about

which the ship

is

turning.

All being in readiness, the two buoys are to be dropped

about 1500 yards apart, on a bearing convenient for observing

the distant object at each point in the turn around either of

them.

hand

stationed to sound the engine-room gong,

is

and another hand

is

stationed

engineers are ordered

to

sound of the gong, and the man

sound

it

at the orders, "

at

the steam-whistle.

at the whistle

Stand by! " and

"

Stop

to the engine-room being struck at the order "

The

ship

is

of the buoys,

One buoy

now put on

and

at the

The

note the engine-counter at each

is

directed to
"

the gong

Stop

a course nearly parallel to the line

speed desired.

(See

PI. III. Fig. 1.)

manner but when the second buoy

comes about four points on the bow, the observer, noting the
time, gives the words, " Stand by " and " Stop "
The
is

passed

in this

whistle sounds for each, and, at the second, the helm

to the determined angle, the observer at the

engine-counter, while the observers at the

is

moved

compass notes the

bow and

stern note

"

THE

21

SHIP.

the position of the ship's head both by the compass and the

bearing of the distant point of land, and the engineers note the

bow and

engine-counter, while the observers at the

the bearing of the buoy.

As

stern note

the ship arrives at four, eight,

twelve, and sixteen points change of course, the observer at

the

compass

and

"

in

Stop "
!

is

the whistle sounds, and the time, bear-

thus taken, the ship proceeds on a course nearly

to the line of buoys, and a turn of sixteen points

made around
helm

Stand-by

a series of observations completing the turn of six-

teen points
parallel

when

"

and revolutions are taken.

ings, angles,

When

manner gives the words,

like

is

the other buoy, either at the same speed and

angle, or with

any desired variations

The experiment may,

of course, be varied

of either or both.

by stopping or

re-

versing one or both engines in a vessel with twin screws, at

any point

in

the turn

and

in

all

cases the exact position of

the ship, when she has turned through four, eight, twelve, and

down from

sixteen points, respectively, can be laid

the obser-

vations.

The

plan will be understood from Plate III. Fig.

2,

which

Here the ship has

represents an actual complete experiment.

arrived at a straight course at the point P, then going

5J knots with thirty-five revolutions.

is

At

this

moment

to

the helm

ordered 34 a-port; the angles abh and bah are observed,

At d

the engine-counter noted, and the time taken.

has turned, by compass and bearing, four points.

the ship

At d* she

has turned eight points, and so on, and at each position the
observations are repeated, the

when the middle

at

d\

to scale

by

point of the ship

positions can easily be laid

sufficient

experiment being

down

is

accuracy for practical purposes.

The

complete
respective

a protractor with

The

object of hav-

22

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

ing two buoys

is

herself

TACTICS.

to save time, and to allow the ship to recover

on a straight course before repeating the experiment.

VI.

We

now

take up the analysis of a single turning-experi-

ment, to see what principles govern

Plate III. Fig.

has been usual

is

assumed

The curve

course.

the

in

drawn

part of the turn.

There

are,

it

describes

however, good reasons for believing that

is

more

truly represented in the figure.

be given one conclusive proof.

in

is

course in succession,

say

we

a tangent, and of this

If

two ships are steaming

smooth water, and the order

will see that the

its

the trace

certain that the stern of the vessel does not describe a

column

in

When

has been usual to show the arc

it

curve to which the original course

will

what

differently from

beginning of the turn as tangential to the original

the curve described

It is

first

is

to be that of the centre of gravity, near the middle

point of the ship,

at the

shows the trace of the curve made by a

2,

vessel in turning.

it.

to starboard,

is

the

given to alter

sternmost ship

foremast of the headmost ship does not alter

bearing for some time after the stern has swung to port, and

wake of the leading ship will have a bend in it to

which becomes an excellent mark for the sternmost ship

the

port,

to

by for putting over her own helm when she comes to

point.

It is called

(See PL III. Fig.

the "kick."

go

this

3.)

In most heavy ships this kick amounts to a sagging of the

whole vessel to such an extent to the right or

course (according as the helm

is

left

of its

put hard-a-starboard or hard-

a-port), that the vessel transfers a distance, at least equal to its

beam, to the side indicated, and does not gain a position clear

THE
of

SHIP.

23

her former course until she has advanced two or more

ship's lengths

when she has

from the spot at which her helm was put over,

addition changed the direction of her head

in

fully three points.

The

reason for this

bow turned from

pressure on the

combined

mentum

that the resistance of

is

time on the ship,

forces acting at the

tending to advance

her,

the water-

not able to offset the

is

the

to transfer her stern to the side towards which her

moved.
selves

It

only after these

is

helm

is

have balanced them-

forces

continues her course

that the ship

mo-

and the rudder power tending

on the curve

in

obedience to her helm.

VII.

The
is

made by two screws

turning-circle

acting on the ship

comparable to the action of the single screw

screw

is

screw

is

the

turning at

When, however,

there

is

same speed

in

that

is, if

each

the same direction.

a difference in the speeds where one

stopped, or where one screw

is

reversed, the change

in the relations of the different parts of the turning-circle be-

comes very
ring to PI.

during the

great, except

4,

Fig.

1,

we can

duced by the screws acting under

other.

first

By

octant.

refer-

see at a glance the effects prodifferent relations to each

There are three curves to compare.

Category No.

1.

Where both

engines are going ahead at

the same speed.

Category No.

2.

Where

the starboard engine

the port engine going ahead at the same speed as

Category No.

3.

Where

while the port engine

is

the

starboard engine

is

stopped,

in

No.

is

reversed,

1.

going ahead, both engines making

the same number of turns as in No.

1.

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

24

In every case the helm

wind

effect of the
It will

be noticed
If

hard over (34

is

to port)

and the

not considered.

is

First.

TACTICS.

we wanted

to avoid a collision in the

first

the manipulations of the engines would assist us very

the position of the ship

is

very nearly the same for

octant,
little,

all

as

three

curves.

We

Secondly.

can save an advance of one-fifth of the great-

advance made, when the vessel has turned through the

est

eight points,

first

under No.

It

1.

we

if

may

turn under Category No. 3 rather than

be remarked too, that this

amount of advance that can

Thirdly.

When

the advance
categories.

is

the position of the ship's head

substantially the

One

is

the greatest

be saved in turning.

same

for each

is

reversed,

of the three

point, however, merits the closest attention

turning under Category No.

2,

you turn through sixteen points

That

is,

with one engine going ahead, and

in

the shortest time.

hard on towards

the other engine stopped, with your helm

moving engine, you reverse the

ship's

head

in the fastest

the

time

possible.

Now

where does the advantage

We

screw vessel?

and that Category No.

1

in

lie in

see at a glance that

2

traversed

There
figure

in force

when
is

is

in

the transfer,

has the advantage over Category No.

saving one-third of this distance

saves one-half'of the

turning for the twinit

amount

of sea,

while Category No. 3

when compared with

turning under Category No.

that

1.

a great deal to be learned from the study of this

especially

may make

when the manoeuvring

collision

of vessels formed and

between them other than a remote

contingency.

The two

things which oppose a ship's turning

when the

THE
helm

SHIP.

25

put down, the ship steaming ahead, are inertia and

is

They

water-resistance.

inasmuch

an opposing element,

as inertia, as

imum when motion

remarkably different

are

begins,

at its

is

and when water-resistance

Then, as we go on applying

minimum.

the

mentum, and then

ship,

water-resistance.

is

maxat its

accelerating

force of rudder-power, or other force which has a

about the pivoting-point of the

effects,

in'

moment

we generate angular moWhen we have once

started the ship, so that every point in the middle line begins
to revolve around the pivoting-point,
all

we

get

momentum

the particles in the ship around this point.

moments

fact,

of

momentum

up by the

set.

There

of

are, in

action of the

first

moment

of rudder-power

and

increase as the angular velocity increases.

But a check to

this

rudder, which are added to the

is developed by the increasing resistThen we have, tending to turn the ship

pivoting-point, moments of momentum and mo-

growing angular velocity

ance of the water.

round on the

ments

of rudder-power,

water-resistance.

It

is

which are opposed by moments of

evident

ultimately

that

moments

of

monemtum must

be equal to moments of water-resistance,

and that there

remain the constant force of the moments

of

will

rudder-power opposed also by equal moments of water-

resistance, leaving

no unbalanced

forces,

and so giving a

form angular velocity to the middle fore-and-aft

ship,

and she turns

final

circle.

By
first

in

a circle.

absolute experiment

quadrant of the

it

circle is

This

circle is

these three

spoken of as the

has been determined that the

passed through in the quickest

time, although the distance traversed

subsequent quadrant.

uni-

line of the

is

greater than in any

Until the final circle

phenomena present themselves

is

entered upon,

for every succes-

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

26
sive quadrant

speed,

less

TACTICS.

paths

shorter

to

traverse,

and

longer time to perform that part of the turn.

When

centre of gravity

makes

become uniform, and the

the motion of rotation has

is

moving

in a circle, the keel-line of

a constant angle with the tangent to the circular path of

the centre of gravity.

represents the

PI.

bow and

IV, Fig.

B the

2, illustrates

stern of the ship

centre of the circular paths in which G, A, and

is

gravity;

the tangent to the path (GG.G,) of

and the angle

the tangent

is

(AGT) made by

the

this case.

shows the

AB O is the
B are moving

position of the centre of gravity on the keel-line

TGT

the ship

the

centre

of

keel-line with

termed the " drift-angle."

This drift-angle amounts to nearly one point at a speed of

twelve knots.

rough measurement can be made of the drift-angle, by

observing the angle

a drag attached to

end

is

made

the turn

is

fast

made by
it

and

a light line, one end of which has

trailed

in

the water, while the other

to the cathead on that side towards which

made.

In regard to the heeling which accompanies turning, and

which bears most especially upon the question of

may

follows (see
1.

gun-fire,

be said that the forces which tend to produce

The

PI.

IV, Fig.

centrifugal

are as

3):

force

acting

outwards

centre of gravity of the ship, and tending to

away from the centre of the circle (R).

2. The lateral component
of the

through

make

the

her heel

rudder-pressure, acting

through the centre of pressure of the rudder

below the centre

it

it

of gravity of the ship,

at

some depth

and tending to make

her heel inwards towards the centre of the circle (Q).

3. The lateral component of the fluid-resistance on the

THE

SHIP.

outer side of the ship, which equals

of

the centrifugal

magnitude the resultant

in

and the rudder-pressure, and acts

force

through the centre of

2J

lateral resistance (p).

Vessels with high speed

and quick-acting

have the heaviest heeling-angle.

helm-control

cases a heel of 6

some

In

has been observed.

It

has been determined that the angle of heel varies

(i)

Directly as the square of the speed of the ship

(2) Inversely with the metacentric height

(3)

Inversely with the radius of the turning-circle.

VIII.

There are three

for the ship

classes of tables

which must be made out

and corrected constantly.

The Helm

Table.

A study of

the effect on the

The

of the ship of the different helm-angles.

wind on turning.

The advance and

movement

influence of the

transfer for the different

octants, under different speeds, with the engines turning with

different relations to each other.

The Speed
the
ing.

Table.

study of the effect of the screws on

movement of the ship with

The factor of wind-power.

respect to gathering and los-

Table. A digest of all the phenomena of the

A study of the effect of trim, and of foulness

The Tactical
turning-circle.

of the bottom,

power.

fuel supply

From

on the ship

in

regard to her speed and turning

Different draughts of water.

and consumption.

the instant that the

head when the ship

is

The whole

Taking on
pennant

is

question of

of coals, etc.

broken at the mast-

commissioned, until the time that she

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

28

TACTICS.

passes into the hands of the dockyard authorities, these tables

can never become too complete.

It will

be hard, too, to overestimate their value to a new

commanding
the ship.

officer

on the occasion of the recommissioning of

CHAPTER
THE SHIP

IV.

IN ACTION.
I.

Although
still

is

no longer the only power of attack,

the fight will undoubtedly be opened by artillery, and

conduct
_X

gun-fire

will

be principally based upon

design, however, will be to ram.

for will

be a commanding position,

using the guns to reduce the

its

The

use.

The whole

its

ultimate

point to strive

a position of advantage,

enemy

to a

much

condition

below the normal, and then to use the ram or torpedo to deal
the coup de grace.

tween

We

refer

single ships, but the

more

combats be-

especially to

remarks apply as well to

fights

between numbers.
Discussing the subject of single combats,

it

is

a funda^

mental principle that a ship need never be rammed by a

slower one

indeed,

if

the turning-powers are equal, the faster

ship can always ram her antagonist.

strictly true,

the terms

it is

necessary to look a

" faster ship,"

"

slower ship

speeds of the two vessels become

While

little
;

"

alike,

this

into the

how

remark

is

meaning

of

near can the

and yet have the

principle hold?

Where

the tactical diameter of one ship

is

only half the

length of the tactical diameter of another ship, and where the

shorter-turning ship

requires

three

minutes to reverse her

29

ELEMENTARY

AVAL

TACTICS.

A'

course, with a speed of eight knots on the straight, the vessel

with the larger turning-circle, to perform the same manoeuvre,

must steam
fore

is

it

ships,

at the rate of ten knots

down,

well to put

where

their turning

on the

There-

straight.

an engagement between two

in

powers are equal

as to time but

unequal as to space, that the faster vessel should possess

twenty per cent excess of speed to

feel sure of

her power to

use the ram.

Speed, then,

down

cut

is

so valuable a quality that

number

the

of the

it

may

be said to

slower vessel's weapons

from

Therefore, the slower the vessel, the heavier

three to two.

must be the defence, and especially the protection against

ramming.

Speed

for entering action

are deficient

tainly of vital importance.

slow speed will be used

by

side

side

most necessary.

is

heavy rapid-firing guns

in

There are

as, for

cases,

instance,

Where, you

this quality is cer-

though, where

two vessels running

each would naturally tend to slow and turn

toward her adversary, as neither could advisedly permit the

other to enter her
If
less
,

powder

As

wake

you are stronger

will assist

a rule the

of the attacking

close astern.
in gun-fire

you

than your adversary, smoke-

greatly.

enemy should be put in a position to leeward

ship, so that the smoke from the guns and

funnels combined will blind him.

It

follows as a postulate,

that should a vessel unfortunately be placed in this position,

before

closing

should stop

with the enemy, befogged with smoke, she

firing,

so as not to add to her difficulties.

It

may

be observed, however, that some of the best tacticians do not

see in this leewardly position

against

it.

all

the disadvantages charged

THE SHIP IN ACTION.

31

vessel in action with another will find that her

opponent

will possess one of the following combinations of qualities

Greater speed, larger turning-circle

1st.

2d. Greater speed, smaller turning-circle

3d. Less speed, larger turning-circle

4th. Less speed, smaller turning-circle.

Each

of these categories will call for different action

on the

part of the ship to secure a position of advantage in respect

the enemy,

to

manoeuvres

or to

as

suffer

little

possible

as

from the

of her adversary.

II.

The

tactical value of

during an engagement,

maybe

completely denned by stating

The area within which it can strike

The chance that it will strike any desired
The damage that it will do.

1st.

2d.
3d.

The
is

an offensive weapon, at any instant

ram must

area within which the

strike at

sector of

fire

of the gun,

scribed to define
this
will

its

limits

it

must

strike,

is

where the radius

is

1500 yards

any one instant

The

a point situated on the prow of the ship.

ing to the gun, within which

point

in

area belong-

measured by the
of the circle de-

length

assuming

distance as the extreme range at which single combats

be fought.

In regard to the torpedo, the area under con-

sideration, within which the

within

its

sector of train,

weapon must

drawn about

representing the range of the torpedo

lines of fire that can be

gun and torpedo,

To

strike,

its foot,

say

comprised

350 yards.

drawn within these areas

as a matter of course infinite in

classify, then,

is

with a radius

The

are, for

the

number.

the areas within which these weapons

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

32

can strike in respect to their extent,

order

TACTICS.

we have the

following

ist.

Gun

2d.

Torpedo;

3d.

Ram.
to their striking the desired

In regard

point

(i.e.,

their

accuracy), they probably stand

ist.

Ram

2d.

Gun

3d.

Torpedo.

In respect to the

damage they would

do, the order

would

be
ist.

Gun.

3d.
If,

Ram;
Torpedo

2d.

however, we consider the tactical value of the weapon

through any interval of time, the foregoing simple classification

not hold.

will

The

values of the weapons are largely en-

hanced or diminished by the time element, so that the ques-

becomes very complex, and varied almost

tion

we know,

to infinity.

As

the element of time enters largely in connection

with the handling of the ram,

torpedo, and hardly at

all in

in

a smaller degree with

the

the case of the gun.

III.

History shows that but few vessels in modern times have

been put out of action by other than gun-fire.

The

increase in the speed of ships, and the rapidity with

which they

will

have to move

in

future fights, oblige us to

look to every means to increase the quickness of

fire,

so that

THE SHIP IK AVTIOX.

we may

hit the

enemy

The engagement

time.

many

as

33

times as possible

in

a given

probably be so short, sharp, and

will

decisive that there should be no limit to this quickness, save

when

the

smoke

Gun-fire

of

is

interferes with the pointing.

two kinds

the slow and heavy guns to

against the enemy's material

tery,

and

But

in its fire sufficiently

is

tively with

the service

strong

by

its

Heavy secondary

installation.

this lighter,

to

the enemy's

of

his torpedo offence,

the rapid-firing and light guns

to destroy the enemy's men.

is

a chance to

interfere very effec-

principal

ordnance,

very available also for

of the

guns, the principal battery of the ship,

is

secondary bat-

playing upon their points of

fire

damaging the screws and rudder

where there

fire

enemy.

The

large

must only be used

produce a serious

effect,

while the

machine-guns and small arms must search out the small openings in the conning-tower, sighting-hoods, shields, and

ports,

and demoralize the protected people.

Secondary
possible.

It

fire

enemy

should be opened on the

as soon as

can begin, for the 6-pounders, at a distance of

about 3000 yards, and for the larger calibres of the secondary

Machine-gun

battery at about 2000 yards.

bres and

small-arm

great-gun

fire

1200 yards.

The
1.

fire

are available

of the ship has

^0,0

precision of

its

at

of small cali-

fire

1500 yards.

The

greatest weight inside of

fire

depends on

Relative movements of the two ships

The smoke from the guns and funnels
;

2.

your own and

of

the enemy's ships

3.

4.
5.

The
The
The

pitching and rolling of the ship firing

uncertainty of the intervening distance

action of the wind

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

34

The

6.

TACTICS.

state of the nerves of the firer,

from his knowing

that the instant he discharges his battery the

enemy

will

do

the same.

The speed

which ships on opposite courses approach

at

each other must be such that when passing at short distances

the chance of being hit by the enemy's shot or torpedo

is

reduced to a minimum, through the shortness of time that his

weapons

will

Then when

be effective.

the

enemy has passed

by you need the greatest speed to get out of the range

most aggressive

fire,

to turn quickly

to strive to enter his turning-circle,

from any possibility of

may

It

his

be said that

and get back

where you

of his

at him, or

will

be safe

ramming you.
passing so rapidly this

in

way each

ship loses her opportunity of using her gun-fire on the other.

This

is

speed.

so in a degree, but

you are rather forced to keep up the

You have probably

discharged your heaviest artillery

before you have reached your antagonist, and you would hardly
dare, at this point, to stop

your engines

period of your presumed superior

in

order to prolong the

artillery-fire, lest

he, notic-

ing the slacking up in your speed, should instantly take ad-

vantage of his then superiority

his

ram,

which, with your

manoeuvre to avoid.

in

way

this respect,
falling

off,

and give you

you could not

In point of fact, to reduce your

way

you would have to stop your engines some lengths before

coming up with
ship would

his

bow, otherwise the

make your speed

your antagonist, as

if

momentum

quite as great,

your

you had not touched your engines.

Since an engagement between two vessels

degenerate into an

of

when you passed

artillery duel,

is

very likely to

each moving in the same

direction around the circumference of a

common

circle,

each

THE SHIP IN ACTION.

vessel should look out for torpedoes

dropped

35
in

the wake by

the other.

Unless you are going to run away, keep your stern as

enemy; and

as possible towards your

duel, keep

artillery

ing a

little

forward of your beam.

grow abaft your beam,

and

if

he continues

of his

The

bear-

of you,

your

will get in

You must immediately throw

advantage by ceasing to

the other direction

an

instant he begins to

advantage of speed,

and eventually ram you.

wake
him out

little

circling in

shows that he has the heels

it

his

you are

by your speed, the enemy

possible

if

if

circle,

or by circling in

you can turn with greater or

less

advan-

tage to yourself by applying the rules given further on for

ramming.
Firing the guns of the principal battery by electricity, in an
action between ships from

doubtful utility
tied

down by

between

central point of control,

is

of

but gun-fire by individual act should be so

hard-and-fast rules, that the battery-officer could

only exercise his

With

some

own judgment

within strictly defined limits.

regard to torpedoes, their discharge should, in action

ships,

be directly under the control of the conning-

tower.

The rudder should be made

use of very sparingly in sight-

ing guns.

IV.

Undoubtedly the ram

nished the ship, but

it

is

is

the most terrible

weapon

depends upon being able to calculate

for a vessel of

of tons weight, her position to within

one hundred

moving

in

fur-

the hardest one to handle, since

it

thousands
feet,

when

a seaway at a speed of perhaps fifteen knots, with

ELEMENTARY A AVAL

36

no point of

rest for the

TACTICS.

eye of the captain for judging, except

moving

the bearing and heading of the other ship

at

arbitrarily

an equal speed with his own.

In regard to vessels entering a combat, by rushing immedi-

ately at each other to strike head on,

the mind

in

it

two phases of opinion.

would present
you

If

itself

to

you are

feel that

meeting the enemy by presenting to him your bow, the

safest

strongest part of your structure, the novelty of the position,

ramming on

or the fear of a successful

you

likely lead

proach your opponent, smoke

may

may

judge

of that " half of a ship's length,"

ming attack

if

But

he wavers, you

will

hardly be able to

which makes your ram-

either a success or a disaster

and

caution on your part, you change your mind

keeping your bows on

through

so,
in

regard to

enemy

and you and the

his,

you ap-

as

obscure him for a moment,

or he

waver; and

would most

his part,

keep your head on him.

to

will

turn from each other, on the safe side of automobile-torpedo

range

use your artillery

you pass mutually

it

will

charge

past

each

other

and as

establish a point of departure, after

which

remain with you to apply the proper tactical rules to

maintain your advantage over the enemy.

Much more
first

unlikely than

encountering each other

The ramming

is

ramming between

when the opponents

vessel will strive to

when

this

advantage

moment

will

upon

it,

and

will

vessel

never take

are on absolutely equal terms.

Each

enter the turning-circle of the other, and

is

manoeuvre to overcome
turning-circle

when one

attack will only take place

has the advantage of position to do

place

ships

scraping alongside.

gained by one ship, the other one will

it

by throwing her enemy out

and so gun-fire and torpedoes

come when the

vessel

will

of her

be used, until

that has lost the most

THE SHIP IK ACTION.

in

an artillery sense

her antagonist.
resort,

37

even up matters by ramming

will try to

The ram then remains

weapon

the

of last

always provided the manoeuvring qualities of the ship

are intact.
If

yours

is

the ship which

regards guns, and

we

is

being put at a disadvantage as

will also

say torpedoes, and you wish to

ram your enemy, then

attained a

as

commanding

Should you

try

and

fail,

soon as you conclude that you have

commence work.
make up your mind to strive to

position you must

then

remain alongside and foul of your antagonist,

for this position

be the safer one for you, as regards your demoralized

will

The enemy cannot

guns and torpedoes.

their explosion

you.

would be as

use his torpedoes, as

him

likely to injure

as to

not to be entirely ignored.

thoroughly

effective alongside,

and their use might establish

him from serving

guns, and so bring you up to an equality with him

to clear yourself from him, and
will say,

is

Small arms and machine-guns are

a condition of affairs that would prevent

we

damage

Again, the contingency of capturing him by boarding

ram him again

his

enable you
this time,

we

with better results.

Before contact

is

made with

the

enemy

the engines must

be stopped.

As

far as

ramming duels

rems and the

rules

are concerned, the following theo-

under them cover nearly

manceuvring, and should be committed to

practise, so that proper

movement

of the

all

the cases of

memory and

put

in

helm would become,

almost automatic, when you are acquainted with the manceuvring qualities of your opponent.

These

rules are not infallible,

but they contain the consensus of opinion of tacticians as

to the best thing to do.

(The faster vessel has twenty per cent excess of speed.)

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

THEOREM

Where

I.

TACTICS.

the speeds are different, but the turn-

ing-circles equal in diameter, the faster vessel

can always ram

the slower.

Rule

I.

The

vessel having the greater speed should strive

to turn with the

helm the same way

Plate V, Figs,

and

as her antagonist.

(See

2.)

with greater speed than

completes her own

circle

and

enters B's.

Rule

The

2.

enemy

the

slower vessel must strive to constantly throw

out of

its

turning-circle

by turning from him.

can be done with least advantage when he has the

heading

and

enemy

and with the greatest advantage when the

for him,

enemy has

It

his broadside

towards him.

(See Plate V, Figs. 3

4.)

In Fig.

advantage

3,
;

and

turns from
in Fig. 4,

to delay ramming, with least

does the same thing, with greatest

advantage.

Theorem
tical

II.

Where

the speeds are equal, and the tac-

diameters different, the ship with the smaller diameter

should never be rammed.

Rule

1.

The

quicker-turning vessel should strive to turn

with her helm opposite to that of her antagonist.

VI, Figs.

No
her, B
A's

and

matter whether

turns under B's stern or

using her helm opposite to

circle.

Where

turns

beyond the third octant,

Rule

2.

The

(See Plate

2.)

will enter or

away from

B,

away from
remain

in

should not turn

'.

slower-turning ship should endeavor to turn

with her helm the same

way

as her

getting a position of advantage.

enemy, and delay

his

THE SHIP IN ACTION.

THEOREM
i.

close to the

Rule

vessel with the greater speed has the

of the vessel with the smaller tactical diameter.

advantage

Rule

The

III.

39

2.

The quicker-turning ship should strive to turn as

enemy as possible.
The speedier vessel can delay her turn and offset

the helm advantage of her antagonist.

In

PI.

A, the

VI, Fig.

3,

gains

faster vessel, stands

beyond the point where

and enter

As

all

he can by a quick turn, while

on and makes

swifter vessel,

to arrive

keeping after

Theorem

I,

may be

it

stated that the

The

astern within limits, has the advantage.

if

slower ship should

make

her, but

it

a stern-chase, while the faster ship

out of her wake, should endeavor to

draw up on her quarter and ram her.

Another postulate to the same theorem
if

him

it.

a postulate to

vessel,

his turning-circle

B's speed will permit

ahead, can always

make

it

is

that the swifter

ramming

fight, for

she

can gain at any time enough sea to turn and face her opponent.
It

now

is

itself,

order to take a look at the

in

and see why certain points

of

it

field

of battle

constitute areas of

greater danger than do others.

What

is

a position of advantage for the one ship

rally a position of disadvantage for the other,

of the question
of the

two

We
it

a discussion

angular distance of

and the controllable conditions of their speeds.

consider two vessels,

is

and

natu-

an examination into the relative bearings

ships, their distance apart, the

their courses,

and

is

is

to be

shown that one

lesser degree, force the

and B, of equal
of

them

tactical value,

can, to a greater or

other to assume a disadvantageous

position, and that this locality

may

be termed the "danger-

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

To

field."

from

escape

tactics which,

if

this

TACTICS.

environment requires certain

not adopted, put the threatened vessel

in

constantly increasing position of danger, until she arrives at a

point

is

of

danger," where her

greatest

(See Plate VI, Fig.

imminent.

is

in this position as

in order to

the "position

called

destruction

regards

If

4.)

attempts to turn

put himself on equal terms with B,

A has

on A.

ram him,

B can keep up

can only use a weak stern-fire on B.

erful bow-fire

will

perhaps one advantage over

pow-

he can use his torpedoes better.

The

danger-field

on either side
order that

In

if

is

the forward half of A's turning-circle

and

shall clear the danger-field

equal terms, the time that

first

than the time

would take

measuring B's mast-head angle.

quadrant, he runs

off at right

swung through,

angles to his

first

say, the

course, for

having only to move on the circumference of a

larger circle has had his speed but

arrives in A's

wake nearer

other words, unless

ramming

reduced, and therefore

little

him than on the

to

can shake

only helps him by turning.

In a

it

necessary distance can be deter-

can hardly escape when, having

his pursuer

and meet B on

takes him to turn through the

less

The

to get to him.

mined by

first

it

two quadrants must be

for

bear relatively as in the diagram.

by superior speed, he

off

(See Plate VII, Fig.

duel, then,

In

last course.

one vessel

1.)

will try to force

the

other into the danger-field, and to the position of greatest

danger
for one,

in that field

and the question

and how to force

manoeuvring, and one

one has the advantage

within 400 yards.

is
if

it

arises

on the other.

If

how
two

to avoid

it

vessels are

unable to approach the other, the

he can get

The pursued

is,

in

the wake of the other

of course, safe as long as

THE SHIP IN ACTION.

he steers a direct course, but

if

he attempts to manoeuvre, he

shortens the distance between himself and the pursuer.

the pursued having the advantage,

impulse of the pursued

comes

in

There

is

is

and the instant he turns he

(See Plate VII, Fig.

he can force

If

into his

2.)

Suppose

wake

would take B a longer time to traverse than

that

to turn his

bow

to B, then

In

in

all

ramming

to strive for

is

turning-circle,

passes

first

and

it

would

it

your adversary's
it

may be

follows as a

for
if

would

3.)

said that the great object

maxim

your enemy's

that the ship which

into the turning-circle of the other has achieved a

It

as easy to lose as

use

it

to arrive at a safety point inside

great advantage.
is

attacks,

wishes

could effect his object, or

(See Plate VII, Fig.

her danger-field.

at a distance

continued to stand on and not turn towards A, then

have

By

meant that the natural

another phase of this example

to close with B.

to fight,

is

the danger-field.

may

it is

be further said that this advantage

hard to gain, through a misjudging of

When

capabilities.

instantly and for

its full

value

you gain

this

advantage

V.

discussion

of the

use of

bow

torpedoes from a fixed

installation in the cutwater or in the keel-line

ing the question of ramming, and

all

is

but discuss-

the rules which apply to

the one apply to the other.

In case the torpedo
it

is

when

under your

stern.

site courses,

his

is

installed astern the best time to use

the vessel, having

missed ramming you, passes

Or should two

vessels be passing on

turns across A's stern.

torpedo with his head pointing

in

oppo-

would stop and

fire

such a direction that

it

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

42

reach

will

helm

his

in

at

the

B'

TACTICS.

(See Plate VIII, Fig.

same direction

speed and continues his

turn

is

really

beyond

a,

shifting

ahead

as B, he starts

There

circle.

why he should continue to

much greater speed than B,

Then

i.)

at full

no good reason
unless

as any further turn

he has

brings

puts him at a disadvantage as

within B's turning-circle and

regards B.

Should the torpedo be

installed in the side, the instant of

discharge will depend upon the speed of the two ships.

It

is

of great importance to discharge your torpedo so as to strike

your adversary before he can

The

distances

for

pecially

broadside

is

admit of a

is

aboard.

close

moment,

es-

Probably the best

in

really of great

as far aft as possible, as the great point

a torpedo ready to prevent the

will try to

his concentrated broadside.

fire

exact place of installation

do on the quarter.

is

to have

enemy ramming you, which he

The discharging-tube should

train three points forward of the

beam.

As an example of when the broadside installation

greatest use, we suppose two vessels to steer courses
intersect
at

is

of

that

the slower one can use his torpedoes on the faster

any time that the ships are within 350 yards of each other.

In this case, also, the best point of installation would be as

far aft as possible, as the

slower vessel could always turn from

the faster vessel and have him

(See Plate VIII, Fig.

in

range as regards his torpedo.

2.)

VI.

Two

Ships Engaging One {the one more powerful than either

of the other two).

a.

If

the two ships are equal tactically, in order to use

their artillery

power to the best advantage they should ap-

THE SHIP IN ACTION.

43

proach the single ship so that their batteries would present

the most guns through the longest time.

But should their combination for offence be such that

one has better ram-power and the other greater gun-power,
b.

then they must form so as to give each ship the best chance to
use her most effective weapon.

In

category,

either

however, these two ships must act

together to obtain satisfactory results.

To

fulfil

the

conditions

of

the

first

combination, they

should approach their enemy so as to offset his superiority

by

This would consist

their greater handiness.

in their enter-

ing the enemy's turning-circle a

number

be thrown out each time by

perhaps superior speed, or

his

of

times, only

through their being obliged to take up a position

range, owing to the great weight of

The

fight

larger ship

whipped

on the part

of

fire

at

to

longer

of his large guns.

the consorts in dealing with one

would be to prevent being separated, and thus be

in detail,

and

this

can only be avoided by sedulously

striving to keep inside of her turning-circle.

They

should approach the one

other, and

of the

in

column, that

is,

The sternmost

near together.

one ahead
vessel

approaching with her consort the one ship should keep a

on the quarter

of her leader,

in

little

on the side of the wake nearest

the enemy, until just before passing the enemy,

when the

sternmost vessel should sheer to the other side of the leader's

wake.
time.

In this

way most guns

It is better to

approach

unmasked

are
in

column than

for the longest

in line (that

is,

abreast each other), as the larger, stronger single ship might

attempt to run between the two and give each one a much
stronger
line,

fire

than they could return

when they wanted

to use their

or again,

most

if

they were

in

effective fire in pass-

El EMEXTARY

44

NAVAL

TACTICS.

one vessel would interfere with the

ing,

Being

fire

the other.

of

column, however, the single vessel would be deterred

in

from dashing

ram him on the

at the leader, to

sternmost vessel would be

onset, since the

in position to certainly

ram him

the single vessel.

The

enemy,

larger

not

in fact, will

the smaller vessels

let

approach him nearer than 500 yards, because they have two

The two on

torpedoes to use where he can use only one.

enemy should round

passing their
turning-circle,
this position

and hang on

they

will

being head on to him

this position

be

will

to under his stern, enter his

quarter as long as they can.

his

in line

or something resembling

of using their heaviest

guns on

his

must head up

for him,

and

too, they
circle,

they wish to fight at

if

as far as formation

is

all

The
fire

to charge

to get

and then,

fight, then, for

the two,

in

in

receiving

him

in

rounding to under

in

column when the

new encounter.
is

to use

up the two with gun-

between them, and separate one

him on the run

turning-

and following him up, re-forming

tactics of the single ship

keep

in his

concerned, consists

single vessel turns again for the

them the chance

weakest portion

column, and after he has charged past,

his stern

gives

strive to

The

it

In

and

Although

present the smallest target.

admits of their being raked,

it,

or to bring

out,

them both on

and so get one of the two to interfere with the

and try

a bearing,
fire

of the

other.

To

fulfil

the

category where one of the two has great

ram-power, she should take the place of the sternmost ship in

the column, and essay to ram the single ship on the first onset.

She can do

this, since

she has her leader for a point of rest for

the eye, to "sight" her position

she

fails in

her

first

in

respect to the enemy.

If

rush, she should proceed with her consort

THE SHIP
to use their artillery as laid

being then formed

in

line,

second encounter formed

in

liX

down

ACTION.

45

the case just considered,

in

and then afterwards await the

column, ready to try conclusions

with the ram on the next charge past.

If

it

should happen that the three vessels engaged were of

about the same

size

and were equal

tactically,

then the two

could do best by keeping one on each quarter of the single

ship so that an angle of 90

They should be

was subtended by

near enough to the one to prevent her taking

on a sheer to turn and ram either one

The one

their cross-fire.

should

ship, so hardly beset,

gradually to one

concentrate her

side,

to her, and trust to the

would be better

off,

smoke

of the two.

to drop

fire

try

and draw

off

on the ship nearest

down

astern,

where she

and where she might achieve a position

which would permit her to use her ram upon one of her
assailants.

VII.

Two
The advantage
together, formed
strive for

courses,

is

lies

Ships against

Two.

with the two ships which keep closest

either

in

line

or

column.

The point

to

to get the vessels separated and steering divergent

and then combine two on one.

Here a complete

understanding between the two vessels on either side

gard to helm and speed signals
action in their favor.

For

in

will

ships are pitted against two.

tend to a solution of the

no engagement

be so varied, or the helm be so

in re-

much

will

used, as

the speed

where two

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

46

TACTICS.

VIII.

Three Ships against

The

general rule

enemy's ships

for

is

farthest

Two.

each side to strive and ram the

The two

off.

ships,

keeping well

together, should try and ram the two ships farthest off the
line.

Other than

two ships

to use.

this rule there

The

on one of the enemy,

For the three

if

great point

you

no special tactics for the

is

is

to use both of your ships

can.

ships, a formation

ships are in line, and the third ship

to assist either of her consorts

which

is
is

best where

kept

may

in

two

of the

the rear, ready

be attacked.

CHAPTER

V.

THE SEA ARMY.

THE ORGANIZATION AND COMMAND OF THE FLEET.
I.

THE

commander-in-chief of a

fleet in

time of war has from

the outset a very complex duty to perform, viewed from a

tactical standpoint.
fleet in

Not only must he be able

to exercise his

the various evolutions, and to classify and to arrange

his ships in line of battle according to their values as regards

know

speed, armament, and turning qualities, but he must

just
in

of vessels are suited to

what types

order that he

may

compose

his squadrons,

undertake the work cut out for him.

Although the word

Fleet

fighting force under the

is

employed to designate the

command

of an admiral,

it

does not

begin to indicate the number of vessels under his control.

deed there are so many vessels not of the

when compared with

which presents

how

regard to the protection of these non-

itself in

of the fleet

to fight the

This array of

line of battle, that,

the fighting units, the tactical problem

combatant associates
than

ships,

seems harder of solution

enemy.
even

in its simplest

aggregation,

that

which has to do with encountering the enemy on the open

consists
battle,

In-

not only of ships which go to

make up the

sea,

line of

but other fighting ships, as squadrons of small cruisers,

47

ELEMENTARY XAVAL

non-combatant
and

list

ammunition- supply

torpedo-depot

ships,

there

is

coal-supply

These supply-vessels are

ships.

accompany the

specially built to

Then

and torpedo-vessels.

corvettes, gun-vessels,

ships,

TACTICS.

fleet,

and are different from

the cargo-carrying merchant-steamers and steam-colliers.

these non-combatant ships must be kept in touch at

all

All

times

with the line of battle.

The enemy's
care
less

complex

vessels,

fleet has, of course,

but you must do your best to cripple the

port, then the

called

is

command

number

dinary conception of a

many

of ships

coal,

outgrows enormously the

or-

and these cargo-carriers must be concruisers

and corvettes.

the factors which enter into the establishment of

may

be cited, supply-ships of various kinds, storefloating

ships, commissariat-ships,

workshops, countermining

hospital ships, tugs, cable-laying

ordnance and coal

To

establish the block-

Bases must be established, with

fleet.

voyed and protected by small

the fleet

upon to

an expedition against an enemy's

ships for replenishing the combatants with stores,

ammunition, and

Among

enemy by

his.

In case the admiral

ade of a coast, or

flotillas,

the same impedimenta to

the tactics of the engagement

must you protect your own supply-

for not only

capturing or sinking

very

make

but this does not

for,

and telegraph

ships,

vessels.

express the

vessels the term Sen

scope and size of

Army

this

aggregation of

seems very appropriately applied.

The questions governing the organization of such a sea

army do not come within the consideration of an elementary work, but the

preceding remarks

impress the student with

be solved,

viz.,

some

concerning

it

should

idea of the tactical problem to

the interdependence for supply and protection

THE SEA ARMY.

4g

existing between the fighting units and the silent consorts

which must accompany them.

II.

In regard to the ships composing the line of battle, they

must be so much
the

enemy

in

alike as to

any

be able to act together against

may

which the admiral

tactical evolution

require to be performed.

The

be composed of armored ships of

line of battle will

the greatest size and power, and of protected and partially

protected cruisers.

type and speed, a

these ships differ very widely in

If

tactical survey should be

that they

may

made

of all the ships of the force, so

be arranged to have the weak points of any

ship in the formation strengthened

by her

afforded

consorts

by the protection

force for battle that the formation

may

smaller portions, where each part shall

certain

speed, handiness,

qualities, as

broadside

fire,

and so

to be

and, further, so to assemble the

be broken up into
become eminent for

ramming,

fire

ahead,

forth.

Again, very clumsy and slow vessels had better be taken

out of the line of battle altogether, and associated with a force

which might be held

in reserve.

The

idea of a reserve

is

not

that of a force which enters the arena of battle after the fight-

ing line has encountered the enemy, but has reference

more

especially to the assemblage of ships not of normal quality

for this so-called

reserve

should contain rams, gun-vessels,

and torpedo-cruisers, which must act independently

main

force,

of the

but be manceuvred on some prearranged plan in

which their peculiar

qualities are best developed.

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

SO

A
the

fair definition of

fleet

TACTICS.

the term reserve would be, that part of

which contains factors that would interfere with the

efficiency of the fighting line

if

employed with

would have

also contains factors that

and which

it,

their special

qualities

much impaired if assembled in the main formation.

The protected or partially protected cruisers are thoroughly
adequate to be classed with line-of-battle ships as fighting
consorts

any

but the advantage of their superior speed, which

line of battle

ship,

in

must be kept down to that of the slowest

must not be thrown away.

Therefore cruisers in the

some

part of the formation from

must be put

fighting line

in

which they can be withdrawn without breaking up the formation of the remainder of the line of battle

this in case that

these cruisers should be needed for any emergency

stance, to strengthen

some

as, for in-

hardly-assailed point, or to con-

centrate quickly upon some weak point in the enemy's formation.

Squadrons

employment

when

and corvettes are useful

of smaller cruisers

as " vedettes "

to

be the " eyes of the

They should

cruising at sea.

twenty miles ahead, and ten miles

fleet

for
"

stretch over a distance of

in

This vedette or lookout squadron

every other direction.

is

a regularly organized

body, and differs entirely from single ships sent out from the

main force to

feel

the enemy.

These

last

may

be termed

" skirmishers."

There are other vessels which are fighting

units,

hovering

between the reserve and convoy portion of the

ing on the line of battle.
vessels,

fleet and waitThese are despatch- vessels, gun-

and torpedo-vessels.

In the convoy

we have

vessels fitted to carry

special types of vessels;

ammunition.

As they

will

among them
have to sup-

THE SEA ARMY.

ply the

fleet tinder all

conditions of environment, their

as regards protection from the projectiles of the

from any attack, and ability to

fence

becomes a

serious

will

do

supply their cargo,

The armament of the ammunumber of machine-guns. The

war problem.

nition-ship should be a large

enemy

fittings,

enemy, de-

their

utmost to capture or destroy such a

vessel.

What

is

true of the ammunition-supply ship

the coal-supply vessel, which

is

is

also true of

a ship regularly built for the

purpose, and armed with machine-guns.

Among
vessel

the special ships

must be capable

is

the torpedo-depot ship.

of getting torpedo-boats of

This

quite a

large size in and out of the water, and be able to carry quite a

number

of them.

She must be capable

of

making great

speed,

so that in case the state of the sea will not permit of her tor-

pedo

craft

being used she can keep out of the enemy's reach.

III.

For the combatant portion

numbers of

on the high seas ?

an

enemy

would be

large line-of-battle ships

4 small

the fleet what kinds and

Probably the smallest number to establish

efficient fighting line

of

ships are adequate for service to engage the

line-of-battle

ships (sea-going monitors

and

tur-

reted vessels)

4 large protected

or partially-protected cruisers

16 torpedo-vessels of large

size.

(These torpedo-vessels are not part of the formation, but

keep

at all times with the line of battle.)

In the reserve

we would have

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

S2

TACTLCS.

4 armored vessels or rams (ships whose peculiarities render

them

unfit to

be put

4 torpedo-cruisers

in

the line of battle)

4 despatch-vessels
4 gun-vessels.
All these vessels, except the

torpedo-cruisers, should be

furnished with a good outfit for towing vessels.

The

vedette squadron would contain

4 cruisers of great speed, perhaps feebly protected

4 small cruisers
8 corvettes.

The vedette squadron during an engagement

will

keep an

eye on and protect the vessels composing the convoy.

The

convoy portion of the fleet embraces

torpedo-depot ship, carrying from 4 to 8 torpedo-boats

ordnance and ammunition supply ships

The

line of battle

under ordinary circumstances of manoeu-

vring would have associated with

the reserve
into
their

its

more) coal-supply ships.

2 (or

but

in

it

the armored vessels of

time of action the reserve would break up

indicated units, so that the ships would be free to use

most eminent weapons

in

the most independent manner.

In respect to operating on an enemy's coast or against a

port, the

combatant elements become so special that

impossible to state exactly

it

is

how they should be grouped,

or

what ships would constitute the groups.

IV.
Vessels will certainly be obliged under

some circumstances

to coal at sea, but the problem regarding their supply seems

no nearer a solution than

it

did ten years ago.

It

true that

THE SEA ARMY.

53

great speed enables vessels to go into sheltered harbors, coal,

and not be a long time absent from the theatre

of action

but

we can go
much more coal is
it, we have to go more frequently.
The strategic value of coaling-points is apparent. Nations
with navies must make sure in time of peace that their vessels
used than formerly, that

so

if

farther for

not be rendered useless in time of war through a lack of

will

fuel-supply.

This supply

fixed, or coal stations

temporary

base.

may

be divided into two classes

and movable, or by steamers using a

Probably the carrying on of a war will

its

re-

Each has

quire both systems to be in a degree maintained.

advantages, but undoubtedly the last category presents

the greatest number.

To

insure a coal-supply under the last category, in time of

Government must encourage a

peace, the

large proportion of

the fast merchant-steamers to be so built that they can carry

cargoes of this commodity to such rendezvous as the nature of

These rendezvous, from a

the war shall decide.

strategic

point of view, should be as varied as possible in location, so as

The advantages of a movable coalThe location of the depots

to mislead the enemy.

supply here become apparent.

not being known to the enemy, the capture of the supplyvessels

is

much

near the base of operations,

uselessly.

Then, the points of supply being

less likely.

The drawbacks

a rendezvous where the

little

to this

fleet

or no coal will be

method

likely to

that

could coal, having a hostile envi-

ronment, would be harder to establish, and,

would be more

consumed

of supply are

be attacked

in force.

may be hard
sent may be very

if

established,

Then, again,

steamers at the outbreak of a war

to obtain, the

distances that they have to be

great,

fleet

might

suffer in consequence.

and the

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

54

TACTICS.

V.

A
and

good means

his ships

is

depends upon

communication between the admiral

of

vitally important, as the success of

an action

this thing.

The admiral

must have an intimate

this reason

for

ac-

quaintance with the signal-books, and in them should be laid

down

his general plans of battle,

be followed

will

with

in

and the

lines of action that

These

an engagement.

common

plans, in

other tactical manoeuvres, should be thoroughly dis-

all

covered to his captains.

Too

great stress cannot be laid

upon the necessity

captains being thoroughly cognizant

in

order that they

them.

If

the

bued with the

may

render an

commanding
spirit of

of the

admiral's plans,

of the

intelligent

obedience to

officers of the ships are

not im-

the commander-in-chief, have not his

confidence, and are not

conversant with his tactical plans,

then only disaster and defeat can be looked

for.

In order to have signals read, formations should be simple

and compact, and coal and gunpowder must be of a smokeless

variety.

It is

the general opinion that signal-flags can best be

seen from to windward.

The admiral must be

in

possession

qualities of the ships of his fleet,

captains

know

all

establish

tables

of

all

the tactical

and he must see that

these things for their

with which they are associated.

of

own

ships,

his

and those

In like manner, too, he will

masthead angles and speed, and helm

coefficients for his ships,

which

shall enable

them

to maintain

their positions in the formation and insure their carrying on

of evolutions in a safe

and seamanlike manner.

THE SEA ARMY.

55

Should the admiral seek an engagement with the enemy,

he should endeavor

To surprise and attack him when he is unprepared

To throw the whole of his force upon a part of

1.

2.

the

force of his antagonist.

There

however, certain points upon which the admiral

are,

wish to be informed, and

will

a collision with the

Are the

What

enemy

feel

certain in regard to, before

They

brought about.

is

are

nearest coast ports friendly, neutral, or inimical?

and how do they bear?

are their distances,

Can reinforcements be depended upon during the action?

In

what

direction can

be reasonably hoped that these

it

reinforcements will appear?

It

may

be set down as a maxim, that

enemy near

mation, discovers the

if

at hand,

any

fleet, in

as, for

for-

instance,

through the lighting up of a fog or coming around a point of

land,
it is

and

this

enemy

in

the duty of the commander-in-chief of the formed

charge the other, even

one

the midst of performing an evolution,

for attack,

striving for

is

if

the formation then in

is

fleet to

not a good

and the formation the manoeuvring

fleet is

better than his own.

VI.

The
moment.

post of the admiral in action

The admiral must be

able at

himself from a position where he

is

able to get to a position where he

is

at all times be well protected

This condition of
in his heaviest

affairs

is

something of great

all

times to withdraw

not seen.

He must be
He must

most needed.

cannot be met by embarking him

and most formidable ship

of the line, because

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

56

such a ship
again,

when

Then,

not endowed with the fastest speed.

is

the admiral considers

one part of the

it

expedient to proceed from

of battle to another,

field

away from

a vessel

TACTICS.

a position where she

he might take such

was most needed, a

hot corner where she was doing good work, to a comparatively

unengaged portion of the

The only

line.

ship fulfilling

all

the tactical requirements of a

which has great speed and good resisting

flag-ship,

and

to be found in the best

qualities,

fastest protected cruiser that

is

he

can possess.

He and

his

war

staff

should be protected by a roomy and

very strong conning-turret, beneath which

is

the

captain's

communication can be ade-

conning-turret, so arranged that

quately kept up with the admiral.

The
tubes

admiral's post should have no telegraphs or speakinghis

communication concerning the manoeuvres of the

ship can be through the captain alone.

Over the admiral's

will

turret,

and surrounding the signal-mast,

be the strong shield which surrounds the

signal-staff.

admiral, through the grating-deck over his head, can

The

communi-

cate directly with the signal-officer immediately above him.

The admiral under

ship which

is

enter as hot a

He may

these circumstances

sufficiently strong
fire,

in

armored ships

will

he need encounter.

not necessarily lead into action, and his flag-ship

enemy by

plete understanding, however, with the

them the

embarked

and well enough protected to

for a limited time, as

not the best ship to destroy the

of his

is

safely permit

privilege of leading the

way

gun-fire.

commanding
him

to

into action.

is

His comofficers

delegate to

CHAPTER

VI.

THE FLEET UNDER DRILL.

I.

Definitions.

Alignment. A prescribed dress either to the

centre, or

upon

is

on a

particular ship.

The

right, left, or

ship dressed or aligned

Alignment has reference

termed the Guide.

also to

the keeping of one vessel astern of another next ahead.

Distance

is

the space between ships on the

same

line of

bearing, measuring from the nearest point of the water-lines.

Evolution. The necessary movement or combination of

movements by which a force of ships, acting together, pro-

ceed from one formation to another.

Movement

or Manoeuvre.

any detached portion

of

Action
A

it.

of the

whole force or

component part

of an evolu-

tion.

Conversion.

A method

of

changing front

in line

through

not more than four points; performed by the vessels steaming

a course normal to the line bisecting the angle of change of
front,

at varying speeds (those vessels

made going slowest), until the line of bearing

new front, when the force comes
line on the new course.
(See Plate IX, Fig. i.)

which the turn

is

on that side towards

is

at right angles to the

together into

57

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

TACTICS.

Movement (sometimes termed an oblique movement).

Direct

Made by a ship passing from her station

her station in some
rules of the road.

(See Plate IX, Fig.

Isodromic Movement or Evolution.

front eight points (to either flank)

ahead at the same rate

flank

changed

to,

in

one formation to

other, by the nearest route, observing the

2.)

Vessels

by the

in line

change

vessels all steaming

except the ship farthest

which turns and heads

off

from the

new

for the

running astern of the force, and takes her new position

front,

when

she passes astern of the next vessel to her, that vessel turns

and

steers for the

new

front

and so on,

until the

has changed front to the flank indicated.

(See Plate IX, Fig.

order of the formation.

Simultaneous A lavement.

some other

angle, to

towards which the change

3.)

Each vessel of the force changes

course at the same time from a

same

whole force

This inverts the

is

common

made,

course, through the

In practice that vessel

course.

first

marks the manoeuvre.

(See Plate IX, Fig. 4.)

Movement

Successive

march).

(rectangular

Changing direction, when

in

movement,

counter-

column, by following

in

the wake of the leader, which has turned through a given arc.
If
if

the change
the change

is
is

(See Plate X, Fig.

Wheel.

movement is rectangular;
movement is a counter-march.

for eight points, the

sixteen points, the

1.)

manoeuvre performed by two vessels

in

line

through four, eight, or sixteen points, turning either to the

right or left flank.

The

inner ship uses a speed which permits

her to turn through the designated number of points

same time
circle.

in

the

as the outer flank ship, turning on a larger tactical

(See Plate X, Fig.

Formation.

Any

2.)

arrangement or combination of vessels

THE FLEET UNDER

on a

line

on

bearing, or

of

DRILL.

lines of

59

bearing, designed for

cruising, attacking, retreating, or anchoring.

Line.

Ships on

a line of bearing at right angles to the

(See Plate X, Fig.

front.

Double Line.

Ships

3.)

on two

parallel

of

lines

bearing at

right angles to the front, the ships in one line being astern of

(See Plate XI, Fig.

the ships in the other.

Column.

(See Plate X, Fig.

front.

Double Column.

Echelon.

Fig-

4.)

Ships

in

two

parallel columns, the leaders

(See Plate XI, Fig.

abreast of each other.

Ships on a

line of

2.)

bearing which makes an angle

A bow and

with the front.

of 45

quarter

(See Plate X,

line.

5-)

Double Echelon.

Ships

middle

vessel.

two

on

lines of

In double echelon,

when the

direction of the point, they are said to be

tion,"

bearing from a

making a bow and quarter

central ship, each line

with this

line

vessels

head

in

in " chase forma-

and when the vessels head away from the point they are

said to be in " retreat formation."

and

1.)

Ships on a line of bearing in the direction of the

(See Plate XI, Figs. 3

4.)

Column of Sections.
line.

Ships

(See Plate XII, Fig.

Groups.

A formation

in

column with section

front in

1.)

in

a triangle or square, but generally

triangular, either equilateral, rectangular, or scalene.

ships occupy, in any case, the angles of the figure.

and

XII, Figs.

2, 3,

Naval
The ships

Square.

equal,

formation of equal front and depth.

are so disposed that distances

is

(See Plate

4.)

and the same

Interval

The

in

number.

and

intervals are

(See Plate XII, Fig.

the perpendicular distance between

5.)

the

lines

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

fo
of bearing
is

when

the force

some compound formation.

in

is

TACTICS.
It

the shortest distance between two formations.

also

Simple Formation.

Ships in formation

arranged on one line

of bearing.

Compound
than one

or

Complex Formation.

formed on more

line of bearing.

Indented or Alternate Formation.

where the ships are arranged

and

Ships

as

A compound formation,

shown

in Plate

XIII, Figs.

2.

Order.

The

some formation.
right

when

be natural.
line or

in

numerical arrangement of the force when

the vessel leads in column, or

If

line

If this

and

number

is

number one

is

one, the order

placed on the

is
is

said

to

of the

left

the rear vessel of the column, then the order

is

in

on the

is

said

to be inverted.

Line of Bearing.

An

through the same point

is

expressed either by

Absolute Bearing, or

its

straight

line

passing

each ship of a formed force.

expressed

in

terms of the ship

Table of Distances.

=
=
Distance
Double distance =
=
One mile
Half distance

It

magnetic direction and called the

as

beam and called the Relative Bearing.

Front.
The bearing of the enemy.

points abaft the

Battle

is

imaginary

in

4
10

= 200
cables = 400
"
800
"
= 2000

cable

yards.
"

"
"

two

THE FLEET UNDER DRILL.

II.

Formations.

There are

says

"

common

to armies

at sea.

Napoleon

do not have a weak

en masse and with rapidity on the

him where he

The

engaging

fleets

Concentrate your forces

To move
attack

which are

tactical precepts

on shore and to

fighting

is

weakest,

the secret of victory.''

is

principle which answers to this

precept of war, which

is

is

concentration.

to destroy

This

universally admitted to be excellent,

especially applicable to fighting with rams.

is

point.

enemy, and to

by greater numbers a part

of

To weaken

the enemy's

or

fleet,

then to be able to bear down afresh on some other part of his

formation with a superior force,

the special object of

is

all

attacking manoeuvres.

A
it

fleet is

formed

can use perfectly

for battle

all

the

when

means

all

the vessels composing

of offence and defence that

they are provided with, without interfering with one another

mutual

or detracting from their

weapons

of the line of battle are guns, rams,

Formations are useful

for

ing as well as for fighting.

kinds

At

those used

least

offensive

and torpedoes.

purposes of cruising and anchor-

Fighting formations are of two

for attacking,

and those used

for retreating.

the requirements for separate formations to meet

these two conditions of battle are

cians

The

support.

but

it

must be

of a few years ago,

said that

most

demanded by some

tacti-

of the favorite formations

whose geometrical beauties were

so strik-

ing to the eye, and whose strength was so apparent, are dis-

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

62

TACTICS.

appearing under the exaction of greater speed

and

in ships,

the employment of improved weapons.

Although the formation

its

of the force of to-day

and

structure, formation

strict

is

simple in

arrangement are more

vital

than ever before, since weapons as regards hitting are used

much narrower

within

drill

of the fleet in

and vessels out

be,

The good and efficient

simple formations must make up for any

its

possess, but

carded, lest certain virtues of the

In regard to
simplicity
it

must
is

of

and torpedoes.

complex formation might

for the

of

some

which has to be

modern

formations,

battle

all

rule.

broken up, the easier

large

to

which their

formerly,

power that the mathematical arrangement

of

harder

than

materially with the free use of their

interfere

consorts' guns, rams,

want

them

enables

greater precision
position will

limits

dis-

ship be lost.

may

it

be said that

The more simple a formation is, the

enemy to break it up, and in case it is
it is

to regain.

When

and so elaborate as to require most

a formation

is

so

of the attention of

mind on

the captain to preserve

it,

thrashing the enemy,

has no value for fighting, and should

it

instead of his putting his

disappear from the category of a battle formation.

It

is,

however,

in

order to meet certain cases that some of

the formations which are in

under discussion

The
ist.

vessel,

The
and

fulfil

are

largest
at the

manner archaic should come

these pages.

in

principal conditions

attack should

which a formation of a

fleet for

amount

of liberty of evolution for each

same time the best employment

of the

peculiar fittings of each ship for attack.

2d. It should permit the execution of every

the least time, with the greatest speed.

manoeuvre

in

THE FLEET UNDER DRILL.

be simple,

3d. It should
all

flexible,

03

and easy to keep, under

conditions of sea and weather, without exposing the ships

to collision.
4th.

Unity

must be able

vessels

must be

of each vessel's course

of direction

The

preserved.

must maintain

their stations,

and they

to change rapidly to the direction of the enemy's

attack.
5th. It

should be such as to permit the

cope with any particular necessity

fleet to

for preservation

be able to

imposed on

them by the enemy.

6th.

Between

vessels of the fleet there

must be mutual

support, either for attack or defence.

7th. It should permit the fleet to

be kept well together

under the eye of the admiral, so that each vessel can see

his

signals.

In dividing the

fleet,

should the basis of division be either

the group or section, attention should be paid to the equality

of the ships which are to act together,

manoeuvring
gether,

These

capabilities.

should learn to

move

more

especially to their

vessels should exercise to-

as one,

and should only be

changed under circumstances of necessity.

Since 1872 the idea has been gaining ground that the unit
of organization

is

the section of two ships.

always next to each other

comparing the

in the formation,

These
and

vessels are

as a result of

tactical surveys of the ships of the force, are

picked out to join forces for offence and defence, since by this

means more power

for

war

is

got out of the two than would

be the case where each acted singly.

be spoken

of

One

of the section

vessel

as

This power for war

applying the principle

consort the "Mate."

is

termed the

of

may

concentration.

" Leader,"

and

its

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

64

Fighting formations
ing categories

come within one

great depth
slight depth

1.

Narrow

Extended

3.

Front and depth equal

4.

Groups.
first

front

front

category

and

line, chase,

of the four follow-

2.

The
by

all

TACTICS.

is

represented by column

retreat formations

the third,

and the fourth, by every formation that

may

the second,

by the square
be included

in

the group system.

Formations
the order

is

may

be either natural or inverted, according as

The

natural or inverted.

natural order should

always be maintained except when forced by circumstances

to form in an inverted formation, which should be only as

temporary as
It

close

since
in

possible.

the opinion of tacticians that

is

it

is

thorough knowledge

and

conceived to be safer to keep close to one another

What

a fog, close distance will obtain in battle.

" close distance," as ships get larger

on

easier to maintain

it is

rather than open distance for general manoeuvring

and a

and heavier,
close

constitutes

will

scrutiny

depend
their

of

manceuvring areas.

The

intervals

between ships

two

in

lines should not

than six cables for a speed of ten knots.

the second line to engage the
first, if

may be

probably

keep

less

This would permit

enemy two minutes

after the

the enemy's speed was equal and his course opposite in

direction to the formation in

It

be

its

It is

lie

set

down

with that

two

as a

fleet

lines.

maxim, that the victory

whose formation

will

permit

will
it

to

integrity the longest time.

patent that the smaller and the simpler the formation

THE FLEET UNDER DRILL.

is

the greater
if

parts

you

enemy's

the chance of

increase

the

number

of

fact,

it

number

of small

exposed to the

flanks

where he can combine or

attack,

Granting this to be a

tion.

being kept together; but,

its

divide up your force into a great

you

again,

is

65

effect a concentra-

does not, however, seem

to apply to small or auxilary formations, properly disposed for

mutual protection, and acting

prearranged
is

in

concert

in

obedience to some

In this case each and every exposed flank

plan.

covered by a small formation of a portion of the force ready

to concentrate on the

Take

formed

Here

if

he attempts concentration.

four ships, for instance, formed in

exposed flank

by four other ships

line,

also

and cover either

formed

in

line,

column, and placed some distance to the

in

or

rear.

are eight ships of a force with four flanks exposed, but

enemy

the

enemy

certainly has

any flank than

if

no greater chance to concentrate on

there were eight ships in simple line or simple

column, when there would be only Uvo flanks exposed, for the
other small formation

immediately ready to

is

advantage gained by the enemy.

have greater
in

break

upon

in

designs, as they are

combination, and

flexible

any

Indeed the two formations

facilities for frustrating his

much more

offset

it

is

harder to

their arrangement.

III.

formation

in

line

is

brought forward as a formation

especially favorable for the use of the ram, as

weapon
It

at all times to the

is

claimed,

however, that

vantages, which are as follows

1st.

It

is

it

presents that

enemy.
it

possesses

several

hard to preserve the dress of the vessels.

disad-

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

66
2d.

It

TACTICS.

so extended as to favor concentrated attacks of

is

enemy anywhere on the line.

3d. The admiral's signals will be hard

the

to

make out by

vessels on the flank.

4th.

The

flanks are unprotected.

5th. It is a

6th. It

and

is

difficult

7th.

It

bad formation

for broadside

fire.

not flexible; changes of direction require long

manoeuvres.
is

the

easiest

formation

to

break through and

break up.

Notwithstanding
it,

it

has

this formidable array of charges against

many champions, who

say that the whole force

is

brought up to the enemy at the same moment, and that as

you turn

to

thoroughly

come back

to the attack your broadside

effective, as

you are substantially

you make the simultaneous movement

of

in

guns are

column when

coming around.

Vessels in line should be at least the width of their ma-

noeuvring areas apart

this gives

them the unobstructed use

of

their rams.

Line as an attacking formation

down upon

the enemy, as the

the other to threaten your flank.

If

unwieldy when bearing

is

enemy

will

draw

to one side or

you preserve the absolute

bearing of your line and merely change the courses of your

ships simultaneously to head off the enemy,

you

enter the fight formed in more or less of a

probably

will

bow and

quarter

line.

Double
tion,

is

the enemy.
in

line,

although not properly a good cruising forma-

an excellent formation for advancing in

It is

when

probably the most imposing of

appearance, and seems the hardest to

tion seems quite adequate to handle

it.

all

assail, as
It

is,

feeling

of

them

no forma-

however, not

THE FLEET UNDER DRILL.

67

dangerous to the enemy, as regards either gun-fire or ramming,

as so

many

of the broadsides of the ships are covered

by those

of their consorts.

IV.

The bad

points charged against the formation in line apply

equally to formations in echelon, either single or double.

though

a formation in echelon present to the

rams and a
if

attacked

line of fire, yet

over,

it

is

is

it

not

is

angular formation, such as a chase formation,

permits the use of only one broadside on the

rams

Al-

a line of

a dangerously bad formation

in the direction of its line of bearing, as

An

flexible.

it is

enemy

enemy

more-

a hard formation to maintain, and an attack from

liable to get

it

into confusion.

Although a formation

in chase-angle gained for the Austrians the battle of Lissa,

disadvantage

is in

changing direction.

The

its

point of the angle

must be kept towards the enemy, otherwise the enemy will

concentrate on one of the flanks. Owing to its unhandiness
as a general formation for attack,

it is

In fact the most modern tacticians

clumsy.

Unless the enemy,

in

not to be recommended.

condemn

it

entirely as too

some simple formation, were

very badly managed, he would be able to turn in such a

way

that he could always avoid the point, and thereby flank the
fleet.

The

retreat formation, as a formation for retreat or other-

wise, has few friends,

and

may be

spread-out formation such as this

best formation

is

perhaps

ships nearest the enemy.

in

is

considered obsolete.
bad.

For

Any

retreating, the

columns, with the least injured

Authors who recommend spread-

out formations to serve this purpose forget the following con-

ELEMENTARY

68
siderations

XAVAI. TACTICS.

spread-out order supposes that

can steam without assistance, and are

This hypothesis

fight.

and only

fighting,

not tenable, for a

is

after a reverse

an

spread-out order permits

concentrate

destroy

its

force on

still

or

a condition to

in

fleet

would

On

failure.

enemy with

some point

the vessels

all

retreat

face a

its

superior speed to

of the fleet in retreat,

and

it.

In regard to

any

Echelon formation,

may

it

be said that the

opportunities for using the broadside battery are most excellent

but there really

is

little

mutual protection afforded

from ramming, and the formation

is

hard to keep

harder to get out of into any other, preserving

in,

same

tlie

and

battle

front.

With high-powered guns the range of one vessel's fire nearest the enemy need hardly be considered as more effective,
when compared with that of some other ship in the same formation a

little

farther off

would be accounted

so that there

no greater force of gun-fire from six vessels arranged

and quarter

line,

column

of three ships each, arranged as

Fig.

where the

3,

in

bow

than there would be from two formations

lightly

shown

Plate XIII,

in

shaded ships show the

the darker ships the formation in columns.

in

dchelon,

and

There can be no

question of the superiority of the two columns over the formation in single e~chelon as far as flexibility

is

concerned

V.

we

Before
us look at

consider the subject of formation

the formation in naval square.

in

groups, let
attractive

It

is

compact, signals are easily read by

all

the ships,

and there are no manoeuvres needed to gain sea

in

any direc-

because

it is

THE FLEET UNDER DRILL,

save change

tion

formed

in,

of

course.

It

is,

69

however, hard to keep

owing to changes of figure incident to changes of

course, since ships in turning

do not follow the arc

but the curve of some spiral shape.

hard to attack,

it

ships have not

all

of a circle,

Naval square although

not a very offensive formation, since the

is

their

weapons

available, gun-fire

at least

being confined to the outside ships.

We

now come

to the consideration of the

group as a

tac-

tical unit.

The group

is

composed

of three or four vessels disposed

Those who

at the angles of triangular or four-point figures.

pretend to know say that there

number

three

or in

the

standing which, the group

is

scalene
is

no especial virtue

triangular figure;

in the

notwith-

generally associated in the mind

with this favorite number and distribution of ships.

One

group

of the vessels of the

is

appointed leader, and

generally occupies the forward apex of the figure.

the leader of the group

is

empowered

to

other simple forms as line and column.

form

Sometimes

his

Where

group into

this

is

so, all

prejudice against the group disappears, as the formation then

comes within another category.

that the pdoton or group formation

It is said

was

originally

intended for cruising purposes, and not as a fighting formation.

During many years the students of

with the necessity of so dividing the

this science
fleet

were struck

that the particular

qualities of each ship could be given their proper value,

the

division

fenders.

of

the

fleet

into

Until lately this has been a favorite system, since

was considered to develop

in

Each

ship's battery

it

the greatest degree the following

points
1.

and

groups found numerous de-

was

clear.

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

70

Each ship was considered

2.
its

movements

as regards

TACTICS.

to be entirely

There was the greatest mutual support between

3.

Tacticians

group.

It is

now do not
now said that

group

is

in

other than scalene

ships.

allow these good qualities to the

the leader

not free in the use of

is

his ram, as his consorts are too close to

for

unhampered

ramming.

in

shape the

him

fire is

and where the

not unobstructed

all.

The consensus
in a certain

of naval opinion

is

against the group formed

shape, and fought and kept in that shape.

When

the groups are permitted to change their shape, they are no

more than small

or auxiliary formations of

ment

and

at

of vessels,

In fact,

all.

column or

it

it

is

some other arrangethem as groups

not fair to consider

would be better to form them

Echelon in the

first

instance,

in

the line or

and so save the time

they necessarily take to manoeuvre from their triangular form

to whatever other form they determine upon.
4, we give several forms
who recommends them explains

In Plate XIII, Fig.

the tactician
follows
1.

of groups,
their

and

uses

as

The

equilateral

triangle, for

ramming

or as a cruising

formation.

for

The group on

For flanking an enemy,

defence against an attack by ramming, and sometimes as a

2.

a line of bearing.

formation for attack.

3.

The group

4.

Group

in

5.

Group

in line.

for evolution or for using the battery.

column.

1;

THE FLEET UNDER

DRILL.

VI.

The

simple formation

in

column, with distances between

ships based on the length of their manoeuvring areas, and the

number of
made from

ships in

column so few

sternmost vessel, would seem to

a

good

many

the column stands

fire

and even with the ram

prefer

authorities

enemy

large battle-ships,

this

at right angles to the line of

it

many

striking

ships,

general bearing of

first,

enemy's

cuts the

preeminent as a

as a basis of attack

arrangement of

formation, their reasons being

ahead can, as

four are

ships as should be mustered in one column.

For broadside
formation

that the signals

the requirements of

all

fulfil

With

fighting formation.

about as

number

in

the head of the column can be easily read by the

the
its

that each ship in line

line,

use both broadsides

and, secondly, the rear vessel of the column can, without inter-

meUe by

fering with the other vessels, take advantage of the

the time

it

reaches the enemy's

They

tage.

line,

making

consider, in

and use

this

its

ram

to advan-

departure from rather

well-established ideas, that vessels

nowadays have such great

speed, and artillery, from

must be so slowly served,

that

the

is,

size,

Another advantage

badly as formerly.
attack

its

leader of the line ahead will not be

of this formation for

that the rear vessels are protected, the strongest and

most formidable

ships leading into action.

Besides, the formation

or for reassembling.

is

the easiest one

It is perfectly flexible,

minutes change to any direction.

the next astern which can

being

punished so

in the

wake

of

Each

come up on

in

which to keep

and can

vessel

either side.

is

in a

few

flanked by

The vessels

one another must maintain the same

ELEMEXTARY

72

speed,

it is

true

ram, the

of these

On

its

TACTICS.

turning-power

broadside

for the

bow and

put out of action

all

AVAL

but by sheering to either side any vessel can

take up any speed, or use

artillery-fire

A'

stern

fire,

is

entirely unobstructed, the

yet by a slight sheer out of the line any or

weapons may be

column

They charge

The

and the torpedoes are certainly

called into play.

who

the other hand there are tacticians

that the

any way.

in

refuse to admit

any way a good attacking formation.

in

is

enemy on

that a concentrated attack of the

the

two rear ships would certainly destroy them before the van
could turn and

come

Then, again, they

to their assistance.

say that, except for the rearmost ship, the ships are not free
to rain
tion

for

any ship

means the

to sheer into an

enemy out

of the forma-

possibility of interfering with the next ship

ahead, and having the ship next astern run foul of her as well.
It

would seem, however, that when the column

but few ships, and the distance between them

requirements of their manceuvriiig areas, there

to be

apprehended from

composed

of

guided by the

is

little

danger

The advantages
the enemy are cer-

this last objection.

of the formation in

column

for attacking

tainly very apparent

when

comes

force in

is

is

it

to the manoeuvring of the

any direction.

Double column
cruising, anchoring,

is

an excellent formation for purposes of

and

One

battle.

half of the ships

compos-

ing the force in regular order are in one column, and the other
half,

also in

the same order, compose

the second column.

These columns should be separated by an interval

at least

great enough to let the force form line on a line of bearing

eight points from the front.

It

has no drawbacks in regard to

vessels being able to leave the formation, as they can always

do so by dropping out on the

off side.

All the weapons are

THE FLEET UNDER

available, except

Changes

The

DRILL.

73

guns on the side nearest the other column.

made

of direction are nearly as easily

as in column.

leaders of the two columns keep abreast one another.

Indented or alternate column gives ships the advantage of

using all their guns; but the formation

is

a hard one in which

to manoeuvre, not being flexible.

Column

from double column,

two columns are only separated one

since the
will

of sections differs materially

distance.

be noticed that instead of the columns being

It

made up by

the formation being divided into two parts, the vessels abreast

one another are composed of a complete section

its

mate,

other

and

each vessel

is

the tactical counterfoil of

so that in case one vessel of the section

sively as far as entering the

enough

after

ment,

devolves upon

it

it

tageous point.

a leader and

combat

is

is

weak

concerned, but

is

the

offen-

strong

arrives at the proper position in the engageits

mate

to bring her

This explanation

in

up to the advan-

regard

to

the section

made in an earlier chapter, that the rank

commanding officer of a ship should not determine the
position of his command in the formation, but that this quesapplies to a remark

of the

tion should be one of tactics alone.

In double column

it

will

be observed

each column are one distance apart, while

tions they are at double distance.
as the

column

and needs

this

of sections

amount

of

In

as
all

manoeuvres
formations

in
in

is

column

of sec-

of necessity the case,

manoeuvres by means of the wheel,

room

method, the movements of

made

This

that the ships in

in

for the purpose.

Using

this

this formation are quite as easily

the case of formation in column.

more than one column the

well disposed for reading the signals of the admiral.

ships are

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

74

TACTICS.

VII.
It

would seem,

in

looking over

all

that

is

urged

in

favor and

against the several formations, that the situation resolves itself

into this

for battle, simple formations

and

for cruising

com-

posed of a few ships each, with the small formations mutually

For anchoring,

protecting each other's flanks, are the best.

any formation

is

good which permits the

by combatant ships not

The

flanks to be reinforced

of the line of battle.

ideal formation, as far as

manoeuvring

concerned,

is

perhaps a feeling

in

is

the single column of four ships.

In respect to the tactical unit, there

is

favor of the section over the single ship with her torpedo consorts.

With the

two ships are

section, the

alike in speed

and

turning qualities, and supplementary in regard to weapons and

With the

defensive powers.
boats, the
all

weapons

line-of-battle ship

and her torpedo-

of offence are alone supplementary, while

the other qualities are most unlike.

VIII.
Evolutions.

Evolutions

in

naval

tactics

have for

their

object

the

assembling of formations and the passing from one formation

to another.
i.

2.

They must

satisfy the following

requirements

They should be done in the least possible time.

They should be spread out as little as possible.

There are

six

methods

of evolution

1.

Simultaneous movements

2.

Successive

3.

Direct or oblique

movements

movements

those controlled by

THE FLEET UNDER DRILL.

4.

Conversions

5.

Isodromes;

6.

Wheels.

In
of an

J$

by

evolutions performed

all

a fleet at sea in the presence

enemy, the one important point

that they should be

is

quickly understood by the ^commanding officers of the ships

composing the

To

fleet.

attain this very desirable result,

it

is

necessary
1.

2.

That the
That

signals should be as

in

number

as possible

the explanation attached to each signal should be

as explicit and concise as possible

3.

few

That the

officers of

the navy should be instructed in the

of performing the manoeuvres as early in their career

manner

as possible.

Since changes

naval warfare are constantly rendering

in

necessary,

changes

in

changes

in evolutions

ships

and

changes

also in the

in

These changes necessitate changes

them.

The knowledge

of the helm, the

bring about

ships

manner
in

of performing

the signal-book.

speed of the ship, and the

elements of the turning-circle certainly furnish the basis for

evolutions.

all

fleet

There

composed

will

be some difficulty

in

manoeuvring

of vessels varying greatly in speed, turning-

power, and armament, so as to develop the special qualities of

each ship

therefore

it

may be

set

down

as a

maxim, that the

actual capabilities of the worst of the vessels comprising a fleet

must be taken

as the representative capability of such fleet.

So that the maximum speed

the

maximum

speed of the

which describes the

every vessel
It

in

largest

of the slowest ship

fleet,
is,

and the

circle

is

effectively

of the ship

effectively, the circle

on which

the fleet has to manoeuvre.

seems, therefore, to follow that the power of a

fleet as a

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

76
I

fighting unit

may

whose power

of

On

TACTICS.

be improved by the rejection of those vessels

manoeuvring

is

bad.

the other hand, any evolution

ship's speed or turning-power

is

of reducing her usefulness below that

qualities of her engines or

instance,

of

no value when a

which the ordinary good

helm would demand

making a wheel with four

would have to go

is

interfered with to the extent

at such a slow

vessels

such

as, for

the inner vessels

speed that they could not

keep their positions.

may

It
is

of merit

be set down as a general principle, that no evolution

which employs such a method, to pass from one

formation to another, as breaks up the mutual support which

should exist,

to

good

in all

tactics,

between the ships of the

The only circumstances under which

stop, when steaming in squadron, are
i. To save a man overboard.

a vessel

is

force.

authorized

the following:

2.

In case of an accident to the engine, screw, or rudder.

3.

To

avoid a collision.

In almost every case the vessel which stops should drop

out of

by sheering to that

line,

other vessels the

In any

side

which interferes with the

least.

movement made by

a fleet in performing an evolu-

tion there are the following requirements to be fulfilled

1.

To

lose as little distance as possible in passing

from one

point to another.
2.

more
3.

To

avoid any possibility of collision between two or

ships of the

To keep

of battle easily

We may

fleet.

the

fleet in

such a condition as to form order

and quickly.

also state that the nature of all

a line of battle presents three

phases:

movements

of

THE FLEET UNDER

DRILL.

77

To approach the enemy bow towards him.

To keep at a certain distance from the enemy broad-

i.

2.

side towards him.

To

3.

retreat, or increase the distance

from the enemy-

stern towards him.

Even with

a small

number

no movement can be

of vessels,

made, with the enemy bearing down upon you, inside of four
miles' separation.

If

an evolution must be performed,

be better to charge through the enemy's

in

which you happen to

have been caught

for

and

it,

this

is

be,

line, in

and form on the other

at a disadvantage,

way

the safest

it

would

the formation

You

side.

you must make a run

to gain time

to perfect a

formation.

We
in

have now presented about

the principles involved

all

the evolutionary systems of the last twenty years

those in future will

ditions
1.

fulfil

only

the following con-

The

ships

out danger of
2.

remain which

The

must cover the

least

space at

full

speed with-

collision.

evolution must be feasible at night as well as by

day.
3.

During the evolution the ships must be formed, and be

able to give each other mutual support.

4.

If possible,

enemy's

the broadside must not be presented to the

line of rams.

IX.
Theoretically, in simultaneous
its

helm over

cally,

in

movements every

ship puts

the same direction at the same time

practi-

the ship that has no vessel on the side towards which

she turns should

commence

as, for

instance, the rear ship of a

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

TACTICS.

column, or the ship on the flank turned towards, of a line

soon as the manoeuvre

and so

tacticians

change of head

used

any

in action

tactics

that

assert

are

movements

simultaneous

the only manoeuvres that can be

but this can hardly be the case, as nothing like

concentration

for instance

could

be attempted.

Indeed, the majority of writers agree that the only

in

combat

change of

speed,

passed over by the force

Those who believe

is

in

armored vessels

ram

enters.

bows

but the

correctly

course and

in

distance

known.

the value of direct

movements

that rectangular (successive)

of

movements

movements, since they not only

successive

are

require no

fleet

her,

on.

Some
i.e.,

marked, then the next ship to

is

as

movements say

are inapplicable to a

which fighting by means of the

This point of the ships always presenting their

enemy when manoeuvring by the direct method is

of as much moment as is the fact that from the time

to the

not nearly

the ships leave the old formation until they are completely

formed

in

the

new one theyare

in

no formatioti at all ; which

a very telling point against direct evolutions

for

if

is

you can do

why take up the time and trouble

formation ? The direct method suffers by

as well in a fight unformed,

of

sustaining

comparison with the successive method, as

following example:

and

line

If

was directed

will

be seen by the

there was a force of ships in column,

to be formed, the direct evolution with

eight ships and a standard speed of eleven knots would only

be completed two miles from where the evolution began, and

would take twenty minutes.

If

the rectangular

used the evolution would be accomplished

and only eight hundred

evolution started.

feet

in

method was

eleven minutes,

ahead of the point where the

THE FLEET UNDER DRILL.

Some

of both systems, the admiral to

favor the use

governed by the environment

Each

best to use.

tangular methods,

of

regard to which method

in

them has

we

if

79

the

is

With

drawbacks.

its

be

rec-

are manoeuvring in the presence of

the enemy, our broadsides are exposed to his line of rams

with direct movements collisions are liable to occur, and the

fleet is

without order until the new formation

Conversions are clumsy and slow

and should never be attempted

is

complete.

more than four

for

vessels,

the same waters with the

in

enemy.
Isodromes, or " paths of equal length," form a very ingenious

method
force

up a

of keeping

compact

so

it is

single speed

claimed

and

in

to the manoeuvring of more vessels

other, although
of drill to

make

method, that

in

it

is

applicable

any
method which must require a good deal
efficient.
It must be said for the isodromic

it is
it

and yet keeping the

hand

in simple line than

the case of a force manoeuvring in

presence of the enemy, each vessel

is

the

in

pretty well covered

the remaining ships from any onset of the

enemy

With much smoke present

poses of ramming.

it

it

for

by

pur-

would be

impossible to use this method.

A wheel

is

a simple

method

of manoeuvring

two ships

in

such a manner that their relative bearing, and therefore their

mutual protection, remains

at all times the

same.

X.

The admiral may arrange

formation, and

may

battle, to assume

some

reason.

it,

designate

for himself

some

a position in the

vessel, not of the line of

should he wish to keep withdrawn for

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

80

TACTICS.

In our service two vessels constitute a section, two sections

a division, and two divisions (eight ships) a squadron.

When

changing from

line

method the distances between

to

column by the rectangular

ships

must be great enough

permit the helm changes required without danger of

or

else

the

flank

vessel

to

collision,

formed upon sheers through

five

points, and then comes back to the course in order to give

the necessary

room

to the other ships of the force to turn

Ships following a

leader

noeuvring avoid turning on

leader;

there

if

is

any error or

turning on a smaller

arc.

As

in

in.

column should when ma-

greater arc than that of the

difference,

a rule,

it

when

should be due to
a ship has turned

wide on a leader, following ships should turn on the guide of

their

column, and not on the ship that has got out of station

and has to recover

When

in

it.

column any error from the exact station

ship should be in the direction of being ahead of station

when

in

line,

any

of a
;

but

error should be in the direction of being

astern of station, rather than ahead of

it.

CHAPTER
IN ACTION

THE FLEET

VII.

ON THE OPEN

SEA.

I.

Unquestionably some formation

and the
fight

fight

must be conducted

jn no formation

ships of your

modern

own

for attack

after

is

necessary,

some method.

To

to add the dangers of collision with

is

the

force to

surpassing horrors of the

battle.

Many

tacticians,

some formation which

of ships,

and be

engagement.

we know, have

as

This

answer

will

of value
is

striven

for all kinds

to

contrive

and conditions

throughout the whole time of the

now conceived

to

be an impossible

task.

Ships of the

line of battle require free use of their

and can only afford

up certain offensive

to give

derive the greater benefit which

weapons,

qualities to

might accrue through

creased security from an attack of the enemy.

in-

This they are

enabled to do by adopting those formations which suit their

eminent weapon best

and although these formations

be the ideal arrangements

in

may

not

which to manceuvre, they should

be chosen, provided they are simple, and the ships so formed

are few in number.

For

instance, ships with

heavy rams and

great weight of bow-fire would naturally develop their powers

better

when

when formed
in

in line;

column, and rams

in

broadside ships would do best

columns or column of

sections.
81

ELEMENTA K Y NA FA L TAC TICS.

82

All the formations adopted should be so disposed, in regard

to interval and bearing, as to give the greatest independence
of action

and movement

of the formations,

and yet preserve

the strongest mutual defence for the whole force of ships.

The

force should enter the attack in the following order:

1st.

Bow-fire ships with good

2d. Broadside ships

3d.

ramming power;

Rams.

These should engage the enemy

one

after the

other,

that the

at

such intervals of time

enemy could not change

his

formation or arrange his force for concentration between the

time of encountering one force and encountering the next.

This would

up

into

offset

many

any weakening

likely to arise

from dividing

small formations and increasing the

number

of

the exposed flanks.

Fresh material
will

in

this

way, being put upon the enemy,

prevent him from knowing what formation he

engage, and will not allow of his re-forming to

change, and cannot but

fail

will

next

meet any

to have a very demoralizing effect

upon him.
Inseparable from simple formations are simple evolutions.

These must be confined to successive and simultaneous movements.

The advantage of having one force follow another instead

compound formation is best shown by an illustra
The enemy in some formation meets your first force,
tion.
which we will take for granted is smaller than his own. Your
of having a

second force

in

the

same or preferably

in

some

slightly differ-

ent formation, but independent as regards manoeuvring with

the

first, is

in sight.

Contact between the enemy and your advanced force takes

THE FLEET IN ACTION ON THE OPEN

This

place.

The enemy cannot

your second

force, to

fight

turn, as he

which under

is

confronted by

the best

should perhaps re-form, which

stances he

83

crippled or not, gets in the rear of

latter, either

the former.

SEA.

circum-

cannot

he

do.

Therefore the second force has probably an advantage, and

can cut

off

part of the enemy's formation.

This would likely

demoralize the enemy to the extent of permitting your rams,

which should now

By

this

arrive, free to

time your

first

move

two on his

one

ship.

which has manoeuvred without

force,

being under fire, has returned, and a conclusion should soon

be reached.
In respect to the time

the fight,

it

is

believed that their opportunity

any time after the

smoke

when torpedo-boats should

first

encounter,

is

enter

to be found

when they can have the

to protect them.

Torpedo-boats

hang about

their

a pitched

in

own

battle

between

fleets

should

line-of-battle ships.

II.

The

following tactical directions

may be

considered funda-

mental:
1st.

During the execution

of a

manoeuvre determined on

beforehand or ordered by

signal,

the bringing of the

into action,

fleet

and which has

for

its

object

no vessel must change

course except to prevent being rammed.

2d.

Mutual support would point out the necessity

separating.

prevent the
3d.

of not

The grand object will be to keep together, and

enemy from concentrating on any point.

When

once the ranks are broken,

it

is

imperative to

ELEMENTARY XAVAL

84

keep a lookout on the

TACTICS.

flag-ship for signals,

although the

fight-

ing of each ship as an individual must not be relaxed.

In
line, it

all

charges, having once passed through the enemy's

must be well understood beforehand how the

are to turn

whether to

governed by an

starboard or to port.

inflexible rule.

and disaster would certainly

If it

vessels

This should be

were arbitrary, confusion

follow.

Plans of battles, as far as practicable, should be arranged so

that

when

the

enemy heaves

in sight

out numerous signals being made.

commenced

signals should

ing the line

in

have reference alone to strengthen-

some designated

tion to join with

some

would arrange the

fleet in

he can be attacked with-

After the battle has once

direction, ordering

other, rallying,

one forma-

retreating, or

which

such a manner as to consummate

the ruin and rout of the enemy.

The enemy should be

mation

is, if

attacked, no, matter what your

for-

he attempts to pass from one formation to an-

other.

There are

five rules laid

general action
ist.

Guns

down

for the use of

guns

in

are on no account to be fired unless there

is

every

probability of their taking effect.

The broadside guns will always be trained on some

prearranged bearing, from abeam to 15 before the beam, so
2d.

that the captain shall at

all

times,

and without giving a second

thought, be certain of the exact direction in which his guns are

pointing.
3d.

4th.
will

Guns

as a rule will be fired

A disabled

by broadsides.

ship with rudder or engines broken

use her guns to the utmost of her power.

down

THE FLEET IN ACTION ON THE OPEN

As

5th.

aim

far as possible, the

is

SEA.

85

be directed at the

to

weakest points of the enemy.

The mode
warfare

of

concentration differs for whichever arm of

There are three methods

put into action.

is

for con-

centrating in artillery engagements the batteries of a certain

number
1.

2.

in

of your vessels on a smaller

By
By

number

cross-pointing (concentrated

the passing of the

fleet

of the

enemy

fire).

before the one point assailed

the enemy's line in column.

3.

two

By

fires

This

catching any ship or ships of the

enemy between

(doubling on the enemy).

method

last

the enemy's

line, to

of concentration consists in penetrating

take between two

The

of that portion attacked.

fight

fires

each of the vessels

should take place at close

This system of warfare leaves out of the fight a por-

quarters.

tion of the enemy's fleet which will seek to enter the tniUe

but

if

movement has been quickly executed,

unattacked portion of the enemy has had time to

the concentrating

before the

get into action, a decisive result should have been attained.

Considering the question of concentration in regard to

rams, two rams cannot well attack the same vessel at the same
instant

still,

the two can act in concert, either on the same

broadside of the enemy's ship or one on each

their courses did not converge.

side,

provided

In each case the attacked ship

should endeavor to bring about a collision between

its

as-

sailants.

The

attacking vessels should preferably ram the enemy's

ship one after the other

therefore any

number

of vessels can

be concentrated for ramming on one of the enemy.

lery concentration, however, only two, or at

can be used against one of the enemy.

most

In artil-

three, ships

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

86

TACTICS.

Concentration for torpedo attack resembles somewhat the

method used

ramming.

for

If

the torpedo

a spar or installed to act right ahead

the methods

type),

(if

is

carried ahead on

of the

automobile

are identical.

III.

force

moving on the enemy must do so

an advance as a

mob means

defeat.

in

some order

Individual dash

to system, even should that system not be the best.

inferior

is

Let the

keep confusion away as long as possible.

rule be to

Formations must be compact enough to guard against

having the
ness

line of battle

such as a

broken

thorough

necessitates
collision,

in

drill,

would be

upon
as an

but great compactaccident happening,

likely to entail very serious con-

sequences.

Should

the

formation

disappear for each side without

either party having the advantage, then the chance of victory

would
in

lie

the

with that force which could re-form the sooner.

midst of an engagement, the

admiral considers

If,

it

necessary to re-form the line of battle, he should signal his

fleet to

draw out

formation

in

of action

and to form on him, either

which the attack was made or

in

some

in

the

other, as

signalled.

On

the disappearance of the formation endeavor to hold

on to your consort and work with him, and add as soon as

possible other ships of your force that

you may come across.

As you return to the attack, concentrate upon any injured ship
of the enemy and put her out of the fight.
Keep at the same
time your eye on the admiral's ship for a signal to re-form.
It is always in order for any ship in formation where
she
finds herself unexpectedly in a position of advantage to ram

THE FLEET IN ACTION ON THE OPEN

an opponent to do so on the instant.
take about

this,

load and

fire

87

There must be no mis-

however.

be remembered that

It will

SEA.

it

some

takes

little

while to

the largest guns, so that where two columns are

passing each other,

if

the guns of each ship are

at the

all fired

leading ship as she passes, the other ships will receive no heavy
gun-fire at

Several rules have been laid

all.

these conditions

one

that the

is,

enemy's leader, the second ship

so on
at

another

second

that the

is,

enemy's

the

leader,

two ships

it,

meet

to

at the

fire

ship,

and

of the force shall

fire

at

the

enemy's

the enemy's

constitution of

from what you can discover about

decide your action

ship shall

enemy's second

and the next two

The

column.

in

first

first

at the

down

will in a great

fleet,

degree

in this particular.

Your column breaking through

should do so in a manner to divide

the

enemy's formation

his force unequally.

In

doubling on his smaller portion, the object would be to get his

ships out of the formation
ships are swifter, and

if

and headed away from

you can put two on

so widely,

alone

ramming them,

your

you should

be able to demoralize him completely by scattering

let

If

it.

one,

his ships

that they could never re-

gain the other portion of their force.

The modern

battle-ship

is

more

well-protected cruiser, being slower,

easily

and

rammed than
will

perhaps sink

sooner, being heavier, and a greater number of people

destroyed

the

will

be

on account of the battle-ships' companies being

the larger.

The

well-protected

stroyed where the

jured.

The

cruiser,

cruiser in an artillery fight will be de-

line-of-battle ship will

be but slightly

though, could take to her heels

to save herself from destruction.

if

in-

necessary

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

88

In action the fires will

great as the state of

considered as the

When

the

all

Speed should be

be lighted.

indirect protection against

formation disappears, the speed of

while the formation

ramming.

the
is

ship

is

intact, the

governed by the speed of the slowest ship of the

is

as

High speed may be

permit.

drill will

first

governed as an individual
speed

TACTICS.

force.

IV.

There

you are

is

no use

in firing

firing at:

the

if

your guns unless you can see what

smoke prevents

this,

it

would be

wise to cease firing until your target comes into view.

matter of smoke ended here

fortunately

it

would not be so bad; but un-

might happen that

brilliant artillery

just as you were doing some

work the smoke which you created would

the approach of

serve to conceal

which might succeed

Ramming

it

in fleet

rams and torpedo-boats,

sinking you.

in

fighting will be against the rear ships of

your formation by the rear ships of the enemy.

the

meUe

will

If thjs

This means

begin by a pitched battle between the rears of

The van

the two fleets.

will strive to

as individuals as quickly as possible,

get back into the battle

and

all

formation

will

be

at an end.

Can

this

be avoided

one's formation
one's

can

own

tell

is

the

resources.

what chance

It

should be, for the giving up of

immediate throwing of one's

who

an

in either offence,

position, or perhaps superior in all three

when you

are

on

bring to you in the next minute

will

enemy, perhaps your superior

if,

self

Considering the matter for yourself,

rammed

at

It

defence, and

would be better

by the enemy, you could avoid

the attack and stick to your consorts, and

when you

are out of

THE FLEET IN ACTION ON THE OPEN

the

fire

and fury

of the onset, turn

of the fight with the rest of

on to your formation

very large.
a fleet

rams

is

is

and

all

it

will

concentration

be of

little

or no use

the case where the fleets are

may

be either total or partial.

its

If

number

of

double the number possessed by the enemy, the forma-

This

cated.

two

is

two

enemy's

line.

composed

of

equal, this

If

is

naturally indi-

number

the

method

will

rams

of

not do, and a

must be made on some weak point

In a concentrated attack the

first line

in the

should be

the heaviest armored vessels, the second

preferably of rams.

Ramming

lines of equal length

a total concentration.

fleets are

partial concentration

The

first line is

to use

its artillery

attacks on the broadside of a vessel, the

describing a quarter of a
of

in

but hold

the time.

arranged for a ramming encounter, and

tion for attack in

of the

except

forces,

89

and go back into the thick

your disciplined force

first, last,

In regard to concentration,

between equal

SEA.

circle,

are based

line

only.

rammer

upon an appreciation

the speed, essentially variable, of the adversary.

manoeuvre presents only a very few chances

of success,

This
if

we

reflect that with a speed of ten knots a vessel passes over her

length in fifteen seconds.

In lines the flanks should be protected by other vessels

not belonging to the formation, but which act as a reinforce-

ment.

The

use of automobile torpedoes does not seem to have

modified the tactics of combat on the open sea

except in some special cases,

as, for instance,

in

any way

fighting in chase

or retreat.

In the melte automobile torpedoes are as dangerous to

friend as to foe,

Each

and must be used with the utmost caution.

captain cannot calculate in advance what he will do, as

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

a duel between

in

Every moment

ships.

Hence

something unexpected.

TACTICS.
bring forth

will

the reason for our asking the

question as to whether the automobile torpedo will or

be used during the mttee.

stances

alone

will

is

One

that

unseen on

instant

some other

account of

scures the field of battle.

of using a

seen

fit

going to

enemy,

till

smoke which

ob-

an

in

its

flight

and

its

greater would be the responsibility

after

it is

discharged, can

fight,

in

no wise

the duty of the squadron of cruisers,

not to employ them

in

damaged

if

it

the line of battle, would be

to keep well clear of the ships of the line,

assist

escape a

During the
is

how much

weapon which,

be governed

ram another;

vessel,

of

the

is

true of ramming, where

If this is

the missile, so to speak, can be stopped

course changed,

Everything

vessel starts to

comes on top

consort,

not

that circum-

is,

obliged to modify her tactics, to

ram from a second adversary

the succor of a

say

can

employment.

its

given up to the unforeseen.

suddenly she

we

All

decide

will

and be ready to

ships, cut off torpedo-boats,

and harass and

destroy the enemy's smaller vessels.

Torpedo-cruisers and seagoing torpedo-boats should
in

and out among the enemy where

it

is

move

not too hot, and

especially keeping a lookout for disabled ships.

It is

thought,

though, that instead of forming an advance line and entering

the action before the

field of

operations

is

obscured by smoke,

and when they can be the more easily driven

off

by machine-

gunfire, their time for gathering the best fruits of the contest
will

be later

maxim

during the

that victory will

flotilla is first in

Where

Indeed,

me'le'e.

lie

with

action after the

first

it

would seem to be a

that fleet

whose torpedo

charge.

torpedo-boats are too large to be carried, and are

THE FLEET IN ACTION ON THE OP EX

too small to keep the sea in

all

SEA.

hamper the

weathers, they

two ways

fleet in

The

ist.

can only

fleet

move when

these boats can take

the sea.
2d.

If

these boats are forsaken or sent into port for shelter,

they with their care-takers

enemy, but

will

will advertise to

not only

the

enemy

fall

an easy prey to the

the propinquity of the

force.

V.

Should a

a charge

be surprised by an enemy when

fleet

each ship's

tion,

bow

made through

the enemy's

reached, they should form

side

is

and

fight the

in

When

line.

way

the chosen

now turned and attacking enemy,

sion presented

itself,

no forma-

in

should be turned towards the enemy, and

or,

the other
for retreat,

if

the occa-

turn simultaneously and attack their pur-

suers.

During an engagement,

if

the admiral wishes to retreat,

the line of battle, by a simultaneous

as soon as possible should

The
if

it

come

into

preferred formation for retreat

is

movement or
some retreat
is

column

in

assumed, the best ships should be kept

nearest the enemy, the lighter

vessels

otherwise,

formation.

which
in

case,

the rear

towing the disabled

ones.

To

attack a

fleet at

ing a ship of the

depend

for

its

together with

anchor

is

anchor, use the ram, each vessel choos-

enemy

to attack.

defence on torpedoes,

its flotilla

of torpedo-boats.

fleet at

anchor must

mines,

and

a contingency of war hard to realize.

ever, caught

in this

booms,

fleet surprised at

fleet,

how-

manner would undoubtedly be destroyed.

CHAPTER

VIII.

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

I.

Should

a fleet regularly set out from

home

some

or from

friendly base, to besiege a port or establish a blockade, the

nature of the work to be done would

number

the class and

of

tactical

in a

great degree decide

elements entering into

it.

Besides the force of line-of-battle ships, and squadrons of ships

composed
vessels,

of cruisers, corvettes, gun-vessels, tenders,

there

will

and torpedo-

be a semi-naval establishment of heavy

wrecking-tugs, surveying-vessels to establish lights and buoys,

launches,

mining and countermining

well as

cable-laying vessels, as

search-light vessels furnished

with powerful electric-lighting devices.

coal and

ammunition

ships, hospital ships,

The

line

vessels,

than

meet the enemy

commissariat and

if

at

The

It

will

would

of lighter

progress of this sea

it

contain

coast-defence

and rams.

fleet.

army

is

termed a sea march.

case the line of battle acts as a

;

composed

be a large force of troops embarked

accompanying the

non-combatant ships

naval-store

the combatant force were designed to

sea.

Perhaps, too, there

this

have

will

and floating repajr-shops.

vessels, monitors, turreted vessels,

in transports,

Likewise we

of battle will ordinarily be

vessels, in part,

and

vessels, telegraph

may

convoying force

be divided to perform

In

to the

this

work,

92

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

but

it

must not be so widely separated

the mutual protection of

stantly

employed

in

distances

be so diverse
moderate.

in

entirely

cruisers will be con-

in

order and

The

vessels of this

seagoing qualities that the speed

Rendezvous

up

in

tow-

scouts must be thrown out to long

every direction.

in

The

keeping the convoy

The

ing disabled ships.

parts.

its

as to break

93

will

army

will

be arranged for and

will

will

be very
be

fre-

quent, and the non-combatant portions of the force must be

given specific instructions concerning making friendly ports.

All these various elements, with their multitudes of experts

and

attaches,

must be protected by a powerful convoy-guard

commanded by

regularly attached to them, and

who

will especially

field of battle,

and into some place of safety

with the enemy.

a flag-officer,

be charged with getting them clear of the

in

case of collision

The convoy should be divided

of eight,

and two war-vessels should constitute

number

of ships.

into squads

guard

for this

II.

The

attack upon a harbor or position on the coast involves

three distinct operations

The penetration of the port, or the getting into a commanding position.

2d. The bombardment, or control of the enemy's fire.
3d. The disembarkation of troops, and occupation of the
1st.

military position.

In regard to the attack upon fortifications by ships, certain

tactical

experiences have been undergone by the combatants,

which have found expression

I.

Although

vessels

in

the following conclusions

engaging

forts

will

never be able to

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

94

on equal terms with them,

fight

still

TACTICS.
forts will offer

resistance to vessels attempting to run

Under

2.

from

forts

on account
3.

Any

circumstances

all

the

little

by them.
fleet

keep away

should

whose guns are mounted high above the

of the

but

sea-level

danger to be incurred from a plunging

fire.

projection appearing above the crest of the parapet

of a fort furnishes an excellent target for the attacking fleet.

a means by which the position of the guns

It is

is

readily in-

dicated and located, and which advantage the ships should be

quick to seize.

Recent high-powered guns are not adapted to bombard-

4.

ing earthworks.

Ships for general service should have a com-

posite batter)'.

Ships should engage forts at moderate distances.

5.

close range

by shrapnel and machine-gun

fire.

(a)

all bombardments the target for the

The guns of the enemy actually firing

(b)

Any

In

6.

An

7.

and-aft

With

and a stable platform great damage can be done

fleet

should be

building believed to be a storehouse or magazine.

advantage possessed by a vessel with a heavy

fire lies in its

ability to

fore-

anchor head to sea and engage

a fort either ahead or astern from a comparatively steady platform.

8.

lery,

the

If

the ships and forts are about equal as regards

the ships had better anchor.

fleet

If

artil-

the forts are the heavier,

should fight under way.

In entering an enemy's enclosed waters

to have a countermining

mines are suspected.

flotilla

precede the

Armored

vessels

harbor defence, but which can be taken to

it

will

fleet

built
sea,

be necessary

where planted
for coast

may

and

be of great

use in an enemy's harbor where torpedoes and mines are feared,

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

to

be pushed forward

armored

in

95

the van in place of the more valuable

line-of-battle ships of the force, since

they have, as a

general thing, great artillery power and good resisting qualities

for their size.

Among

the most useful elements of the besieging

The

the telegraph-cable vessel.

cable-laying

flotilla

fleet is

should con-

of the tank-vessel containing the cable, small vessels to be

sist

used as receiving-stations, and tugs for the heavy weighing and

The tank-steamer should be capable

handling of buoys.

of

laying out and picking up the cable, and should be in every

way

fitted for telegraph testing.

The

the lines on shore.

The

tugs will be used to run

cable as regards size should be a com-

promise between the shore-end and deep-sea cable, so as to

stand well

and

laid

in

shoal water, and to permit of

down many

its

being picked up

times.

In order to protect ships obliged to remain at anchor, they

must be surrounded with mines, booms, and

The mines,

guarded by torpedo-boats.
are as

much

nets, besides

being

by special

ships,

carried

part of the outfit of the besieging force as they

are of the besieged.

A vessel occupying the

position of a blockader will be ex-

posed to an attack from

i.

Automobile torpedoes from a gunboat or torpedo-boat;

2.

The

spar-torpedo from a cruiser, gunboat, or torpedo-boat.

ship

if

attacked can defend herself by

1.

Running away

2.

Sinking the attacking vessel before she has time to use

her torpedo
3.

Fighting the approaching vessel with guns and her

torpedo-launches
4.

Using

nets,

booms,

etc.

own

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

96

The
the

sel

first

method

TACTICS.

hardly to be thought

is

of.

If

it

were used

enemy could keep the fleet constantly driven off.

The second method is more practicable. The attacking

ves-

must, however, be destroyed before she can approach within

A heavy

600 yards.

upon

manageable guns should be kept

of

fire

The only drawback

her.

that

is,

the guns do not sink

if

her, they will give her the chance she wishes to have, that

an abundance of smoke to work

The

third

cause the

method

in.

not to be entirely depended upon, be-

is

enemy may

is,

between your launches

glide

injured

perhaps by your attack, but not disabled.

The

fourth

method

hardly satisfactory, but

is

bined with the second and third

The moving torpedo-boat

and consequently
easy to sink

if

is

hard to

is

your shot

it

seems

all

a small object
hit

strikes

that

when comis left

and moves

to us.

rapidly,

but, on the other hand,

it

is

it.

Since large blockaders will retire during the night to some

outside

by

line, in

where they are

localities

torpedo-craft,

will

it

likely to

be harassed

be perhaps arranged to have a tele-

graph-cable laid between the inshore and offshore blockading

lines,

with vessels lying to either end of

notice of

it,

so that the earliest

any movement on the part of the enemy can be given.

Should there be no cable provided, provision must be made

for

establishing a line of corvettes or gun-vessels to transmit infor-

mation by signal to the large

vessels.

Small vessels

will

take

the inshore blockade at night.

III.

The blockade
navy

is

of a

impossible

whole coast of a country possessing a

even that of

Under any circumstances

it

a single port

is

difficult.

can only be rendered effective by

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

concentration of numerous squadrons

the

gj

Echeloned, as

were, on several concentric circles whose centre

is

it

the port to

be blockaded.
It

has been decided by experience that up to the present

time
ist.

Blockades are

possible

still

taken by the blockading

if

proper precautions are

fleet.

2d. Fleets at anchor should be protected

by

triple

booms,

and these should be protected by guns and mines.

3d.

The

electric light,

when intended

to protect ships at

anchor, should be used from special ships or boats throwing

fixed beams, the distances of which from the armor-clads lying

behind the booms should be known.

4th. Guard-boats
signals, so as to

keep

if

used should have special orders and

clear of the fire of their

not to hamper or interfere with

5th. Special depot-ships

to enable the

The

booms to be
maxims

following

in

ships,

and

any way.

should carry booms and nets so as

rigged rapidly.
relate to an attack

defended by mines as well as

ist.

it

own

forts

upon a harbor

systematic attack on the mine-field must be made, so

as to clear a passage broad

enough

for single ships (at least) to

move up and bombard the batteries.

2d. The ships must be powerful and numerous enough,
when there, to silence the enemy's forts.
3d. The van ships must be well protected by nets, or the
best

means

4th.

channel

at hand, against torpedoes.

The
is

attack once begun must be continued until the

clear

and the batteries silenced.

to have small and

handy

craft stationed

Care must be taken

about to pick up and

destroy mechanical floating mines sent down by the enemy.

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

gS
5th.

hand

in

moved

Vessels

facilitate raising

them with

they were sunk, such as slinging

coal

and

stores,

enemy may be

against the

any way that would

TACTICS.
fitted before-

them

in

case that

chains^ discharging

and maintaining their draught by means of

weights easily got

rid of

if

the ships were wrecked, such as

ranges of chain-cable.
In considering the defence of a vessel from an attack by
torpedo-boats, as far as artillery

Be

1.

ments

concerned, each gun must

easily trained,, permitting

of the

Have

all

the move-

of rapid loading, so as to fire the instant the

aggressor comes in sight, and to keep

3.

to follow

it

enemy

Be capable

2.

is

it

up

the projectile heavy enough to injure seriously a

gunboat or sink a torpedo-boat.

In the opinion of

means
fight
arises,

some

for driving off the

tacticians there

The

does this class of vessels fight?

changeable for a torpedo;

in

the water.

Two

is,

to

question then immediately

mobile torpedoes, because the target

enough

only one certain

enemy's torpedo-boats, and that

them with your own.

How

is

besides,

is

Not with

auto*

too small and too

the boats are not deep

torpedo-boats could not ram one

The way

another without both being used up.

will

probably

be, each boat will attempt to destroy the other by means of

small gun-cotton spar-torpedoes,

the use of hand-grenades.

batant to try and

supposed that

it

kill
is

that their loss will

It

by mechanical

the crew of

composed

lie felt.

gun-fire, or

by

should be the aim of a comits

adversary, as

of skilful

it

is

to be

and daring men, and

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

99

IV.
It still

remains for us to discuss the question concerning an

attack by torpedo L boats upon ships or a ship under way.

Let us
torpedo

recall the fact that the discharge of the

subject

is

to'

automobile

grave drawbacks, arising from a

falke

appreciation of the speed and course of the enemy, and, fur-

thermore, that this

to

aim

moving

at a

is

aggravated by darkness.

target with a vessel

gun-carriage, especially where there

is

which
a

little

tutes a very delicate and involved operation

At the

itself acts as a

sea on, consti-

very

than where the automobile-torpedo tube

difficult

in a ship of

some

size.

outset,

much more
is

installed

Admitting that an automobile torpedo

can be discharged effectively 500 yards from an anchored

enemy, we are generous when we allow 250 yards

as the

effective range of an automobile-torpedo boat firing at a vessel

under way.

Suppose a ship (N) with a speed

Fig.

An

1) is

obliged for

some reason

of 12 knots (see PI.

to follow the line

XIV,
NN'.

automobile-torpedo boat (L) going at 18 knots speed,

which has been discovered by the ship bearing forward of her

starboard beam, so directs her course as to arrive at the point

L abeam

of iV

when she

is

at O,

and 250 yards

off.

Here

discharges her torpedo, which has a speed of 24 knots.

This

done, the boat turns through the arc L, L' and moves away
,

in the direction d.

The

ship has opened and ceased

yards on the torpedo-boat.

fire

about

2<

53".

fire at

a distance of 1500

The torpedo-boat has been under

ELEMENTARY NA1AL

I0O

TACTICS.

Now

let us look into the movements

(P) manoeuvring under the same

boat

should

to explode

fail

of the spar-torpedo

conditions.

torpedo under N,

its

If

it

would go astern

it

of the ship at 0, then describe the arc of a circle O, P',

and

would be under

fire

run

off in

but

little

If,

the direction

Therefore

e.

it

longer than would the automobile-torpedo boat L.

however,

P succeeds

in

exploding his torpedo under N, he

remain stopped before the explosion and after

will

during a

it

time hardly exceeding 30 seconds, then the ship would have

forged ahead sufficiently to permit him to describe the curve

The torpedo-boat P then would have remained

of O, P'.

posed to the enemy's

fire

about the space of 3 23

for

ex-

s
.

Let us now consider the case of an attack by an automobile-torpedo boat coming down from ahead upon a vessel

which

is

obliged to follow the course N, N', N".

The torpedo-boat
(N)

knots (see

12

has a speed of 18 knots and the vessel

PI.

ceases at 1500 yards.

XIV,

L, L',

Fig.

L"

Fire

2).

commences and

indicates the positions of the

torpedo-boat corresponding to the positions of the ship N,

N".

The torpedo-boat

discharges

a distance of 250 yards, and

The torpedo is supposed to

if we calculate the time L

yards with a speed of 15 knots.

under

than

is

fire

it

will

the case

Now

be found to be

in Fig.

1,

P" show how

vessel which

51

s
,

that

is

is

up

owing

is,

only 2 s

less

to describe the

to the fact that

approaching you.

P, P',

a spar-torpedo boat would take up correspond-

ing positions to N, N', and

seen that

ra

or the time taken

curve L, L', which slight difference

you are attacking a

TV',

automobile torpedo from

then describes a curve of 175

travel with a speed of 24 knots.

is

its

will

N"

not be under

From the figure it will be

much longer than will L,

fire

but charging the greatest amount of time that might be so

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

taken up against P,
will

be

m 21 s
3

ahead they came up

So

s
.

that P's time

L and P coming down

suppose instead of

Finally,

time for

not exceed 30

will

it

IOI

in

N's wake

PL XV,

(see

Fig.

from

The

1).

under these circumstances would be 9 29 s and for

,

about the same or even a

is

always a disadvantage, for this reason, to approach your

enemy from

We

It will

little less.

be seen that

it

a direction on her quarter.

have now,

a certain way, given a few theoretical ex-

in

amples concerning attacks by torpedo-boats on

We

ships.

say

because the ship has been considered confined to a

theoretical,

Neither of these conditions would govern a

straight course.

moving along

vessel (except in the case of a squadron

nel to enter and capture a port)

still,

a chan-

the simple calculations

which we have given suggest two important remarks

1st.

The time during which

exposed to an enemy's

fire

a spar-torpedo boat remains

only exceeds by about one sixth

the time passed in an analogous situation by an automobile-

torpedo boat, and

up from astern)

the case given

in

time

this

is

even a

in PI.
little

XV,

Fig.

(coming

shorter for the spar-

torpedo boat.
2d.

anything

torpedo-boat, of whatever description, does not gain

the

in

way

of

time by coming down from ahead on

XIV,
enemy (as shown
on the enemy by coming up at
the

in PI.

course (as shown

manoeuvre

in

in Fig. 2

same

is

more

fire

at short

effectively,

it

range,

made

right angles to the enemy's

Plate, Fig.
delicate,

of the attack being successful.

which undertakes

Fig. 2) over an attack

1).

More than

this,

the

and there are fewer chances

It obliges

the torpedo-boat

to remain a comparatively long time under

if

having missed exploding his torpedo

he wishes to try

it

again.

On

the contrary,

it

is

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

102

TACTICS.

the how of a vessel

relatively easy for a torpedo-boat lying off

steaming ahead to attack her on the

her course as shown

Fig.

in

change the direction of

its

I,

since

bow
it

at right

angles to

moment
enemy by

can at any

head so as to engage the

steering for her on the shortest line connecting them.

It

evident that

is

daylight the attack .by one or

in

torpedo-boats on a ship under

will, in

practice, not

way and

free in her

more

movements

be governed by the conditions we have

discussed, but at night such a condition of affairs might easily

exist.

Now, how

will a vessel free

will certainly try to

PI.

XIV,

Fig.

avoid being put

its

in

motions act

a position

She

shown

in

and run over the

therefore she will either try

attacking boats and sink

fire,

in

them with her ram and machine-gun

We

or she will run away.

believe that

in

the majority of

We

cases this last manoeuvre will be the one executed.

have

seen that this condition of affairs puts ordinarily a chasing tor-

pedo-boat under the vessel's

fire for

something hardly to be thought

of,

ten minutes or longer,

so far as considering this

a proper manoeuvre for the torpedo-boat during the daytime.

However, during the night, even with

electric lights,

we know

that the torpedo-boat could with profit chase a flying enemy.

But under these circumstances the spar-torpedo

weapon than

is

the latter would be inaccurate

of gaining

the latter, for the reason

that

her,

to

a better

and, furthermore, the former

would have the advantage

would have

is

the automobile torpedo, since the aim with

head

and 125 yards

chance of success.

for the
off,

It

in

may

20 seconds or more on

the automobile-torpedo boat

enemy

at a point nearly

order to

fire

abeam

of

her torpedo with a

be thought that this seeming

advantage for the automobile-torpedo boat

is

offset

dis-

by the

danger that the spar-torpedo boat runs by having to absolutely

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

touch the enemy, thereby encountering heavier

fire,

103

and per-

haps a counter torpedo and hand-grenades.

In these
confined

illustrations

to firing their

the automobile-torpedo

torpedoes ahead

torpedoes from the beam,

all

boats are

they can

if

fire

their

that portion of the time which

enemy can be eliminated

has to do with turning towards the

from the time they are necessarily under

fire

which

fact

alone would give the automobile-torpedo boat a tremendous

superiority over the spar-torpedo boat, except under the

cir-

cumstances to be detailed farther on.

At

the outset, let us consider a ship

mobile-torpedo boats (see

two spar-torpedo boats

PI.

XV,

and P'

menaced by two

Fig.

1)

The

Z, and

Lv

auto-

and by

mentioned are

first

obliged to run past the ship to attack, one on the starboard

side,

and the other on the port

space of 600 yards.

At

between them a

side, leaving

this distance, in night-time, they will

not be able to attack simultaneously, as they ought, since they

could not see one another; for instance, the starboard one

might run beyond her consort and may be

At

spot, while the other only gets to L\.

whose turning-radius

is

325 yards, would only have to change

course eight points to starboard to

The two

each other.
same.

make the

spar-torpedo boats /'and

act together, as they can

the

L\ the desired
moment the ship

at

this

can,

attack miscarry.

on the contrary,

keep near enough together to see

Should the ship turn

in

any

direction, they can

do

Should the two automobile-torpedo boats both

attack on the same side, she can always keep away from them

by turning, and can extend the time

long enough to destroy them.
Nevertheless,

certain

of their being

circumstances

where an automobile-torpedo

boat,

present

under

fire

themselves

whether crowned with

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

104
or

success

not,

offers

so

TAC7LCS.

many chances

punishment by machine-gun

that

fire,

hesitation to attack and profit thereby.

immunity from

of

should be no

there

During

dark night

she could, for instance, steal upon a vessel within 300 yards,

no matter
lights,

if

the

enemy was

furnished with electric

draw

discharge her two torpedoes and

off

search-

without

being seen.

Although

single vessels will not follow certain courses sucli

we have supposed N to do in Plate XIV, still, when we

commence to look into the movements of a combination of
vessels formed in column to force a passage, we encounter a
state of affairs resembling for each vessel the one we have laid
down in the diagrams referred to. In effect, each ship must
as

follow her leader to prevent breaking up the formation or to

escape danger,

generally a narrow channel

filled

with natural

or artificial obstacles.
If possible,

torpedo-boats

in

attacking squadrons trying to

enter a harbor should unquestionably take advantage of

am-

buscades, natural or otherwise, and should endeavor to appear

and discharge their torpedoes on a

line

perpendicular to the

enemy's course.

Now,

for such a

torpedo boat or

manoeuvre, which

a spar-torpedo

boat

is

best

an

Let us

see.

that the last mentioned will continue under the

ship steaming ahead maintaining

its

course,

automobile-

fire

The time
of a single

we have

already

said, only exceeds by one sixth the time applicable to an auto-

mobile-torpedo boat under the same circumstances; but we

will see that a

has

its

spar-torpedo boat

proportion of danger

when

it

encounters a squadron

made much

greater than that

which menaces the automobile-torpedo boat doing the same

thing.

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

attempt the passage into a harbor,

force will

stance, probably

formed

column or

in

one of

in

105
for in-

derivations.

its

Let us consider the case of a force entering, formed

two columns.

Distance between

between columns, two cables

Fig. 2.)

in

interval

(See PI. XV,

down from forward
enemy () manoeuvres

speed, 10 knots.

spar-torpedo boat (P) coming

beam

of the

one cable

ships,

of the leading ship of the

to explode his torpedo against the broadside of N'.

It

will

take him longer to disengage himself from his opponent (since

N",

the ships

than

it

N,

etc., will

prevent him from circling)

would an automobile-torpedo boat.

Now
come

N', and

less

than 40 s suffices for

N"

cover 250 yards and

to

to the rescue of her consort, N'.

disable P, but in
If

P,

probability she could run

all

on the contrary, has

and passes astern

ple,

he would

and

in a fire

N'

of

in

to

fire

can

JV's to

P down.

explode his torpedo,

failed to

hopes of picking up iV2

find himself

N"

Therefore

turn slightly to starboard, and not only add her

between two

lines

which he could not stand.

An

for

of the

exam-

enemy,

automobile-tor-

pedo boat, however, could advance to within 250 yards of the

passing squadron, discharge
either on the arc L, L', or
direction.

yards,

it is

Besides

this,

if

its

two torpedoes, and withdraw,

by working

its

the torpedo

is

head

in

arranged to run 800

possible that missing a vessel in the right

might pick up a victim

Although

it is

the other

column

it

in the left one.

to be seen that an automobile-torpedo boat

has a certain advantage over the spar-torpedo boat

and that any improvements made

in

in action,

the discharge of her auto-

mobile torpedoes which permit her to use them at any speed,

making a course
that advantage,

at

any angle with the enemy, add greatly to

still

the spar-torpedo boat has an important

ELEMENTARY NAVAL

106

TACTICS.

part to play, and should not be omitted from

among

the factors

for war.

meUe the spar-torpedo boat would have an advan-

In the

tage over the automobile-torpedo boat, as the latter would be

enemy missed might mean

afraid to use her torpedoes, since an

a friend destroyed.

To sum

up, then, in respect to vessels at anchor

Automobile torpedoes are best used on a night

i.

tively clear

and without

weak currents

or none at

with obstacles of

rela-

when there are

and when the enemy is defended

with a calm sea,

fog,
all,

less resistance

than metallic nets.

Spar-torpedoes are, on the contrary, best used on a dark

2.

night,

and with the water a

currents,

The

and against

rough, in the midst of strong

vessels strongly

defended with obstacles.

following conclusions refer to ships under way:

There

i.

little

is

hardly any difference between the time that an

automobile-torpedo boat and the time that a spar-torpedo

boat

will

2.

be exposed to the enemy's

The

attack should be

made

fire.

if

possible on a course cut-

ting the enemy's course at right angles.

Therefore the boats

must come down from a position forward

of

the enemy's

beam.
3.

An

attack in daytime,

or ships under way, having

certain course,

is

made by torpedo-boats on

a ship

good speed and not confined

to a

hardly to be contemplated, except in very

exceptional cases.
4.

To

attack a vessel at night, free in

better to use a spar-torpedo boat than

its

it is

to

movements,

it

is

employ an auto-

mobile-torpedo boat.
5.

For an

attack, in either daytime or night-time, against a

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

\0"J

squadron which attempts to force a passage, automobile-tor-

pedo boats are greatly preferable to spar-torpedo boats.

6.

Finally, these last

former

in

seem

to have an advantage over the

any miUe where an enemy's squadron

is

opposed

by one of your own.

V.
Since every point on the

debarkation

for an

it

is

a place of

enemy's army, every town on the coast

can be burnt and pillaged by the

simple cruisers,

can become

coast

hostile

fleet,

by

or even

necessary to distribute over several cen-

tres of action the different constituent naval

defence of this coast.

These comprise rams,

corvettes, gun-vessels of different sizes,

elements for the

floating batteries,

and the various

classes

of torpedo-steamers.

These

forces,

in

connection with

defences, must

shore

guard and protect those points from which our squadrons and
cruisers can escape into the

retreat for

asylum

in case

These centres must be

calibre,

open

the

Works

enemy be too
their

enemy knowing what

is

by screens

the emplacing

of dense

may

formidable.
of

guns

number and

of greatest

their distance

going on.

carried on in sight of the

concealed, especially at night,

light

and to which they

beyond the range

and should prevent, by

inland, the

sea,

enemy can sometimes be

from the beams of the search-

smoke

such

work, for instance, as

of guns.

The defence

of a coast

comes within two categories

tionary defence and a movable defence.

submarine mines, booms,

fortifications of

beforehand or extemporized on the coast

The

first

sta-

comprises

every kind, placed

;

the second relies

ELEMENTARY XAVAL

108

TACTICS.

on the action, isolated or combined, of rams, floating

etc.,

supported, according to circum-

ships, or

even the seagoing squadrons,

gunboats, torpedo-vessels,

by armored

stances,

batteries,

should circumstances so conspire as to render necessary this

combination

for

war remaining

in its

own

Unquestionably the best coast defence

constructed

of

a fleet of specially

is

going

sea

to

in

Then each harbor should have

weather along a coast.

flotilla of

capable

armor-clads,

waters.

any
its

torpedo-boats.

Coast batteries cannot alone prevent an armored squadron

from forcing a passage into a harbor

their

guns with mines.

tected by a gun

For

is

harmless, as

tugs,

they must supplement

is

not pro-

can be raised and destroyed.

it

this reason gun-vessels

and large

Conversely, any mine that

and gunboats, small steamers

furnished with

small rapid-firing guns and

machine-guns, are especially useful for mine protection and

for coastwise

employment.

Non-seagoing armored vessels

more value than

The tactical
known as those

are, as a general thing, of

fixed forts for the protection of harbors.

qualities of the torpedo-boat

must be

torpedo-boats will generally attack as a

flotilla

torpedo-boat acting singly has no place

in

No

success can be derived from

assailed ship will always be

its

as well

from a shore base,

of the ship, since, operating

indeed, the

modem

warfare.

independent action, as the

more than

match

for each indi-

vidual boat.

To

render the attack as

vessels
I.

irresistible as possible

must possess the following

qualities

the torpedo-

Great speed, so as to enable the boat to be

of fire as short a

being destroyed.

in the field

time as possible, and so diminish the

risk of

THE SEA ARMY FOR OFFENCE AND DEFENCE.

Show as little
minimum the size of
2.

Be divided

3.

IO9

surface as possible, so as to reduce to a

the target for the enemy's guns.

into as

many

water-tight compartments as

possible to prevent being easily sunk.

4.

Have

5.

the vital parts as well protected as possible.

using automobile torpedoes without

of

possibility

reducing speed.
Protection for the crew against small-arm and machine-

6.

gun

fire.

Noiseless engines, so as to put off discovery as long a

7.

time as possible, and so be enabled to approach the enemy.

8.

Great handiness.

9.

Armament
same

vessel of the

An
the

with machine-guns, to permit

size interfering

its

it

when the

with

This

last

should either dash at the

other torpedo-boats are engaging those belong-

ing to the ship, or

If

made

divided into two or three divisions; one of these

should act as a reserve.

retreat.

to fight a

designs.

attack on a ship by torpedo-boats should be

flotilla

ship

with

it

should follow the ship

when

she seeks to

the vessel must retreat through a channel,

it

would

be good tactics to have her attacked at one or two points

her passage out

the

first

in

attack being intended to engage her

torpedo-boats and not to destroy the ship.

Besides doing their legitimate work, torpedo-vessels will

As we have

have to fight small adversaries barring their way.

before observed, they

again they

may be

other obstructions.

machine-gun
laces, or

fire,

may be

the enemy's torpedo-boats, but

picket-launches, tugs, or even

These

will

have to

be

booms and

overcome by

hand-grenades, spar-torpedoes, and

mines of gun-cotton or other high explosive.

neck-

For

this

ELEMEN TARY NA VA L TAC TICS.

purpose torpedo-boats should be

fitted

with the necessary

1

weapons, leading wires, and batteries.

VI.

Let us conclude with the words of one who has thought a

great deal upon the subjects which are dealt with in this

book

"

The

importance

in

history of

all

little

navies which have attained any

the world, from the most ancient times down-

wards, has shown that tactical efficiency and naval success

went hand

in

hand, and that the absence of the forrher assur-

edly led to the want of the latter."

THE END;

Plate

Like this

9 IT

OM

Not

like this

Plate

1^00

Yards

III.

Plate IV.

Side most distant

from Centre of Circle

Fig.

Plate

Fig.

Plate

Ffe.1

Fig.

Fig.

Fig-

XI

Plate

Fig.2

Pfg.1

XIV.

llll

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