BIOLOGY

Factors Affecting Transpiration

Light intensity
Light intensity stimulates stomata opening. This is because an increase in light intensity results in an
increase of rate of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis requires gaseous exchange and the stomata is the
pore in which gaseous exchange takes place. Therefore an increase in photosynthesis results in an
increase in stomata opening (increased gaseous exchange).
Evaporation of water from the plant occurs primarily through the stomata, so as you can understand, an
increase in light intensity results in an increase in transpiration due to an increase stomata opening.
Temperature
Plants transpire faster at higher temperatures. This is because the rate of evaporation increases with
temperature.
Humidity
Humidity can be defined as the relative amount of water in the atmosphere. If the air is dry, then the
diffusion gradient would be greater from the plant to the atmosphere. There would be an increase in the
diffusion of water vapor out of the stomata and into the atmosphere. If the air is humid (containing a lot of
water in the atmosphere) then the opposite would be true, and very little water would diffuse out of the
atmosphere
Wind
When there is very little wind, this means that the layer of water vapor directly surrounding the leaves is
not being swept away. Because of this, there is an increase in humidity of the air directly surrounding the
leaves. This results in a lower rate of transpiration
Water supply
If the plant has little water available, it will close its stomata. This will of course cause a decrease in the
rate of transpiration

EFFECTS OF SMOKING IN OUR BODY

Lung cancer is the most common form of cancer caused by smoking. More than 80% of cases of lung
cancer are due to smoking.
Cigarette smoke contains many chemicals that interfere with the body's method of filtering air and
cleaning out the lungs. The smoke irritates the lungs and leads to overproduction of mucus. It also
paralyses the cilia - tiny hair-like structures that line the airways and clean out dust and dirt. Paralysis of
the cilia means mucus and toxic substances accumulate, resulting in congestion of the lungs.

This extra mucus means smokers are more likely to suffer from chronic bronchitis and what is known as
'smoker's cough'.
Cigarette smoke is one of the best known triggers of asthma. When people suffer from asthma their
inflamed air passages, which are very sensitive, narrow when exposed to cigarette smoke. This causes
an asthma attack.
Long term exposure of the lungs to the irritants in tobacco smoke destroys the normal lung structure. The
elastic walls of the small airways within the lungs are broken down. This reduces the amount of lung
tissue available for the transfer of oxygen from the air to the blood. This condition is called emphysema.
Some degree of emphysema is found in almost all people who are long-term smokers, however the
severity will vary depending on the amount of cigarettes smoked, and the number of years the individual
smokes.
Damage to the lung tissue is irreversible. Emphysema can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding
anything that will irritate the lungs such as dust and cold air, and ensuring any chest infections such as flu
and bronchitis are treated properly.

Emphysema and lung cancer

Definition:
Emphysema is a chronic lung disease caused by damage to the alveoli, the tiny air sacs in the lung where
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. With emphysema, damage to the alveoli results in
air becoming trapped, causing them to expand and rupture.
Emphysema is one type of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Lung Cancer
Lung cancer arises when a series of mutations in normal lung cells cause them to become abnormal and
grow out of control. These changes can take place anywhere from the bronchus (the windpipe), down to
the small air sacs in the periphery of the lungs where oxygen exchange takes place.

PHYSICS

NOTES - MOMENT
A moment is the turning effect of a force around a fixed point called a pivot. For example, this could be a
door opening around a fixed hinge or a spanner turning around a fixed nut.
The size of a moment depends on two factors:

the size of the force applied

the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force

A moment can be calculated using this equation:

M=Fd
Where:
M = the moment of the force in newton-meters, Nm
F = the force in newton, N
d = the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot in meters, m

Balancing moments
Where an object is not turning around a pivot, the total clockwise moment must be exactly
balanced by the total anti-clockwise moment. We say that the opposing moments are balanced:
Sum of the clockwise moments = sum of the anti-clockwise moments

NOTES - TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE

The center of mass of an object is the point through which the weight of that object acts in a
uniform gravitational field - that is why it is often called the center of gravity.

Finding the center of mass for symmetrical objects

The center of mass for a symmetrical object can be found easily. The axes of symmetry are marked on
the object. The center of mass is where the axes of symmetry cross.

Finding the center of mass by suspending objects

The center of mass for an irregular shaped, non-symmetrical object is found in a different way.
1.

Drill a small hole in the object and hang it up so that it is free to swing without obstruction.

2.

Hang a plumb line (a piece of string with a weight hanging from it) from the same suspension
point. This lets you mark the vertical line directly below the suspension point.

3.

Drill another hole at a different location within the object.

4.

Again hang a plumb line to determine the vertical and mark it on.

5.

The point at which the two marked lines cross is the center of mass.

Stability of objects
Stability is a measure of how likely it is for an object to topple over when pushed or moved. Stable objects
are very difficult to topple over, while unstable objects topple over very easily.

The stability of an object is affected by two factors:

the width of the base of the object

the height of its center of mass

Objects with a wide base, and a low center of mass, are more stable than those with a narrow based and
a high center of mass.

NOTES - ASTRONOMY
1.

Newton's law of universal gravitation states that any two bodies in the universe attract each
other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Orbit and speed

The orbital period of a planet depends upon its distance from the Sun. The further a planet is from the
Sun, the longer its orbital period. This is because the further away a planet is:

the further it has to travel in one orbit

the weaker the gravitational force of attraction between it and the Sun

The orbital speed of planets and satellites can be calculated by the following equation:

Our Sun is a star. It seems much bigger than other stars in the sky because it is much closer to
Earth. Stars form immense groups called galaxies. A galaxy can contain many millions of stars,
held together by the force of gravity.
Our Sun is in a spiral galaxy called the Milky Way. The Sun is about half-way from the center of
the galaxy, on one of the arms.

Notes MAINS ELECTRICITY

Current - This is a measure of the flow of electrons around a circuit (measured in Amperes or Amps (A))
Voltage - This is a measure of how much energy the electrons are carrying around to the things in the
circuit (measured in Volts (V))
Resistance - This is a measure of how hard it is for the electrons to travel through a part of the circuit
(measured in Ohms ())

Mains electricity
Electricity that is supplied to our homes through underground cable (AC)

AC & DC
AC = alternating currently
DC = direct current

Electricity meter
Connected to underground cable from mains electricity, measures amount of energy used
Consumer unit/fuse box
Connected to electricity meter which contains fuses or circuit breakers

Ring main circuits

- Live wire
- Neutral wire
- Earth wire

Live wire
Provided the path along which the electrical energy from the power station travels (AC)

Neutral wire
Completes circuit (0 volts)

Earth wire
- Safety feature
- ground electricity
- no current flowing through

Plug
Outer part (casing) made of plastic - insulator.
Connection to circuits made with three brass pins (good conductor)

Electrical hazards
Electricity is a useful form of energy but it can also be very dangerous. There are lots of ways in which we
can be electrocuted including:

touching frayed electrical cables

long or overheating cables
damaged or incorrectly wired plugs
allowing water or wet objects to enter plug sockets or touch frayed cables
pushing metal objects into plug sockets

Fuses and circuit breakers

Fuses and circuit breakers protect electrical circuits and appliances.

Fuses
The fuse breaks the circuit if a fault in an appliance causes too much current to flow. This protects the
wiring and the appliance if something goes wrong. The fuse contains a piece of wire that melts easily. If
the current going through the fuse is too great, the wire heats up until it melts and breaks the circuit.

Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers act as resettable fuses. These are automatically operated electrical switches that protect
electrical circuits from overloading or short circuiting. They detect faults and then stop the flow of
electricity. Small circuit breakers protect individual household appliances, whereas larger ones can protect
high voltage circuits supplying electricity to entire cities.

Earthing
Many electrical appliances - including cookers, washing machines and refrigerators - have metal cases.
You would get an electric shock if the live wire inside an appliance, such as a cooker, came loose and
touched the metal casing.
However, the earth terminal is connected to the metal casing so that the current goes through the earth
wire instead of causing an electric shock. A strong current surges through the earth wire because it has a
very low resistance. This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance.

Double insulation

Symbol for double insulation

Some appliances - such as vacuum cleaners and electric drills - do not have an earth wire. This is
because they have plastic casings, or they have been designed so that the live wire cannot touch the
casing. As a result, the casing cannot give an electric shock, even if the wires inside become loose.
These appliances have double insulation.

Energy Transfer in a resistor

Too much current can cause an electrical fire

When electric current flows through a resistor some of the energy is transferred to heat energy. This
results in the resistor heating up.
Examples include:

Heating water in a kettle

Electric fires
However this heating effect isn't always useful. When too much current flows through wires, they can
become too hot and catch fire or burn the user.

Calculating electrical power

You should be able to recall and apply:

The relationship between charge, current and time

The relationship between energy transferred, voltage and charge

Charge, current and time

Electrical charge is measured in coulomb (C). The amount of electrical charge that moves in a circuit
depends on the current flow and how long it flows for.
The equation below shows the relationship between charge, current and time:
Charge (coulomb, C) = current (ampere, A) time (second, s)
For example, if a current of 10 A flows for 30 s, then 10 x 30 = 300 coulombs of electrical charge move

Energy transferred, voltage and charge

For a given amount of electrical charge that moves, the amount of energy transferred increases as the
voltage increases.
The equation below shows the relationship between energy transferred, voltage and charge:
Energy transferred (joule, J) = potential difference (volt, V) charge (coulomb, C)
For example, if the voltage is 120 V and the charge is 2 C, the energy transferred is 240 J (120 2).

Electrical energy calculations

The amount of electrical energy transferred to an appliance depends on its power and the length of time it
is switched on. The amount of mains electrical energy transferred is measured in kilowatt-hours, kWh.
One unit is 1 kWh.
E=Pt

E is the energy transferred in kilowatt-hours, kWh

P is the power in kilowatts, kW
T is the time in hours, h.

Notes ELECTRICAL CHARGES

Atoms consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons andneutrons.
Neutrons are neutral, but protons and electrons are electrically charged. Protons have a relative charge of
+1, while electrons have a relative charge of -1.
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. In the periodic table atoms are arranged in
atomic number order.
Electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells, and different energy levels can hold different numbers
of electrons. The electronic structure of an atom is a description of how the electrons are arranged, which
can be shown in a diagram or by numbers. There is a link between the position of an element in the
periodic table and its electronic structure.
Good 'conductors', such as metals, allow an electric charge to pass through them, but insulators, such as
plastic, do not. A substance that gains electrons becomes negatively charged, while a substance that
loses electrons becomes positively charged.

Insulating materials
Metals are good conductors, which means that electric charges move easily through them. Materials
such as plastic, wood, glass and polythene are insulators. This means they do not allow electric charges
to move through them. Some insulators can become electrically charged when they're rubbed together.

Charged objects
How can you tell if an insulator is charged?

If a plastic rod is rubbed with a duster it attracts small pieces of paper.

When a balloon is rubbed on a jumper it can stick to a wall.

Some dusters are designed to become charged so that they attract dust.

Positive and negative charges

Objects can be positively charged, negatively charged or neutral (no charge).
A substance that gains electrons becomes negatively charged, while a substance that loses electrons
becomes positively charged.
When a charged object comes near to another object they will either attract or repel each other.

If the charges are the same - they repel

If the charges are opposite - they attract

If one is charged and the other is not - they attract

Like charges repel. Unlike charges attract.

The gold leaf electroscope

This is an instrument for detecting and measuring static electricity or voltage.
A metal disc is connected to a narrow metal plate and a thin piece of gold leaf is fixed to the plate. The
whole of this part of the electroscope is insulated from the body of the instrument. A glass front prevents
air draughts but allows you to watch the behaviour of the leaf.

When a charge is put on the disc at the top it spreads down to the plate and leaf. This means that both
the leaf and plate will have the same charge. Similar charges repel each other and so the leaf rises away
from the plate - the bigger the charge the more the leaf rises.
The leaf can be made to fall again by touching the disc - you have earthed the electroscope. An earth
terminal prevents the case from becoming live. The electroscope can be charged in two ways:
(a) by contact - a charged rod is touched on the surface of the disc and some of the charge is transferred
to the electroscope. This is not a very effective method of charging the electroscope.
(b) by induction - a charged rod is brought up to the disc and then the electroscope is earthed, the rod is
then removed.
The two methods give the gold leaf opposite charges.
The following diagrams show you how the charges spread over the plate and gold leaf in different
conditions.

Notes CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN

CIRCUITS
Electronics components are made up of three types of materials:
conductors, insulators and semi-conductors. Components can be
either separate devices linked together in a circuit, or integrated
circuits incorporating large numbers of semi-conductor components etched onto a chip of silicon inside
tiny a plastic case.
There are three types of materials used in electronic components:

An electrical insulator
1.
2.

Electrical conductors are materials that allow electricity to flow through them easily.
Electrical insulators are materials that prevent electrical flow. In the diagram to the right, the
insulating material (plastic) surrounds the conducting material (copper wires).
3.
Semi-conducting materials exhibit both conducting and insulating properties. The way in
which the material is connected to a power supply determines whether it will conduct an electrical
current or prevent it from flowing.

Current
A current flows when an electric charge moves around a circuit. No current can flow if the circuit is
broken, for example, when a switch is open.

current is measured in amperes

amperes is often abbreviated to amps or A
current flowing through a component in a circuit is measured using an ammeter

the ammeter must be connected in series with the component - remember, in a series circuit,
electrical devices are placed one after the other in a continuous line in the circuit between the
positive and negative poles of the battery

Voltage
A voltage across an electrical component - such as a lamp - is needed to make a current flow through it.
Cells or batteries often provide the voltage needed.

voltage is measured in volts, often abbreviated to V

voltage across a component in a circuit is measured using a voltmeter
the voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the component - remember, in a parallel
circuit, the current travels through several paths, through several devices lined up next to each
other

Calculating current
The size of an electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge. You can calculate the size of a
current using this equation:
I=Qt

I is the current in amperes (amps), A

Q is the charge in coulombs, C
t is the time in seconds, s

Circuit diagrams
Two things are important for a circuit to work:

There must be a complete circuit

There must be no short circuits

To check for a complete circuit, follow a wire coming out of the battery with your finger. You should be
able to go out of the battery, through the lamp, and back to the battery.
To check for a short circuit, see if you can find a way past the lamp without going through any other
component. If you can, there is a short circuit and the lamp will not light.

Series connections
Components that are connected one after another on the same loop of the circuit are connected in series.
The current that flows across each component connected in series is the same.

Two lamps connected in series

The circuit diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in series. If one lamp breaks, the other lamp
will not light.

Parallel connections
Components that are connected on separate loops are connected in parallel. The current is shared
between each component connected in parallel.

Two lamps connected in parallel

The circuit diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in parallel. If one lamp breaks, the other
lamp will still light.

Cells and circuits

Potential difference
A typical cell produces a potential difference of 1.5 V. When two or more cells are connected in series in a
circuit, the total potential difference is the sum of their potential differences. For example, if two 1.5 V
cells are connected in series in the same direction, the total potential difference is 3.0 V. If two 1.5 V cells
are connected in series, but in opposite directions, the total potential difference is 0 V, so no current will
flow.

Current
When more cells are connected in series in a circuit, they produce a bigger potential difference across its
components. More current flows through the components as a result.

Parallel circuits

Current
When two or more components are connected in parallel, the total current flowing in the circuit is shared
between the components.

Potential difference
When two or more components are connected in parallel, the potential difference across them is the
same. This means that if a voltage across a lamp is 12 V, the voltage across another lamp connected in
parallel is also 12 V.

Series circuits
The potential differences across resistors in series must add up to the battery voltage. This is because the
total energy transferred by the battery must equal the amount of energy transferred to the other
components in the circuit. Energy is always conserved.
The energy is transferred from the cell to the electric charge moving through the circuit. The charge then
transfers energy to the components (bulbs, resistors, etc).
More energy is transferred by charge flowing through a larger resistance than through a smaller one.
This is why a large and a small resistor connected in series have different voltages across them. The
large resistance has a larger voltage because more energy is being transferred as the charge flows
through it.

Parallel circuits
In parallel circuits, the voltage across each component is the same as the voltage of the battery. Each
component in parallel has the same current as it would have if it were connected to the battery without the
other components present.
This means that a higher resistance in parallel with a smaller resistance would have less current in it, as
the same voltage will cause less current in a larger resistance than in a smaller one.

Notes ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Resistance
There is a resistance to the flow of an electric current through most conductors.
An electric current flows when electrons move through a conductor, such as a metal wire. The moving
electrons can collide with the ions in the metal. This makes it more difficult for the current to flow, and
causes resistance.
The resistance of a long wire is greater than the resistance of a short wire because electrons collide with
ions more often.
The resistance of a thin wire is greater than the resistance of a thick wire because a thin wire has fewer
electrons to carry the current.

The resistance in a wire increases as:

The length of the wire increases

The thickness of the wire decreases

Measuring resistance
The resistance of a component can be found by measuring the current flowing through it, and
the potential difference across it.
This equations shows the relationship between potential difference, current and resistance:
V=IR

V is the potential difference in volts, V

I is the current in amperes (amps), A

R is the resistance in ohms,

The equation can be rearranged to find the resistance: R = V I
A resistor is an electrical component that restricts the flow of electric current.
When resistors are connected in series, the total resistance of two or more resistors is the sum of their
individual resistance.
When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance of two or more resistors is less than
that of either resistor by itself.

Diodes

Diode
Diodes are electronic components which can be used to regulate the potential difference in
circuits and to make logic gates.
A diode has a very high resistance in one direction. This means that current can only flow in the
other direction.
This is the graph of current against potential difference for a diode:

LEDs and lamps

Light emitting diode (LED)

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and lamps produce light when a current flows through them in the
forward direction.

Thermistors and LDRs

Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistors are used as temperature sensors, for example, in fire alarms. In the most common
type of thermistor, the resistance decreases as the temperature increases:

at low temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is high and little current can flow
through them
at high temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is low and more current can flow
through them

LDRs

Light dependent resistor (LDR)

LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used to detect light levels, for example, in automatic
security lights. Their resistance decreases as the light intensity increases:

in the dark and at low light levels, the resistance of an LDR is high and little current
can flow through it

in bright light, the resistance of an LDR is low and more current can flow through it
LEDs and lamps are often used for indicator lights in electrical equipment, such as computers
and television sets. As LEDs use a much smaller current than other types of lighting, their use is
increasing.