Numerical Modeling of Granular

Flows in Rotary Kilns

Literature Survey

M. A. Romero Valle

Numerical Analysis Group

Numerical Modeling of Granular Flows

in Rotary Kilns
Literature Survey

M. A. Romero Valle
Supervisor: Dr. Domenico Lahaye

May 4, 2012

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science

Delft University of Technology

The work in this literature survey was supported by Almatis, Inc. Their cooperation is hereby
gratefully acknowledged.

c Faculty Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science (EEMCS)

Copyright
All rights reserved.

Abstract

Literature usually presents two approaches for numerical modeling of granular material, a
discrete approach and a continuum approach [38]. The purpose of the current document is
to explore both approaches with respect to the numerical modeling of a rotary kiln.
First numerical experiments were done using open source software, LIGGGHTS [21] for a Lagrangian model and OpenFOAM [30] for an Eulerian model, in order to explore the feasibility
of a rotary kiln numerical model.
As simplified models exist, which are also briefly discussed in the present document, the
question left to answer is whether a full granular flow model is necessary in order to have a
sufficiently accurate description of the granular material properties.

Literature Survey

M. A. Romero Valle

ii

M. A. Romero Valle

Literature Survey

Table of Contents

1 Introduction
1-1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2 Rotary Kilns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3 Solids Phase: Granular Bed of a Kiln . . . . . . .
1-3-1 Transverse Bed Motion . . . . . . . . . .
1-3-2 Axial Bed Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3-3 Heat Transfer Phenomena . . . . . . . .
1-4 Modeling of a Rotary Kiln: Previous Approaches .

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1
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2
2
4
6
6

1-5 Calcium Aluminate Cement Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-6 Granular Flow Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8
9

2 Euler-Lagrange Approach: Discrete Element Modeling

11

2-1 Description of the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

2-2 Applicability to Current Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

2-3 Experimental Setup and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

2-4 Discussion: Advantages and Disadvantages

14

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Euler-Euler Approach: Two-Fluid Model

17

3-1 Description of the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3-2 Applicability to Current Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

3-3 Experimental Setup and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

3-4 Discussion: Advantages and Disadvantages

20

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Summary: Euler-Lagrange and Euler-Euler

23

4-1 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

4-2 Heat Transfer and Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

Literature Survey

M. A. Romero Valle

iv

Table of Contents

5 Open Questions and Conclusions

25

5-1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 Further Work: Project Goals
Bibliography

M. A. Romero Valle

26
27
31

Literature Survey

List of Figures

1-1 Cement Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-2 Different modes of operation in the transversal mixing plane of a rotary drum [5]

2
3

1-3 Characteristic curve for a 0.40 diameter rotary drum [5, 15] . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-4 Rolling mode with an active top part and a passive lower part [5] . . . . . . . . .

1-5 Kiln fill geometry [5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-6 Kiln basic heat transfer paths: 1) Freeboard gas to exposed bed, 2) Freeboard gas
to exposed wall, 3) Exposed wall to exposed bed, 4) Exposed wall to exposed wall,
5) Covered wall to covered bed, 6) Loss to surroundings [7]. . . . . . . . . . . .

2-1 Spring and dampener contact force model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

2-2 Number of Particles vs CPU Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3-1 Solids phase glyph plot of the lower part of the cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

Literature Survey

M. A. Romero Valle

vi

M. A. Romero Valle

List of Figures

Literature Survey

List of Tables

4-1 Summary of advantages and disadvantages for the discussed modeling approaches
to granular flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Literature Survey

24

M. A. Romero Valle

viii

M. A. Romero Valle

List of Tables

Literature Survey

Chapter 1
Introduction

1-1

Motivation

The main motivation for the present document is to give insight into the phenomena that
occur inside a cement kiln in order to make its operation more efficient.
The present project deals with the consequences on the granular material bed in the kiln due
to changes of its operating conditions. Different approaches for granular flow modeling will
be presented.

1-2

Rotary Kilns

Rotary kilns are employed to carry out a wide range of operations such as the reduction
of oxide ore, the reclamation of hydrated lime, the calcination of petroleum coke and the
reclamation of hazardous waste. However, they are much more widely known for their place
in the cement industry as the main stage for the manufacture of cement.
A rotary kiln is a pyro-processing device used to raise materials to high temperatures. It is
a long horizontal cylinder with a certain inclination with respect to its axis. Material within
the kiln is heated to high temperatures so that chemical reactions can take place. A rotary
kiln is therefore fundamentally a heat exchanger from which energy from a hot gas phase is
transferred to the bed material [5].
There are several types and configurations for rotary kilns. The rotary kiln in question [33]
is a counter-current gas direct fired Calcium Aluminate Cement rotary kiln.
As it can be observed in Figure 1.1, a rotary kiln is a long, narrow cylinder. It should be
inclined 2 to 5 degrees to the horizontal and should rotate at 0.25 to 5 rpm. The length/diameter should range from 10 to 35, depending on the reaction time needed [32].
Rotary kilns can also be seen as a solid-solid chemical reactor, in which one has mainly heat
transfer interactions with a gas phase. The phenomena in the solids phase will be addressed
with a certain level of detail as it will be the focus of the present project.
Literature Survey

M. A. Romero Valle

Introduction

Figure 1-1: Cement Kiln

1-3

Solids Phase: Granular Bed of a Kiln

Rotary kilns are used to process granular material. Granular material is a collection of solid
particles, in which every particle is in contact with at least some of the neighboring particles.
This granular material has transport properties similar to both liquids and solids [38].
The heat transfer within the granular bed of a rotary kiln occurs with the same mechanisms
in any packed bed [5]. However the momentum transfer, or movement of particles, within the
bed is unique due to the rotary motion and geometry of the kiln.
There are two mixing mechanisms in a rotary kiln, an axial and a transversal component [5].
The axial mixing component is attributed to overall convection; one can assume that there
is an average velocity equal to the plug flow velocity. However for the transversal or radial
mixing, one has mechanisms that result in velocity components in both axial and transversal
directions.
Both are dependent on the rotation, inclination, filling percentage of the kiln and rheological properties of the material to be processed. Both mixing mechanisms increase with kiln
rotational speed [5].
As it can be inferred from above, movement of the particle bed inside the rotary kiln has two
components: the axial component that determines the residence time and the transverse plane
component that determines most of the transport processes such as, mixing, heat transfer and
reaction rate.

1-3-1

Transverse Bed Motion

There are various studies that describe the motion of particles in a rotating cylinder. They
show that the motion depends on the dimensionless Froude number [14, 15].
Fr =

2R
,
g

(1-1)

where is angular velocity in [s1 ], R is the radius of the kiln in [m] and g is the gravity in
[m/s2 ].
Henein and Boateng noted six different transversal motion modes for rotary drums[5, 14]:
M. A. Romero Valle

Literature Survey

1-3 Solids Phase: Granular Bed of a Kiln

20
Chapter 2 Basic Description of Rotary Kiln Operation

Slipping

Slumping

Rolling

Cascading

Cataracting

Centrifuging

Mode modes of operation in the transversal

Fr (=2R/g)mixing
at = 35
Figure 1-2: Different
plane of a rotary drum [5]

one then

1. Slipping
2. Slumping
3. Rolling
can describe
them from low to high
4. Cascading
5. Cataracting
occurs when
the bulk material, as a
6. Centrifuging

Fr < 1.0 105

1.0 105 < Fr < 0.3 103
3 < Fr < 0.2 101
0.5 10number
Froude
as follows:
0.4 101 < Fr < 0.8 101
101against
< Fr < 1 the wall;
whole,0.9slips
Fr > 1.0

Slipping:
Slumping: occurs
when a segment of bulk material at the shear wedge becomes unstable, yields and empties
down the incline;
Figure 2.3 Bed motion in cross sectional plane. Froude numbers (Fr) are given
for each of the different modes. (Henein, 1980.)

Rolling: occurs when there is a steady discharge onto the bed surface causing its renewal;
take
advantagewhere
of thethe
high
particle-to-heat
Cascading:drying
occursapplications
at high rates
of rotation,
particles
cascade ortransfer
shower down the
fluid exposure associated with the cascading mode and the separafree surface;
tion effect caused by the centrifugal force component. For example,
Cataracting:
occursatinthe
between
starting
othercascading
extreme, and
thatcentrifuging
is, at very mode;
low rates of rotation
and
moving
progressively
to
higher
rates,
the
bed
willrotates
typically
Centrifuging: occurs at critical and high speeds, all the material
withmove
the drum wall.
from slipping, in which the bulk of the bed material, en masse, slips
Henein in against
his research
developed
graphswhereby
with experimental
data
order
to characterize
the wall;
to slumping,
a segment of
the in
bulk
material
the mode of
on operating
parameters
and
geometry
aspects
at operation
the shear depending
wedge becomes
unstable,
yields and
empties
down
the of rotary
drums[15].incline; to rolling, which involves a steady discharge onto the bed surface. In the slumping mode, the dynamic angle of repose varies in a
Rotary kilns
usually
operatewhile
with in
a rolling
mode,
as inthe
theangle
modeof
the
mixing
is maximized [5].
cyclical
manner
the rolling
mode
repose
remains
4
For the kilnconstant.
to be analyzed,
Froude
number(Rutgers,
is in the range
10 the
. It can
be inferred from
It has the
been
established
1965)ofthat
dynamic
the data obtained by Henein that the kiln to be analyzed is in a transitional mode between
slumping and rolling mode [15]. However one must make the distinction that the particle
sizes and properties from the study are not the same as in the case of the particular rotary
kiln to be analyzed.

When a kiln is operating in rolling mode there are two areas that can be described: an active
layer near the top where a surface renewal occurs from the rolling motion of the particles
falling down, and a passive layer, which is beneath the active layer and assumed to have a
plug flow behavior.
Literature Survey

M. A. Romero Valle

24

2.3

21

Transverse Bed Motion

Chapter 2

Basic Description of Rotary Kiln Operation

Introduction

similarity of the rotary drum behavior, and hence the type of transverse bed motion that occurs during powder processing, is dependent
upon the rotational Froude Froude
number,number
Fr, defined as
1 ! 104

1 ! 102
Fr = !2 R/g

(2.2)

% Fill

Centrifuging

Bed depth, m

where the critical condition for

centrifuging implies Fr = 1. The ranges
Cascading
of Froude numbers
for the various modes are shown in Figure
20 2.3.
Slumping
In the0.25
rolling mode (Figure 2.4),Cataracting
where rotary drum mixing is maximized, two distinct regions can be discerned, the shearing region,
called the active layer, formed by particles near the free surface, and
the passive or plug flow regionRolling
at the bottom where the shear rate is
zero. The particular mode chosen for an operation is dependent upon
0.15
the intent of the application. A survey of various rotary drum type
operations (Rutgers, 1965) has indicated that most operations are in
the 0.040.2 range of N-critical, which is well below the centrifuging
5
mode and probably the cascading mode as well.
The geometric features of a typical rolling bed are depicted in
Slipping
0.05The bed
Figure 2.5.
is subtended at the continuous angle of repose ".
The free surface is subtended at 2#. Hence the bed cross section occupied by material can be defined
length, Lc , the
1 by this angle.
10The chord 100
longest distance traveledRotational
by particlesspeed,
on therpm
free surface (path of steepest decent), can also be defined in terms of this angle. The fraction of
the cross sectional area occupied by material is the kiln loading. This
Bed
behavior
diagram.
Mapping
of bedby
behaviorinregimes
is
usually
defined as thecurve
volume
occupied
the [5,
1-3:
Characteristic
forpercent
a 0.40
diametermaterial
rotary drum

Figure 2.6
Figure
ferent
operation conditions. (Henein, 1980.)

for dif15]

2.4 Experimental Observations of Transverse

Flow Behavior
The key step in almost all particulate processing applications is solids
mixing. Mixing is primarily used to reduce the non-uniformity in the
composition of the bulk to achieve uniform blending or as a first
step to improve the convective/advective and diffusion components
associated with heat transfer to a particulate bed in thermal processing.
Some of the observed flow and transport phenomena in rotary kilns
Rolling bed.
that have provided insightsFigure
into2.4
particulate
flow behavior, which lead
Figure 1-4: Rolling mode with an active top part and a passive lower part [5]
to accurately stating the mathematical problem or modeling the rotary
kiln transport phenomena, are described. Dependent upon the bed
depth
and
conditions,
flow
behavior
constrained
Most of the
mixing
inthe
the operational
kiln cross section
occursthe
in the
active
region.
Taking into account
in
the
transverse
plane
can
be
purely
stochastic,
purely
deterministic,
the surface renewal in the active layer, one can infer that by increasing the rotational speed
a hybrid
of better
both; hence
mixing
can either
be modeled
a random
of the kilnorone
can get
mixing.
However,
this will
decrease by
residence
time as axial
walk
for
very
shallow
beds
(Fan
and
Too,
1981)
or
by
a
well-defined
speed increases with increasing rotational speed. Thus, it is important to know the critical
bulk to
velocity
estimated
by shear
flows
similar
to boundary
residence time
achieveprofile
the sufficient
product
quality
in order
to have
a balance between
layer problems (Boateng, 1993). Early workers used tracer particles to
mixing and residence time [5].
observe and characterize mixing (Zablotny, 1965; Ferron and Singh,
1991; and others). Lately, such works have been extended to the use of
nonintrusive techniques, such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR;
1-3-2 Axial
Bed Motion
Nakagawa et al., 1993) and positron emission particle tracking (PEPT;
Parker et al., 1997).
Boateng [5] mentions that the best way to define axial bed motion is by using empirical
relationships based on geometric considerations. One can then consider the following figure.

The definition of kiln load is the percentage of cross sectional area of the cylinder occupied
by the granular material. Boateng also mentions that one can make a distinction between a
lightly and a heavily loaded kiln. This is due to the fact that there are different theoretical
and empirical models for the residence time, volumetric flow and velocity profiles of the axial
component of the flow of particles in the kiln. The kiln from Almatis is a lightly loaded kiln,
operating with 5% loading. This means that the degree of fill can be taken constant within
M. A. Romero Valle

Literature Survey

1-3 Solids Phase: Granular Bed of a Kiln

22
Chapter 2 Basic Description of Rotary Kiln Operation

y(= H)

ro
r
L c /2

Figure
2.51-5:
Rolling
bed
fill geometry.
Figure
Kiln fill
geometry
[5]

vessel. Granted that the kiln length is constant, the degree of fill is the
the length of
the kiln,
in other
in area
the previous
Figure occupied
(5) = 0by
[5].material
represents the
percent
of the
cross words,
sectional
of the cylinder
angle between
the surface
of the bed
material
and
kiln
(% Fill).
The fraction
filled
defining
the
bedaxis.
depth, and based on the
geometry, relates the angles at any transverse section as follows:
Boateng then presents the following
relationships
using the nomenclature
!
" based
# on geometry
"$"
!
!
R
R
1
1
1
observed in Figure 1.5:
fc =
2 cos
sin 2 cos
(2.3)
2!
RH
RH

Seaman (1951) developed an approximation for the theoretical res


idence time of a shallow bed (lightly
loaded kiln) and a theoretical
u
=
2rn
,
relationship for the kiln ax
volumetric flow
sin rate for deep beds (heavily
loaded kilns). Nonetheless, no clear definition has ever been given for
the range of operation encompassed by the two cases of kiln loadings.
Seamans
approximations
the conclusion
that kilns
should be
where uax is
the solids
axial velocity, rled
thetoradius,
n the number
of revolutions
[1/s],
considered heavily loaded when the fractional cross sectional fill of
kiln slope in angular measure and angle subtended by bed material at cylinder center.
solids exceeds approximately 5 percent.
for the residence time depending on geometric considerations one has:
As shown in Figure 2.4, two regions of the transverse plane can be
discerned: (i) the active region near the top of the bed where surface
renewal occurs, and (ii) the passive region beneath the active region.
L sin

L sinthe
passive region because
The active region is usually
thinner
than
=
=
,
particles there are not restricted
move
2rnand they
Lc tan
faster. Because the bed
is constrained within the cylinders geometrical domain, the laws of

(1-2)

the
Then

(1-3)

where L is the kiln length, the dynamic angle of repose, r the radius, n the number of
revolutions [1/s], the kiln slope in angular measure, the angle subtended by bed material
at cylinder center, Lc the distance from apex of bed cross-section to mid-chord and the
angular velocity.
Boateng recommends to use this expressions in industrial kilns as long as there are no true
granular flow models to predict the bed behavior on the axial direction [5].
Literature Survey

M. A. Romero Valle

Introduction

1-3-3

Heat Transfer Phenomena

Brimacombe [6, 7] explains that there are three basic paths of heat transfer into the particle
bed:
Freeboard gas to exposed bed;
Exposed wall to exposed bed;
Covered wall to covered bed;
where for the first point there are two mechanisms, the radiative heat transfer from the flame
and the convective heat transfer from the gases to the bed. For the second point there is
only one mechanism, the radiative heat reflected from the wall to the bed. And lastly, the
mechanism is given by conductive heat transfer from the wall to the particle bed.
From all the mechanisms, Boateng [5] mentions that the main path is the radiative heat
transfer from flame to the bed. In Figure 1.6 the basic paths for the heat transfer of a kiln
cross section are presented.
the freeboard involves adequately simulating the emissive/absorptive characteristics of the gas mixture and incorporating the results into a realistic geometric model.
For the solution of enclosure problems, Hottel and Cohen I41
developed the zone method, for which the radiative characteristics of the actual gas mixture are matched closely
by a weighted summation of several hypothetical gray
gases.
<5

e = E

e. {1 - e x p ( - K . p L ) }

[11

n=O

In order to account for the wavelengths which are not

absorbed by the actual gas, one of the gray gas components included in Eq. [1] is radiatively clear, i . e . , has
an extinction coefficient Ko = 0. Emissivity models formulated in this manner are referred to as clear-plus-Ngray-gas models, where N is the number of absorbing
gray gases (K > 0) which are incorporated. Although
developed as part of the zone method, Eq. [1 ] provides
a convenient form for simulating gas emission and absorption in other radiation models. In addition to gas
emission, Eq. [1] also can be utilized to simulate emisFigure 1-6: Kiln basic heat transfer
paths:
1)
Freeboard
gas
to
exposed
bed,
Freeboard
(9 F r e e b o a r d g a s t o e x p o s e d b e d
sion
from 2)
luminous
particles,gas
e . g . , Johnson and Be6r, lSj
and can bewall,
adapted5)
to Covered
account for nonuniform gas come b o a r d g abed,
s t o e 4)
x p o sExposed
e d w a l l wall to exposed
to exposed wall, 3) Exposed wall| toF r eexposed
position within the enclosure, e . g . , Pieri et al. t6J
|
E x p o s e d w a [7].
l l to e x p o s e d b e d
wall to covered bed, 6) Loss to surroundings
For the most general case, when the gas temperature
|
E x p o s e d w a l l to e x p o s e d w a l l
field in the enclosure is unknown, application of the zone
|
C o v e r e d w a l l to c o v e r e d b e d
method requires a knowledge of both the flow and com|
S t e a d y - s t a t e loss to s u r r o u n d i n g s
bustion fields in order to solve for the unknown temperatures and attendant radiative exchanges. Lacking
F i g . 1 - - B a s i c p a t h s a n d p r o c e s s e s f o r h e a t t r a n s f e r at a k i l n c r o s s abundant data for the flow and combustion fields, Jenkins
section.
and Moles t71 applied the zone method to the rotary kiln
by assuming plausible values for each. Good agreement
Part of the reflected energy is reabsorbed by the gas, and
was obtained between predicted and measured wall temthe residue is incident on the freeboard surfaces, where
peratures in a 1.7 m I.D. by 47 m cement kiln. The rethis cycle begins anew. Part of the energy which is abgenerative action of the inside refractory surface was not
sorbed at the exposed wall surface is lost through the
included in the model, an omission which can be justikiln wall, but some may be transferred into the bed durfied retrospectively by the minor role of the covered wall
ing the time that the wall surface is covered by the bed.
to bed heat transfer in the pilot kiln. [q However, regeneration has not been proven to be unimportant under all
This regenerative action of the wall, under some circumcircumstances, and its exclusion from any kiln model
stances, can operate in reverse; i.e., heat transfer can be
from the bed to the covered wall. Although heat transfer
can be regarded as a deficiency.
within the wall is by conduction only, this is not the case
Models for calculating radiative exchange within enfor the bed where conduction, convection, radiation, and
closures are constructed by subdividing the enclosure
advection (due to the motion of the bed particles') operate
(including the gas contained within) into numerous zones
simultaneously. An adequate heat-transfer model for a
and then formulating the expressions for radiative exrotary kiln would account for all of these paths and prochange among the zones. When detailed knowledge of
cesses, as well as allow for their interaction. Before proradiative heat transfer is required, a l~ge number of zones
ceeding with a description of the model developed in this
are necessary, and the model becomes computationally
study which meets these requirements, it is useful to reintractable. In the particular case of the rotary kiln, where
view the accomplishments of other investigators.
the length of the freeboard space is long relative to the
inside diameter, radiative exchanges occurring at one axial
The high freeboard temperatures of most kiln operaposition will be influenced little by conditions far uptions ensure that radiative heat transfer is significant.
stream or downstream
as a resultSurvey
of the combined effects
Therefore, a model for the radiative exchanges occurring
A. Romero Valle
Literature
of gas absorption and geometry. In such instances, it may
among the exposed wall and bed surfaces is an essential
be
computationally
inefficient
to
consider the entire encomponent of any kiln model. The freeboard region of
closure in order to calculate local radiative exchange. In
the kiln forms an enclosure filled with the emitting/
recognition of this fact, Gorog et al. [21 developed a model
absorbing mixture of gases resulting from the combusfor radiative exchange at a transverse cross-section of
tion process and, in many instances, the chemical rekiln. Rather than considering the entire kiln freeboard,
action within the bed material. In the absence of luminous
the model was extended only a short distance upstream
flames, the calculation of radiative heat transfer within

As mentioned in previous sections heat transfer mechanisms within the bed are the same as
in packed beds. This means that it is mainly given by particle to particle conduction [5].
This makes the heat transfer modeling within the particle bed relatively simple in discrete or
continuum models.

1-4

Modeling of a Rotary Kiln: Previous Approaches

There are various approaches in the literature for the simulation of a rotary kiln. However,
all of them make the distinction between 2 distinct phenomena in the kiln, the freeboard part
which consists of the combusting gases phase, and the granular bed.

Most of the approaches presented in literature deal with a CFD approach for the freeboard
and a model for the granular bed which deals with chemical reactions and heat exchange
M.

4 0 4 - - V O L U M E 20B, JUNE 1989

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

1-4 Modeling of a Rotary Kiln: Previous Approaches

[27, 5, 16, 41, 28, 29, 43, 18].

One then can divide the simulation into two different parts based on this observation:
Simulation of the Freeboard: work done by M. Pisaroni [33];
Simulation of the Granular Bed: focus of the present project.
The simulation of the granular material bed usually uses input data from the freeboard simulation in a coupled or uncoupled way, depending on the influence of exothermic or endothermic
chemical reactions in the bed and the thermal properties of the material.
There are several ways of modeling the characteristics of the granular bed. The simplest way
is to assume that the material bed is perfectly mixed and use the temperature profile of the
freeboard simulation in order to use it as input for a one dimensional simulation of chemical
reactions of the following or similar form.
dCi
= f (T, Cj ),
dz

(1-4)

where z is the axial direction of the kiln, and Ci is the concentration of the ith species. This
approach is used by Mastorakos [28] and similarly by Kntee [18]. This is equivalent to have
a 1-D model of a Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) in the solids phase.
The main advantage for this approach is that one only needs to solve a system of ordinary
differential equations with data from a freeboard model. It treats the granular bed as if it
was a packed bed reactor. This type of reactor is extensively studied in the field of chemical
engineering [11, 24, 22] and by using this approach and reaction kinetics from experimental
data one can get good qualitative results [18]. If an energy balance is included, one can couple
the energy exchange between the particle bed and the freeboard due to chemical reactions
[28].
The main disadvantage of this approach is that the particle bed is usually not very well mixed,
thus results could differ greatly from reality. This is normally the case, as this approach is
used primarily for the finding of qualitative trends on changes of parameters or feed of a
rotary kiln such as Kntee does in her paper [18]. It is interesting to note, that Kntee
uses Aspen Plus [2] to simulate the chemical reactions involved in the freeboard and particle
bed, contrary to Mastorakos [28] who couples a CFD solution for the combusting gases in the
freeboard with a bed model based in the solution of mass and energy conservation equations.
By using Aspen-plus she also assumes a PFR behavour on the freeboard.
There is not much information on coupled simulations for the granular bed of a rotary kiln.
However there are various publications that describe models for hydrodynamics and heat
transfer in the transversal plane for the kiln. Heydenrich proposes in his PhD thesis [16] some
interesting models in the transversal plane for heat and mass transfer in rotary kilns with a
rolling mode, however there is no indication that it could be useful in a practical sense as it is
not presented as a full 3-D model. Boateng presents an interesting model for the transversal
plane hydrodynamics based on kinetic theory of gases applied for dense granular flow in a two
fluid approach [5]. He makes the distinction between the plug flow layer and the active layer
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M. A. Romero Valle

Introduction

and defines a transfer coefficient between the layers. The main downside is that his model
does not work well with kilns with low loading such as the kiln in question with 5% and it is
also not proved to be extendible to 3-D.
Boateng does give a simplified kiln model in his publications by taking advantage of symmetry
assumptions. It is worth noting that the symmetry simplifications are probably not valid for
the present problem, as Pisaroni notes in his paper [33, 5].

1-5

Calcium Aluminate Cement Kiln

The rotary kiln to be modeled is not a typical Portland Cement kiln, thus it has different
chemical reactions and operating conditions to most of what is presented in literature. In
fact, it is a Calcium Aluminate Cement kiln. In the current section a small overview of its
operating conditions will be given1 .

Operational Aspects:

Rotational Speed: 1.5 - 2.0 RPM

Residence time: 1 - 1.5 hours

Kiln Load: 5%

Particle Size at the Feed: 50 microns

Particle Size at the Discharge: 5000 microns

For its operational aspects one can add that the Froude number is of the order of F r = 104 .
Then by comparing the operating conditions and Froude number with the figures presented
by Henein [14] similar to Figure 1.3, it can be inferred that the operation of the kiln lies in
a region between slumping and rolling mode. This is supported by the fact that rotary kilns
are designed to operate in rolling mode in order to maximize mixing.
1

Information given by Ir. Rudy Sadi from Almatis. URL: http://www.almatis.com/

M. A. Romero Valle

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1-6 Granular Flow Modeling

1-6

Granular Flow Modeling

As it can be observed in the previous section there are no such thing as an exact or perfect model for a lightly loaded rotary kiln such as the one described in the present project.
However, due to advancements in the study and modeling of granular flows, one can infer
that using recent approaches for granular flow can bring better results in the modeling and
simulation of the granular bed of the rotary kiln in question.
There are two typical ways of modeling granular flow [38, 35]:
Discrete Method: Euler-Lagrange approach (Coupled DEM)
Treat the material as a collection of particles. Newton0 s laws of motion are applied
to each particle.
Continuum Models: Euler-Euler approach (Two fluid modeling)
Particles are modeled as a continuous medium where all the quantities are assumed
to be smooth functions of position and time.
Both of them are valid and have advantages and disadvantages.
In the following section both approaches will be explained and referrals to its validity for
rotary drums will be given.

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10

M. A. Romero Valle

Introduction

Literature Survey

Chapter 2
Euler-Lagrange Approach: Discrete
Element Modeling

2-1

Description of the Method

With this approach each particle is simulated by applying Newton0 s laws of motion and are
followed in time [38, 37]. For particle tracking one then has the following governing equations,

dxp,i
= up,i
dt
dup,i
1 X
=
F
dt
mp

(2-1)
(2-2)

where xp,i is the position of the particle, up,i the velocity of the particle, mp the mass of the
P
particle and F the sum of forces exerted on the particle, respectively.
This set of equations is also known in the literature as the Basset-Bousinesq-Oseen equations
[9, 35] when fluid-particle interactions are taken into consideration.
The sum of forces depend on various factors such as drag, lift, gravity, buoyancy, contact,
friction and so on. Usually one can make assumptions in order to include or not certain forces
depending on the type system to be modeled.
The method consists of calculating the F forces and then solving the set of ordinary differential
equations described above. By adding other equations per particle, such as an energy and
material balance, one can have particle properties included in the ODE set and calculate for
a certain time the position, velocity, temperature and mass, concentration or diameter of the
particle [37, 35].
One of the main points to be considered is the computation of the contact forces. For granular
flows a soft sphere approach is used. This consists in letting the simulated particles overlap.
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12

Euler-Lagrange Approach: Discrete Element Modeling

This overlap can be seen as the displacement of a spring. Then one can use a relation similar
to Hooke0 s law in conjunction with a dampener model, used to model energy dissipation due
to contact, to compute the contact forces.

Figure 2-1: Spring and dampener contact force model

The soft sphere approach is also known as the spring and dampener model which can be
observer in Figure 2.1. Usually one uses a non-linear spring model. This means solving an
additional set ODE per particle as one have to have into account contact on all neighboring
particles. For this models, one needs certain physical properties of the particles such as the
restitution coefficient. We refer to Radjai0 s book [37] for more information on the modeling
of contact forces.

2-2

Applicability to Current Problem

There are various papers that deal with discrete element simulations for rotating cylinders
[23, 42, 10, 36, 39, 44]. However there is no paper which describes a full model for a rotary
kiln. All of them agree within a certain degree that a DEM (discrete element method)
approach is valid for the type of granular flow exhibited in a rotary kiln. Kwapinska [23] for
instance, validates the transversal mixing of a DEM approach with data from Van Puyvelde
[42], whose experimental results are cited for its value within the characterization of mixing of
rotating drums. Kwapiska then concludes that the DEM approach, with certain tweaks, can
be much better than the existing continuum models for rotary drums with respect to mixing
and hydrodynamics in the transversal plane [23].
In a more recent paper from Van Puyvelde [36], the author insists in using data existing in
literature [42, 14, 15] for the calibration of the DEM method with respect to this specific
problem. Refer to Radjai [37] for information on the parameters for the calibration of the
DEM for dense granular flow.
These publications indicate that a discrete approach is valid for a rotary kiln. This then bring
us to consider the size of the problem. It is well known from the literature that this kind of
model is computationally expensive for a high number of particles. Therefore, experiments
were made in order to determine whether the approach is feasible for a simulation of the
whole rotary kiln in question.
M. A. Romero Valle

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2-3 Experimental Setup and Results

2-3

13

Experimental Setup and Results

Experiments were done with an open source DEM implementation named LIGGGHTS which
stands for LAMMPS Improved for General Granular and Granular Heat Transfer Simulations which is based on LAMMPS (Large Atomic and Molecular Massively Parallel Simulator) which is an open source code by Sandia National Laboratories for solving molecular
dynamics, the main motivation for the Discrete Element Method [34, 37]. The main features
of LIGGGHTS are, wall contact laws, linear and nonlinear granular potentials (springs),
moving mesh, heat transfer for particles and that it can run in parallel [21].
A rotating cylinder model was built using the moving mesh 3-D test case from LIGGGHTS.
A Hertzian (non-linear spring) contact model with a low coefficient of restitution was chosen.
The physical properties of the particles were taken from CaO and the rest of the parameters
were left unchanged from the test case. This was done due to the fact that the experiments
were not done to recreate accurately the transversal motion, but to check for the feasibility
and computational time of the current problem due to the potential high number of particles
involved.
The goal of the experiment was that given a slice of the kiln, vary the number of particles
and record the execution time in order to subsequently extrapolate and have a prediction of
the total execution time for a complete kiln.
Experiment setup:
Cylinder: 0.10 m long with a 2.1m diameter.
Particle diameter: 2.5 mm
Experiment time: 3 s
2 RPM
Time-step: 105
Single core simulation
Periodic B.C.
The number of particles was varied from 15,000 to 180,000. For the upper limit, a 5%
loading for the cylinder was calculated by taking the packing to be 50% which is lower than
the theoretical maximum 64% [24, 38] due to the movement of particles while the kiln is
in operation. With this packing the number of particles for this particular cylinder slice is
around 180,000.
It is to be noted that there was an overhead because of the writing of data every 1000 time
steps. By using the same packing as above, one gets that for the whole 42 meter kiln there are
1.1 billion particles. Then by assuming that the CPU time grows linearly with respect to the
number of particles, one can say that 1 processor can simulate 3 seconds of experimental time
of 2,800 particles per hour. So with 1 processor the total execution time would be around
400,000 hours, which is around 35 years of CPU time.
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14

Euler-Lagrange Approach: Discrete Element Modeling

50

40

Time (hours)

30

20

10

0
Experiment
linear
10

20

40

60
80
100
120
Number of Particles (Thousands)

140

160

180

Figure 2-2: Number of Particles vs CPU Time

2-4

Discussion: Advantages and Disadvantages

As seen in the previous section, DEM simulations can turn out to be computationally expensive. They do however have the following advantages:
Simple to model and easy to understand physics
Relatively easy to implement and there are already a number of commercial and open
source implementations: Star CCM+, OpenFOAM, LIGGGHTS/LAMMPS, MFIX [8,
30, 21, 40]
All of the implementations presented above can run in parallel
The first point is proved on the previous sections. On the second point a short research on
software capabilities was done. From the options presented, all have DEM, coupled CFDDEM capabilities and can run in parallel. This desirable because one then has to care about
tweaking and not so much about coding.
For the disadvantages a list is also presented:
Very computationally expensive
Still needs some small empirical adjustments
As seen before, the experimental results are not encouraging. They show that the method is
probably unfeasible for the whole kiln by using LIGGGHTS. Also, some adjustments must
be done in order to correctly model the particulate flow in a rotating cylinder, which would
be done by comparing results from literature, as proposed by Van Puyvelde in his 2006 paper
[36].
M. A. Romero Valle

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2-4 Discussion: Advantages and Disadvantages

15

The disadvantages presented does not mean that the approach is not useful. There are a
number of ways that the DEM approach could be used for the present problem such as for
validation of rotary bed motion modes.

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16

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Euler-Lagrange Approach: Discrete Element Modeling

Literature Survey

Chapter 3
Euler-Euler Approach: Two-Fluid
Model

3-1

Description of the Method

Two-phase hydrodynamic models treat the fluid and the solids phase as two interpenetrating
continua. They also use an averaging approach where equations are derived by space, time or
ensemble averaging of the local instantaneous balances of each of the phases. They basically
use a Reynolds-Averaging Navier-Stokes approach.
These models appear due to the increase of interest for the scale up for operations involving
fluidized beds, packed beds, and so on [40, 12]. They use analogies from kinetic theory of
gases in order to model the solids phase. One of the classical text books with applications for
fluidization is written by Gidaspow [12]. The same approach could be used in order to model
the rotary kiln, thus a description of the governing equations will be done.
The following description will be based on the MFIX Theory Guide written by Syamlal which
is basically a review and a general overview of the Euler-Euler Approach [40]. The document
is usually referred in online tutorials for the understanding of the theory behind Euler-Euler
Approach. The equations presented next are the most important from the described document.
First of all, due to the averaging of variables one must assume that the point variables are
averaged over a region that is large compared with the particle spacing, but smaller than the
flow domain. One then introduces new variables, the volume fractions of the phases which
are assumed to be continuous functions of space and time:
X

= 1,

(3-1)

where P is the set of phase indices. For simplicity only two phases will be considered, a solids
phase s and a gas phase g. One then has:
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18

Euler-Euler Approach: Two-Fluid Model

g + s = 1.

(3-2)

Then by considering the conservation of mass in the gas and solids phase:

(g g ) + (g g
vg ) = Rg ,
t

(s s ) + (s s
vs ) = Rs ,
t

(3-3)
(3-4)

where the denotes the bulk density of the phases,

v the phase velocity vector, and R
the rate of production of the phase (or mass transfer between the phases). These are the
continuity equations for the gas and the solids. One needs an additional equation of state for
the gas. This could be the ideal gas law or any other equation of state for real gases.
For the conservation of momentum one gets the following:

(g g
vg ) + (g g
vg
vg ) = Sg + g g
g I g,
t

(s s
vs ) + (s s
vs
vs ) = Ss + s s
g + I g.
t

(3-5)
(3-6)

It can be observed that the balance of momentum presented above is exactly the same as the
one presented in literature for basic fluid dynamics [3]. The first term in the left hand side
is the rate of increase of momentum per unit volume, the second is the rate of momentum

addition by convection per unit volume where

vs
vs denotes the dyadic product of two vectors.
On the right hand side the first term is the rate of momentum by molecular transport per
The second and third term are the external forces
unit volume given by the stress tensor S.

on fluid, where the gravity vector can be observed given by

g and the by the interaction

forces (momentum exchange) between phases given by I .

The interaction forces between phases can be modeled in the same way as in the EulerLagrange approach using drag, buoyancy and mass transfer:

I g = s Pg Fg (~vs ~vg ) + R0~v ,

(3-7)

where R0~v is the momentum transfer due to mass transfer, Pg is the pressure gradient of
the gases and Fg describes the drag forces caused by the gas. Numerous expressions exist for
these interaction terms, these can be seen in the document by Syamlal and the book from
Gidespow [40, 12].
It can be noted that the stress tensors for the momentum equations are missing for both
phases. For the gas phase the stress tensor takes the form of a Newtonian Fluid, which one
can find in any fluid mechanics and transport phenomena book [3]. However for the solids
stress one needs an analogy to adopt theories for the description of granular flows. Granular
flows can show characteristics from both solids and liquids, thus it has been proposed that
most of its dynamic behavior has analogs in other systems [17, 38].
M. A. Romero Valle

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3-2 Applicability to Current Problem

19

Granular flows can be classified in two regimes, a plastic flow which is slowly shearing and a
viscous flow which is rapidly shearing. This brings two different approaches to describe the
solid stresses. For the plastic flow, an empirical power law from soil mechanics is usually in
place. For the viscous flow, an analogy with the kinetic theory of gases is used, where there
is momentum transfer due to the kinetic energy in that comes from particle collisions. In
this case the stress tensor would be dependent on a granular temperature, which comes from
an additional PDE, and a bulk viscosity term which in the present case would be based on
the one presented by Lun et al. for dense granular flow. For the details on the solids phase
stress tensor we refer to the publications from Gidaspow, Syamlal and Lun [40, 12, 26]. For
an introduction to the concept of granular temperature we refer to the paper from Goldhirsch
[13].

3-2

Applicability to Current Problem

For the applicability of a two fluid approach on rotary kilns, one can consult the publications
from Boateng [5, 4]. He develops a model for the transversal plane of a kiln taking as a base
the same governing equations as above. The model only solves for the active layer as the
passive layer is assumed to be non-shearing. He achieves success using his model for kiln
loads higher than 10%. For kilns that are not as loaded, there is some discrepancy from
experimental data.
From recent advancements in code and correlations for Euler-Euler multiphase modeling of
granular flow one can assume that they could be valid for the transversal plane of a rotary
kiln. This can be done by adopting models which are valid for slowly and rapidly shearing
granular flow or by switching to stress tensor correlations depending on the packing of the
solids phase [5, 40]. This makes a rotary kiln model possible as the plug flow layer is slowly
shearing and the active layer is rapidly shearing. However, as Lun [26] notes for Euler-Euler
modeling of granular flow, one usually needs empirical adjustments depending on the case to
be modeled.

3-3

Experimental Setup and Results

A short experiment was done in order to try to build a rotating drum Euler-Euler model in
OpenFOAM [30] to check feasibility. Tutorials on two phase euler simulations for fluidized
beds were followed with changes being done to adapt it to a rotary drum simulation. A
summary of the parameters of the simuation is done next:
A kinetic theory description with correlations from Lun (1984) [30, 26] for dense granular
materials was used
Material properties from CaO were used
Most of the empirical values were defined for a fluidized bed (following the tutorial)
A normal velocity with respect to the cylinder wall was defined as a boundary condition
for the granular phase (depending on the revolutions per minute of the kiln)
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20

Euler-Euler Approach: Two-Fluid Model

A non-uniform grid was used using BlockMesh from OpenFOAM

Figure 3-1: Solids phase glyph plot of the lower part of the cylinder

As it can be observed from the figure, the flow field calculated by the model does not describe
correctly the granular flow described by Boateng [5]. There is a hint that the inconsistencies
are due to inherent problems in two phase Euler modeling in OpenFOAM which are being
addressed by Passalacqua in his paper from 2010 [31]. He states that there is a stability
problem with simulations with packings near the limit (as it is the case in the passive layer
of a rotary kiln). This was confirmed by the experiments which were done above and by a
user forum discussion in CFD Online about OpenFOAM and high packing two phase Euler
modeling. This draws the conclusion that a model on OpenFOAM is not possible at the
moment until the problem is addressed by developers or academia. However, multiphase
Euler models are readily available in Fluent, StarCCM+ and MFIX which are arguably mature
enough to handle the current problem 1 .

3-4

Discussion: Advantages and Disadvantages

As with the DEM approach, a Two-Fluid model pose a number of advantages. The following
summary can be done:
Less computational cost than the DEM approach [35]
Chemical reactions easy to include
There are existing commercial and open source eulerian solvers such as: Star CCM+,
OpenFOAM, Fluent, MFIX [1, 8, 30, 40]
For the first point one must note that solving a problem using a RANS code is equivalent
to solving a system of coupled PDEs with the finite volume method. The speed depends on
the spatial discretization, more specifically the number of cells. It must be noted that the
number of cells will be far less than the number of particles. As for the chemical reactions,
because of the nature of the finite volume approach, this is equivalent to a number of CSTRs
(Continuos Stirred-Tank Reactors) in series and parallel, which in turn is equivalent to a
PFR/PBR (Plug Flow Reactor/Packed Bed Reactor) [11, 24]. This makes the inclusion of
chemical reactions easy if experimental data is in hand.
As for the disadvantages:
1

CFD Online discussion forums. URL: http://www.cfd-online.com/

M. A. Romero Valle

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3-4 Discussion: Advantages and Disadvantages

21

Much more complicated to understand and to tweak

No reported use for a 3-D model of a rotary drum
The first point can be made obvious by the length to the introduction of the theory of an
Euler-Euler approach. As for the tweaking, this is usually discussed while presenting or
explaining the approach [35, 40, 14, 26]. Most of the authors coincide that it requires some
tweaking based on experience and experimental observations. As for the second point, it is
the case that there is no indication of a 3-D model. This makes uncertain a full simulation
of a rotary drum. However, this does not mean that the approach cannot be used.

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22

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Euler-Euler Approach: Two-Fluid Model

Literature Survey

Chapter 4
Summary: Euler-Lagrange and
Euler-Euler

4-1

Comparison

In the previous chapters two approaches for the modeling of granular flow were presented.
Both have some similarities and differences, as well as advantages and disadvantages.
Concerning similarities, the easiest to appreciate is given by the phase interactions. In the
Euler-Lagrange approach one can observe in Equation (2-2) that the sum of forces exerted
on the particle are given by drag, lift, gravity and buoyancy correlations. On the other hand,
by carefully examining Equations (3-5) and (3-6) one can see that there is also an interaction
term given by the momentum transfer between phases. The interesting observation is that
this interaction term is given by the same correlations for drag, lift, gravity and buoyancy
forces that are used in the Euler-Lagrange approach [35, 9].
Other similarities reside in the fact that both approaches can be used either for dispersed
multiphase flow and dense granular flow [35, 9, 38].
For the differences, the most obvious is the fact that the Euler-Lagrange approach involves the
modeling of every particle and the Euler-Euler approach involves the modeling of volumes of a
number of particles. These differences can be broken down into advantages and disadvantages.
In Table 4.1 a summary of both approaches is presented.
It can be observed that that while both have its own advantages and disadvantages there is
no clear indication which method is better for the numerical modeling of a rotary kiln. This
is due to the particularity of the system to be modeled.
From an Euler-Lagrange perspective, the fact that the kiln has around 1 - 3 billion particles
highlights the fact that DEM simulations can turn out to be computationally expensive.
However, as it is proven to work for granular flows in rotating cylinders, we expect it to work
for rotary kilns as well.
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24

Summary: Euler-Lagrange and Euler-Euler

Euler - Lagrange

Euler - Euler

Advantages
Relatively easy to set up, it
is proven to work for rotating
cylinders
As it is a RANS code, it can
run as fast as any multiphase
CFD code, chemical reactions
are easily incorporated

Disadvantages
Can turn out computationally
expensive
Complicated to set up and
tweak

Table 4-1: Summary of advantages and disadvantages for the discussed modeling approaches to
granular flows

For an Euler-Euler model one has other challenges. The fact that such a model has never
been done for a rotary kiln, and the complications one gets to set up such model is a huge
detractor for the selection of a Two Fluid approach. However, because of the size of the
problem, it is not only desirable but also convenient to have a relatively unexpensive model
for the understanding of the consequences of physical parameter changes.

4-2

Heat Transfer and Chemical Reactions

Modeling approaches for granular flow dynamics were presented in the previous sections.
However the inclusion of heat transfer and chemical reactions was not discussed.
For the a discrete model, heat transfer within the bed is trivial by adding one equation per
particle [9, 35] coming from an energy balance and depending on material physical properties.
The only difficulty is the addition of a radiative heat transfer term which has to be investigated
from literature and implemented. As for chemical reactions, there is no clear indication of
how to implement solid-solid reactions with particle growth due to sintering.
For the continuum model, the addition of heat transfer within the bed is also trivial as it
follows the same mechanisms as in a packed be d[5]. The physical property correlations for
packed beds are easily found in literature on packed bed reactors [24]. As for the radiative
heat transfer from the freeboard, the same models used by Pisaroni [33] can be used. For
chemical reactions, due to its finite volume method of solution, an Euler-Euler approach
models CSTRs (Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactors) in series. Thus chemical reactions are
naturally integrated if there is experimental data or reaction kinetics from literature.

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Chapter 5
Open Questions and Conclusions

There are still some open questions regarding the applicability and set-up of both models
with respect to the rotary kiln. These can be divided in questions for both approaches and
questions with respect to each approach.
Questions particular to the DEM approach will be presented:
Correct tweaking of the model parameters,
Implementation of solid-solid chemical reactions (sintering).
For the first bullet one can take experimental data from Henein [14] and try to reproduce
it. However it is not clear exactly what parameters to adjust in order to have a more exact
solution. Secondly, solid-solid reactions are not commonly treated with a DEM approach. As
in a rotary kiln material is transformed by a sintering process, the particles should grow and
adhere [19]. While the growth of particles with respect to time has been implemented in the
DEM [21], it is not clear how to relate it to actual reaction kinetics or experimental data for
the rotary kiln in question.
For the Two Fluid approach one has the following open questions:
Correct stress tensor correlation and tweaking,
Good boundary and initial conditions.
For the first point one must observe that there are hints of what correlations to use in the
work by Boateng. However one of the biggest parameters is the packing limit, as it will
define the depth of the active phase, thus the correct granular flow pattern depends greatly
on it. For a 3-D model the initial and boundary conditions will be similar as in a 3-D pipe.
A prescribed pressure at the inlet and a pressure gradient equal to zero at the outlet. A
prescribed velocity field in the axial direction calculated by the correlation given by Equation
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26

Open Questions and Conclusions

(2) and the residence time of the kiln. For the axial direction of the walls one has a Johnson
and Jackson [25] no slip condition for granular flow. For the rotating walls in the transversal
plane, one has two ways of modeling the rotating behaviour of the kiln: with a prescribed
normal velocity at the wall in the transversal direction and with a moving mesh condition.
This will depend heavily on the software to be used.
The open questions for both approaches are:
Mass and Energy balances of the actual process
Reaction kinetics from experimental data or literature
The reason for information in the first bullet is to use it as validation of the model. This
information is to be either collected from the literature, from a cement producing plant similar
to the one in question or from the actual rotary kiln [33]. As for the reaction kinetics, there
are some reported reaction kinetics in the literature, but first a reasonable material balance
is needed. They can also come from experimental data from a laboratory as one can adjust
the data to an Arrhenius type equation or other existing models in literature [11].

5-1

Conclusions

As presented in the first sections, the key to the prediction of granular material properties is
the correct modeling of the granular flow behavior. This is because the material properties
at the exit of the actual kiln are highly inhomogeneous 1 .
However, one should not discard the possibility of using a 1-D PFR model for the granular bed
by using the physical property correlations presented by Boateng or in literature for packed
beds. It could turn out to be sufficiently accurate in order to make design and operation
decisions for the kiln as it can be seen in previous approaches for Portland Cement Kilns.
This then brings the question: Is a model which takes into account the granular flow of
the material in the kiln needed or is a simplified model sufficient for the case of a Calcium
Aluminate Cement kiln?

Information given by Ir. Rudy Sadi from Almatis. URL: http://www.almatis.com/

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Further Work: Project Goals

Until recently there was practically no information of the chemical reactions that take place
in the kiln in question. As of the time this chapter was written, there is recent non-isothermal
experimental data from Almatis1 available which can be used to propose a reaction kinetic
model. This then opens the possibility of proposing and setting up a simplified model similar
to the ones presented earlier for Portland Cement Kilns with chemical reactions.
If the simplified model can predict the quality of the product along the axis of the kiln good
enough, it would be of great use to analyze the changes of the product when variables such
as the flame configuration are modified.
Then it is natural to state that the project goal is to develop a simplified kiln model and a
much more complete model involving granular flow. This in order to compare both models
and judge whether a simplified model is enough or a more involved model is needed.
Then the following goals and intermediate goals are proposed.
Short Term Goals
Migration of a DEM rotary kiln model to a parallel architecture
As it can be observed from the experiments done, it is probable that LIGGGHTS is not the
most adequate DEM implementation for the present case. There are better reported results
on granular flow modeling with a DEM approach by using Star CCM+ which also includes
a coupled motion-heat transfer model2 . Thus it seems natural to to develop a model in the
mentioned software and migrating it to a parallel architecture.
This would aid the development of a granular flow model for the kiln including heat transfer,
which then would account for the complexities of the flow and inhomogeneities of the present
kiln.
1
2

Information given by Ir. Rudy Sadi from Almatis. URL: http://www.almatis.com/

Information from the CD-Adapco Users Meeting 2012

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Further Work: Project Goals

Development of reaction kinetics model based on experimental data

As some experimental data of mass fraction versus temperature is available, one can develop
a reaction kinetics model by taking Arrhenius type equations for solid reactions and making
a mass and energy balance for the experiment taking into account the operating conditions.
There is already a hint on the reaction mechanisms by looking at the experimental data.
The main factor is to get the correct operating conditions and set up of the experiment in
order to have the material and energy balances. The rest is selecting a viable solid kinetics
model as the ones presented in the review paper from 2006 from Khawam [20] and optimizing
parameters for the best fit with the data in hand. The main sources for more information
and hints for the proposal of reaction mechanisms are professors and colleagues involved with
chemical reaction engineering, as they are acquainted with the development of kinetic models
from experimental data for the design of chemical reactors.
Long Term Goals
Development of a 1-D PFR type model for the granular bed
A one dimensional PFR model for the granular bed means supposing that the granular material is perfectly mixed, taking as input the a 1-D temperature profile calculated previously
by Pisaroni [33] and then by using the reaction kinetics developed in the short term goals for
calculating the concentration profiles along the axis of the rotary kiln.
One can make this model a bit more complex by incorporating ideas from previous approaches
for Portland Cement Kiln modeling, such as calculating a 1-D temperature profile of the
material based on the residence time and the previously calculated freeboard temperature
profile. This also can be seen as a heat exchanger approach for the calculation of a 1-D
temperature profile of the material.
Development a granular flow model for the material bed
For the development of a model that takes into account the granular flow one has to use either
of the approaches earlier discussed in the present document.
Using DEM simulations from Star CCM+ seem to be the next step to go. If it is proven
to be feasible, then there should not be much problems to set up a kiln model taking into
consideration heat transfer to and within the granular bed. Furthermore, details for the
implementation the chemical reactions should be investigated and implemented.
As for an Eulerian model, apparently ANSYS Fluent seems to be the best software option as
it has implemented a granular Eulerian flow model including Johnson and Jackson boundary
conditions for granular flow and solid stress correlations specific to dense granular flow3 .
However one still must do tweaking and validation with experimental data available.
One can conclude that as for the time being, a granular flow model using a discrete approach
for the material bed of the kiln seems closer than an Eulerian model. This is due to the fact
3

2012 ANSYS Fluent User Guide

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that there are already some working heat transfer models available and that the Eulerian
model arguably poses a greater challenge as for tweaking and setup.
General Goal
By developing a simplified model and a more complex granular flow model for a kiln, one
can compare results and judge whether a full granular flow model is needed for the particular
case of the discussed kiln. At the same time, this would bring insight to the granular material
properties inside the kiln and by consequence it could be used as an aid to the design and
operation of Calcium Aluminate Cement kilns producing the same type of clinker as the one
in question.

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Further Work: Project Goals

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