Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research

Vol. 22, December 1997, pp. 274-291

Ballistic protective clothing: An overview

Pushpa 8ajaj & Sri ram
Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110016, India

Various materials have been employed in the past for the protection against the ballistics with only
limited satisfaction without realizing the underlying mechanism of ballistic impact. With the advent of
high performance materials and computing techniques in the recent years, the mechanism of ballistic
penetration has clearly been established, paving a path for the selection of newer materials for better
protection and satisfying the requirements of both the wearer and the technologist. This review attempts
to coalesce the ideas of exuberant research that has gone into the field of ballistic protection right from
material selection to modelling with emphasis on evaluation methods and mechanism.

Keywords: Armour, Ballistics, Ceramics, Kevlar, Penetration mechanism, Projectile velocity, Soft
composites, Spider silk, Ultra-high modulus polyethylene fibre

1 Introduction
Ballistic protection is a class of protective
clothing which aims at protecting the individuals
from the bullets and steel fragments from handheld weapons and exploding munitions. The use of
armour to protect the personnel has a long history
and dates back to time immemorial. As the man
developed newer weapons with time, he also
looked for better clothing for protection. The list of
armour materials has included every conceivable
material '5 including the traditional materials like
aluminium, steel and less traditional ones like
leather and silk. The best known method of
protecting the human body in old days from all
kinds of missiles, was to use a hard rigid material
which resisted the penetration and dissipated the
load of impact6 " With the advent of synthetic
textiles, better ballistic protective systems have
been developed. Although the basic idea of
spreading the load over a large area is still applied,
it is better to dissipate the energy of impact by
deformation and breaking the protective material.
Nylon, which has high work of rupture
(toughness), was thought to be ideal for ballistic
protection. However, it became very clear that
simple toughness is not the only criterion for
ballistic protection. Then came the use of aramids
due to the fact that ballistic protection process is a
complex phenomenon involving the transverse

velocity propagation, tensile properties .and the

fine structure. In the recent years, ultra-high
modulus polyethylene (UHMPE) fibres -produced
by gel spinning witnessed increased application in
the ballistic protection systems l2 . 15 due to a host of
properties which make these fibres highly suitable
for ballistic protection.
With the current trend towards eco-friendly and
natural products for various applications, spider
silk is gaining importance in ballistic protection.
The spider silk is obtained from a spider, 'Black
Vido', found exclusively in South America with
some exceptional properties like elongation at
break up to 270% and strength higher than Kevlar
fibre.
In this review, a brief account of various fibres
used for the designing of ballistic protective
clothing has been gIven. The penetration
mechanism and the modelling of ballistic
protection has also been discussed.

2 Ballistic Requirements
The basic objective of the body armour research
is to manage the conflicting goals of producing loweost, light-weight yet comfortable ballistic
protection systems with superior performance.
No armour design is suitable for all the situations8
and the armour system produced for a specific
application should be able to fit in both user's and

275

BAJAl & SRIRAM : BALLISTIC PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

).

technologist's points of view. For users, the comfOit,

degree of mobility and maximum protection against

generalizations can be made regarding the ballistic

efficiency of the system6 7.

injury/trauma are important, while for technologists,

the level of protection required, time span for which 3.1 Fibre Selection
the protection is required, and energy absorption
The bullet-resistant clothing has to stop the bullet
characteristics of the material are important.
from penetrating and absorb its kinetic energy
.In normal warfare, one tries to ensure minimum converting it into work of deformation. Therefore,
weight of the protective garment with maximum the primary factors which influence the performance
personal mobility and maXImum protection. of bulletproof or protective material are strength,
Therefore, in designing the protective garment modulus and elongation at break, deformability of
normally the legs and arms are left exposed, as the projectile and the velocity of transverse shock
injury on these parts is least likely to cause death wave in the fibre. Some of the important properties
and the vital organs like heart, liver, etc. are of various fibres considered for armour applications
covered. This provides additional advantage of are given in Table 1.
mobility. Since these garments are worn for greater
duration, comfort along with protection are given
greater importance. On the contrary, for more 3.1.1 Nylon 66
Nylon fibres were the material of choice for most
hazardous jobs like bomb disposal, heavy weight
of
the
ballistic applications in the early days. During
garment is employed covering the whole body.
Here, the overall protection, not the comfort and the second world war, American Anny produced
'flak jackets' using steel plates with nylon 66
mobility, is important.
backing 8. Nylon usually absorbs twice the amount of
Energy absorption characteristics of the body
energy as p-aramids (Fig. 1).
armour l&-18 are very important. According to Capilli
In p-aramids, the transverse wave velocity is
and RothulzenlI, five types of eriergy absorption
almost 3-4 times higher to that in nylon. Hence,
occur to fulfil the basic function of personnel body
stress propagation is more efficient with aramids
armour. These include:
which is clear from Fig. 2. Here, the elongation of
Kinetic energy of the out-of-the plane fabric
the yam around the point of impado was measured
movement (the pyramid).
approximately 10 I.lS after the shot was fired at a .
Strain energy accumulated in the yams of the
speed of 400 rnIs. It is evident that the strain in ppyramid.
aramid fibre fabric is spread over a much larger area
Kinetic energy of the fabric moving towards the
and the elongation is much lower. Moreover, nylon
point of initial impact, in the original fabric
creeps under such high strain rates at which the
plane between the pyramid and the longitudinal
wave form.
Strain energy accumulated in the original fabric
plane between the pyramid and the longitudinal
20
wave form.
Energy dissipated as heat by friction (fibre/fibre -;; 16
& fibre/projectile).
z
More details regarding energy absorption ~on 12
on
characteristics will be dealt later.
~

..

v;

3 Material Selection
No armour design is suitable for all the situations
and the performance of the protective system
depends on the interaction of its various
components. Hence, it is important to understand the
mechanism of the ballistic protection by which

10

15

Strain (01.)

Fig. I-Stress-strain curves of nylon and p-aramid 10

20

INDIAN 1. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 1997

276

22
0,

VI

:l.

.
!:!
~

'\
10

-.
co 0

..
..

i ~ __ _

Kevlar

18

c .c
o ,.,
~

20

'\ -P OLYAMIOE66

0-

",0

Entry holt

'- - -- --t~

16
Distancfl

- , ~ARAMID

,
"2

,
4

Distance from entr y ha l. (e m)

Fig. 2-Ballistic comparison between nylon 66 and aramid

fibre fabrics 22

ballistics operate and sometimes melting and fusion

at the interlacement points has also been noted IS.

14

a.

01

III
III
c:.I

12

.... 10
~

If)

8
6
4

3.1.2 Aramids

Since its inception in 1972, Kevlar readily

replaced the nylon in the ballistic protective
garments due to its good dynamic energy absorption
characteristics, high specific strength and modulus,
and excellent thermal properties.
High Tg and thermal stability ensure integrity of
the ballistic structure at relatively high temperature
in the event of ballistic impact. Its highly crystalline
and oriented structure gives rise to high dynamic
modulus which enhances the rate of wave
propagation to 7700 ms l , which is 3-4 times higher
than that for nylon '9 , and rapid response to
longitudinal deformation . This high wave speed
along with specific modulus is instrumental for its
a':>ility to involve large volume of material which is
a critical factor in ballistic protection. Moreover,
high tenacity and moderate elongation of Kevlar
aramid fibres provide high toughness and results in
fairly effective absorption of longitudinal strain
energy and transverse kinetic energy of the ballistic
impact.
Kevlar has a tenacity of 18-26 gpd (Table 1 &
Fig. 3), twic~ that of nylon or glass fibres 20, with an
elongation of only 1.5-4.4% and initial modulus of
430-1100 gpd. Its specific modulus lie in between
those of fibre glass, boron and carbon fibres.
Kevlar fibres support large fraction of their
breaking load for longer time than nylon or
polyethylene (PE). Using a safety factor of 2-3,
Kevlar provides a service life of > 100 years, nylon

Strain ( 0'0)
Fig. 3-Stress-strain behaviour of various high perfonnance
fibres and steel wire 20

3-4 years, while PE insignificant at 0.5 fraction of

normal breaking load (Fig. 4). Hence, Kevlar
outperforms most of the materials.
Kevlar creeps little at low loads due to high
crystallinity and orientation, but creeps under
relatively high stresses. Creep rate is almost uniform
and the amount of creep strain increases linearly
with log (time) to break.
Kevlar has relatively low compressional
properties. When subjected to axial compression or
severe bending, it will undergo plastic deformation
in the form of bands at 55-60 0 to the fibre axis
called as "KINK BANDS" which is due to its
structural anisotropy. The axial compressive
strength of Kevlar fibre is about 115 of the tensile
strength, while compressive strain at the fibre yield
point is 0.5% compared to 2.5% at the tensile break.
Properties of the various commercially available
aramid fibres are given in Table 1.
3.1.3 Ultra-High Modulus Polyethylene (UHMPE)

The commercial success of these fibres is due to

their outstanding mechanical properties, their
unmatched damage tolerance, fatigue resistance and
their ability to fail in shear or compression without

277

BAJAJ & SRIRAM: BALLISTIC PROTECTIV E CLOTHING

Table I---Propcrties of hi gh perfonnance fibres 20

Fibre type

Density
gcm-J

Strength
gpd (G Pa)

Elongation
%

Modulus"
gpd (G Pa)

Maximum use
temp.
C

Wave ve locitl
ms-I

Aramids
Kev lar 29
Kevl ar 49
Kev lar 11 9
Kevl ar 129
Kevlar 149
Nomex
Technora
Ekonol
Vectran

IA3
I A5
1.44
IA5
IA7
138
1.39
IA
1.47

23 (2.9)
23 (2.9)
24 (3. 1)
26.5 (3.4)
18 (2.3)
5 (0.6)
27 (3.3)
31 (3.8)
25 (3 .2)

3.6
2.8

550 (70)
950( 135)
430 (55)
780 (99)
1100 ( 143)
140 ( 17)
570 (70)
1100 ( 136)
700 (9 1)

250
250
250
250
250
250
250
150
150

6996
9649
6 180
8263
9863
3509
7096
9856
7868

UHMPE
Spectra 900
Spectra 1000

0.97
0.97

30 (2 .6)
35 (3 .0)

1400 ( 120)
2000 ( 171 )

100
100

11123
13277

1940 (308)

500

13081

4A
3.3
1.5
22
4.3
2.6

3.5
2.7

Carbon fibres
Thomel
P55 (Med M)
Thomel
'PIOO (HM)
Celion
3000 (HS)

1.8

10.8 (1.7)

1.96

10.8 ( 1.86)

0.38

3300 (5 17)

600

16241

1. 8

25 (4.0)

1.8

1440 (230)

500

11 304

Ceramics
Boron
SiC
Alumina
Nextcl
E-glass
S-glass

2.5
2.8
3.25
2.5
2.55

11 .6 (2.55)
16(4.0)
6.3 ( 1.8)
7.8 (1.72)
11 .6 (2.6)
21.9 (4.8)

1.0
0.6
1. 2
2
3
5.3

1800 (400)
1700 (420)
730 (2 10)
690(152)
320 (72)
390 (85)

2000
1300
1200
1200
350
300

12649
12247
8038
7797
5313
5854

2A8

'Mod ulus (GPa}=(gpd xdensity)/ 11 .33; and bWave velocity =

modulus
density

20r-------------------------~

16
~

1/1

~Kevlar

.
0

C\I

.D
0

....

...

WE

12
100 year

1 year

.!Io

01
0

-J

o <----I---'__..&..---'----'__-'----'----'__..&....::::.
o
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fraction of normal breaking load

Fig. 4--Tensile behaviour of various fibres under fixed load

with time 20

losing great amount of tensile strength. On the

weight basis, they are the strongest and almost the
stiffest commercially available materials offering
the highest percentage of absorbed energy versus
total impact energyl3.
One of the most interesting features of UHMPE
is the large modulus increase with increasing rate of
deformation, particularly at elevated temperature 2 1
About 40% increase in tensile strength involving
ballistic impact with deformation rates exceeding
103 min-I (from 4 GPa at room temperature to 5.6
GPa) is because of the unique morphological
structure of UIiMPE. In addition, due to its low
density (0.97 for Dyneema and Spectra compared to
1.45 for Kevlar) the velocity of longitudinal stress
wave is very high, reaching a value almost equal to
that of diamond l 2 . All the ~bove factors make the

278

INDIAN J FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 1997

UHMPE the most sought material for ballistic

protection.
Fig. 5 shows interesting relationship between the
energy absorption and diameter of the projectile. It
can be readily seen that at smaller diameter of
projectile, aramid structures are advantageous due to
high coefficient of friction . In all the other
conditions, Spectra (UHMPE) outperforms Kevlar.
Despite all the advantages of UHMPE like
specific stTength, light and chemical resistance, low
specific weight and good dynamic properties,
negligible moisture sensitivityl4, it is the creep, low
temperature resistance, adhesion and compression
properties that limits its application. Various
UHMPE fibres are commercially availab le under the
trade names like Dynecma SK 60 from DSM and
Spectra from Allied Signals.

as metals (Table 2) they are still suitable for ballistic

applications, primarily due to high compressiv~
strength and hardness . Since the dynamic stress
limits of ceramics are higherl , sharp point of the
projectile is quickly eroded, leaving less effective
blunt cylinder having lower mass. This would
greatly reduce the energy of impact, further
enhancing the effectiveness of ceramics. However,

3. 1.4 Carbon Fibres

HEL: Hugoniot Elastic Limits

Table 2- Density and HEL of common ceramics 2

Material

Alp)
Alp)
B,C
Glass
BeO
MgO

Density
g/cm)

HEL
GPa

39[
3.92
2.50
2.48
2.84
3.57

I 1.2
9.2
15 .0
7.3
85
8.9

Carbon fibres have very high modulus and tensile

10
strength. Fig. 6 shows that energy absorption rate
\
\
V=1. 00 ms'
increases steadily with the modulus, but flattens out
8
\
"'
~
as the fibre modulus exceed 500 gpd, signifying that
\
C
0
6
while high modulus is needed to achieve high rate of
:J
\\,
r a te
1:' '~"
wave propagation, but is accomplished only at the
u
4
..=, 0
cost of elongation at break. Thus, increasing the
.'"
:::: 0:
wo"'
o fibre modulus would generally increase the fibre
eD
brittleness and ultimately would reduce its ability
0
for strain energy absorption.
200
300
400
500
600
100
0
F,bre m odulus ( g /de n)
Carbon fibres being high-modulus and hightenacity fibres and having very low strain-to-failure
Fi g. ~Effect of carbon fibre mudulus on ballistic response
would shear readily under compression (Fig. 7) as [Unit s (Y ax is), 10 = 0 .03 g pd fo r strain energy and 900 g pd
reported by Tanner22. These factors make carbon for energy absorption rate 2 1]
fibres unsuitable for ballistic applications.
U\

Q.

U\

---

VI

~orpt, on

."
~

/-----__ " '_o:~::::" ,,"'"'

U\ -

3.1.5 Ceramics

"

'" 20
:::
z

Though ceramics have very high density values

Cor bon

II : : r----1---/-/-"_-,~-~-~ -:-u-.~-,--"'O: I
~- ~~

040

c{

0.20

U/, -'---

0___ -_-----/

~ Kev lor

----_---

p-Arom id

U\
U\

~ 10
<f1

0.3

0 .2

0 1

p-Aromid

0 10

Carbon

0.20

O L----------------~

Fig . 5- Encrgy absorption characteri stics of Kcvlar and

Spectra "

Fig. 7-Tensile and compressive behaviour of p-aramid and

carbon fibres with tension in NE quadrant and compression in
SW quadrant 22

BAJAJ & SRI RAM: BALLISTIC PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

279

inherent brittleness and lack of flexural strength of ballistic response of fabric s appears to be closely
ceramics renders them incapable of being used related to the ballistic response of the single yams.
alone as single material for the fabrication of the
In woven fabric s, since there is an extensive
armour.
interaction among the yams due to interlacements, it
was found that transverse deflection causes loading
of the crossover yams and up to 50% of the total
3.2 Influence of Yarn Structure on Ballistic Protection
energy
absorption may occur in the secondary yams.
Friction plays an important role in the ballistic
Therefore,
fabric construction particulars have a
protection, which, in tum, depends on the method of
yam production. Many of the fibres commonly used major role in the final ballistic protection 16.26. For
for ballistic protection are highly drawn, hence the instance, if the weave is too tight or the fabric is too
fibre surface is smooth which means that in the stiff, deflection will be restricted, causing shear
event of an impact by any object there is a tendency failure due to the concentration of stress at the
for the yams to slip apart simply because of their impact point. Whereas too loose a weave or a soft
low coefficient of friction, e.g. UHMPE is highly fabric having low yam-to-yam friction would allow
drawn up to draw ratios of 20-30 with very low the projectile to penetrate easily by pushing the
coefficient of friction. Therefore, efforts have been yams aside or giving too much deflection which can
put to roughen the fibre surface by chemical or cause serious injuries or trauma to the wearer.
Therefore, it is the balanced force distribution
mechanical means to overcome this problem.
with
maximum interlacements in a given unit area
Coating the surface of fibre is another slow and
which
makes plain weave construction most suitable
painstaking method. However, current practice is to
3
use corona treatmenf /plasma etching for surface for the ballistic protection. Various other weaves
like basket, satin, crowfeet, etc., though inferior to
treatment.
plain
weave, are employed depending on specific
Such high friction fibres comprise a minimum in
the total structure and should only be 10-20% by application.
weight. H6genboom 24 proposed that filaments with
high coefficient of friction should be combined with
fibres having high tensile strength and modulus and
low coefficient of friction. The two types of fibres
may even be twisted or core spun together as a yam.
It is also suggested that very thick high performance
components may be combined with very thin high
friction elements, leading to improvement in the
performance.
For polyethylene ballistic-resistant fabric, Harpell
et al. 15 suggested that the yam with a denier of not
more than 500 and a tensile modulus of atleast 200
gpd can be used.
It was also observed that the fabrics made from
fine aramid yams9 of 220-440 dtex perform better
than those made from the coarser yams. But due to
high costs of the finer yams, usually 1,100 dtex is
used.
Weinberg and Schwartz25 reported that a twist
level above 1 turn/cm for Kevlar yams lowers the
modulus and strength. A twist factor of 1.1 is found
to be suitable for Kevlar yams 20 .
3.3 Fabric Design for Ballistic Protection

Cunnifr 6 found that, to a large extent, the

Table 3 shows various weaves and construction

particulars with Kevlar fibres employed for ballistic
protection. A plain weave of 1,100 dtex aramid
filament yam with 31 x 31 threadslinch and 280
g/m 2 fabric weight is regarded as the standard
material. Generally, warp with lower modulus and
higher extension than weft with fabric having same
stiffness in both warp and weft directions is
preferred 24 .
Xu and Weitsman 27 studied the compressive
response of unidirectionally reinforced hexagonal
arrays of graphitelPEEK composites by finite
element analysis. Unlike the other models which
assume layered geometries, the results of this study
show the three-dimensional features of stress and
displacement fields and exhibit the presence of
significant stress concentrations in these hexagonal
fibrous array.
Knitting though offers considerable advantage in
terms of cost and in the production of final design of
contoured armour8 , it has never proved to be
successful in the armour field due to the degree of
interlocking of the yams that occur in the knitting
process.

INDIAN 1. FIBRE TEXT. RES ., DECEMB ER 1997

280

Table 3--Balli stic fabrics of Kevlar 29 and Kevlar 129 aramid 20

Kevlar
29
29
29
49
29
29
29
29
29
129
129

Yam size
Denier

Decitex

1000
1500
1500
1420
1500
1500
3000
3000
3000
840
840

1110
1670
1670
1580
1670
1670
3330
3330
3330
935
935

Weave

Ends/cmx Picks/em

Wt of fabric
g/m2

Plain
Plain
Plain
Plain
2x2 basket
8x8 basket
Plain
4x4 basket
4x4 basket
Plain
Plain

12.2x I2.2
9.4x9.4
6.7x6.7
6.7x6.7
13 .8x 13.4
18.9x 18.9
6.7x6.7
7.9x7.9
9.4x9.4
12.2x 12.2
12.2x I2 .2

282
326
231
231
475
669
475
550
672
231
231

Needle-punched nonwovens are useful in the finishes to the ballistic protective garment which
ballistic applications. For ideal ballistic protection, would increase the cohesion between the warp and
the nonwoven felt has to have a high level of the weft yams.
Lamination of the fabric has been found to
entanglements of long staple fibres with only a
minimum degree of needling, as excessive needling increase the anchoring strength of the yam by a
can produce too much of fibre alignment which factor of about 10-15. As a consequence, the yams
would aid projectile penetration. Considerable care, hit by bullet do not pull from the fabric. Another
therefore, should be taken to optimize the feit positive aspect of the coating is that the yams
movement IS impeded in their sideward
structure.
displacement by piercing projectiles. Kevlar coated
Felts of lower weights are probably the most
with neoprene chlorosulphonated polymer elastomer
effective materials known for ballistic protection .
The effectiveness decreases as the weight increases is resistant to acids, fire , toxic gases and steam and
impermeable seaj28.
and the nonwovens are overtaken by woven tex- is able to form an
29
Temmerman
used
electroless
metallized
tiles and ultimately by ceramics and metals at
materials to coat a layer on the fabrics which
higher projectile velocities.
improved lightning strike protection.
Ward 30 found that for UHMPE, oxygen plasma
3.4 Finishes for Ballistic Protection
It is interesting to note that the performance of treatment reduced the delamination during impact
garments for ballistic protection is influenced with a corresponding reduction In energy
significantly with the moisture content, weaving absorption.
oils, sizes and other lubricants present in addition to
Aramid fabrics coated with heat-resistant fluoro
the fabric weave and other weaving parameters. polymers showed improved sp'uttering resistance for
This is due to the fact that the interfacial behaviour steel mill workers. The film is fonned at an angle of
of the yams is altered, so is the yam mobility in the 0-200. The composite fabric of m-aramid, p-aramid
fabric, due to the presence of moisture or weaving and fire-resistant rayon was impregnated with a
fluoroolefin-vinyl ether copolymer, squeezed and
oils.
Ballistic protective gannents are therefore made treated at 110-160 c for 8 min to give good
hydrophobic 9 . About 40% reduction in the ballistic sputtering resistance 3 '.
protection has been observed when the bulletproof
Nonwoven felts manufactured from linear
garment is made wet without any change in the polyethylene,2 modified by corona/plasma treatment
properties of the component yams 8.9 . This suggests or with a filler by folding the web of the carded
that water acts as a lubricant between the projectile fibres in zigzag direction, calendering, stretching in
and the fabric.
transverse direction, stitching or hydroentangling,
Scouring of the fabrics is therefore necessary to gave high impact resistance than conventional
remove the size, oils, etc. in addition to the anti-slip textiles,

BAJAJ & SRIRAM : BALLISTIC PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

Apart from polyethylene, fabrics comprising

p-phenylenediamine-terephthalic acid copolymer
having elongation at break > 4 %, modulus <600
gpd and breaking strength >24 gpd showed good
ballistic properties33 .
In addition to all these, armour made from Kevlar
should have an extra finish which would reduce the
UV light absorption, as Kevlar loses strength upon
exposure to UV light. While for the armours made
from PE, a finish is required to reduce the creep.

together using threads of high modulus (- 200 gpd),

with areal densities in the range of 3.5 - 6.2 kg/ml
made out of Kevlar or UHMPE.
Montgomery36, in an interesting experiment,
revealed the construction particulars of 10 layers of
Kevlar 49 plies sufficient to prevent complete
penetration of the bullets within a impact velocity
range of 200-400 ms l .
Yarn linear density, 1490 den; Weave, plain;
Ends/cm x picks/cm, 9.45 x 9.45; and Fabric
weight, 330 g/m 2 .

4 Designing of Ballistic Protective Clothing

Principally, two classes of materials, viz. fibrous
materials and ceramics, have emerged having great
potential in the designing of the ballistic protective
garments / composites.
Depending on the mode of their application,
ballistic protective clothing can be broadly divided
into soft armour made from textile material, and
composite laminate armour or hard armour.
4.1 Soft Armour

Soft armour is constructed from multiple layers

of woven fabric without a resin binder, sewn
together with meander or croSSWIse seam.
Depending on the calibre to be stopped and the yarn
count, the number of fabric layers in making a bullet
proof vest varies from 10 to 50 weighing around 3
kg. Various fabric lay.ers are stacked with parallel
yarn alignment which harbours the risk that two
bullets impacting in succession at not too great a
distance from each other will damage the same warp
or weft yarn in all the layers. The layers are sewn
together with high tenacity aramid sewing threads
which seem to perform better if they are close
together due to the fact that these sewing threads
themselves participate in the energy absorption. It
has been observed9 that very high stitch frequencies
of the order of 10 stitches /cm 2 can reduce the fabric
yarn tenacity by up to 40%.
Kunzendorf 4 reported that Kevlar fibres woven
in plain weave with fabric weight up to 200 g m 2
with careful wash treatment made into 3 quilted
layers offer protection against the pistol bullets. The
wearer suffers mearly a haematoma from the impact
of the bullet.
Allied Signals35 revealed the construction
particulars for ballistic protective garments:
multilayer construction with 20-30 layers, stitched

281

. For 0.22 calibre, 2. 6 g, RNSP: Vso 334 ms \

Projectile -

[ For 0.38 calibre, 10.2 g, RNSP:V 309 ms

so

Study also revealed that the more pointed

projectiles are not decelerated as fast as the blunt
ones.
Sacks 37 , in a US patent, disclosed a light weight
bulletproof garment consisting of several layers
sandwiched between an outer cover. The layers
comprise closely woven fabrics made from aramid
fibres of high tensile strength and high stretch
resistance.
Zutle38 also described the construction of a
bulletproof garment which includes an outerlayer
and inner layer stitched together. Total structure
comprises several layers of different ballistic
materials including an outer layer of Kevlar, which
serves as fireproof material as well as an impact
absorbing surface, and a reinforcing ply . Inside this
outerlayer are eight plies of spectra shield, ten plies
of Kevlar and beneath are the eight plies of spectra
shield and a single ply of Kevlar. A reinforcing
panel of 1.5 mm made from Lexan polycarbonate is
positioned against this last Kevlar ply. There is a
reduction in the back-face deformation of the
armour from normally expected distance of 3.2-3.6
em to only 1.5-1.9 cm. This construction claims
substantial increase in the resistance to penetration
of projectile, thereby reducing the possibility of
injury to the wearer.
4.2 Hard Armour

Composite laminate armour or hard armour

consists of multilayered fabrics combined together
with a resin binder. Another class of hard armour
uses armour plates made out of ceramics and fibrereinforced plastics (FRP) of about 10 mm thi ckness.
The main fun ction of such a vest is to reduce the

282

INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 1997

shock effect on the body by absorbing the energy of

impact partially or completely. The bullet also
deforms upon impact with reduction in kinetic
energy and hence can be easily stopped by
subsequent layers9.
Armours made from the resin binder show less
dependence on weave construction as the matrix is
responsible for the distribution of the energy to
subsequent layers. Therefore, the choice of
construction is often dictated by the particular type
of projectile. For ex~niple, protection against fine
projectiles requires a close weave and finer denier
while large fragments can be effectively stopped
with a loose weave and coarser denier.
Selection of the resin binder greatly influences
the ballistic protection I. Ductile resins such as vinyl
esters tend to perform better than more brittle or
thermosetting ones such as epoxy. Resin showing
increasing ductility absorbs more energy in both
crack initiation and propagation. It has also been
proved9 that for best ballistic protection, resin
content should be 20-25 wt% . Laminates with lesser
resin content show increased ballistic protection, but
the deformations are severe and unacceptable for
most of the applications. For maximum ballistic
efficiency, fibrous armours must be allowed to
deflect and delaminate, hence should never be
combined with rigid components in a way that
restricts deflection.
A number of products and patents39-48 have
appeared in the recent past. Owens Corning
fibreglass COrp39 reported a rigid ballistic material
which is fire resistant, smoke resistant, non-toxic,
non-conductive, self supporting and stiff. The
material is made by coating high strength magnesia
alumino silicate glass fibres with a solution of
partially-condensed low-molecular weight phenol
formaldehyde resole reaction product, from which
the solvent is evaporated. Coated fabrics are then
heated to increase the resole molecular weight and
to prepare easy handle prepeg. Plies of the prepeg
are then moulded by heating under pressure when
volatile by-products are escaped and then heating at
elevated temperatures to get crosslinked resin.
Abott8 reported the construction of the flak
jackets to reduce the problem of trauma caused to
the wearer due to the ballistic impact. Here, the
protective panels intended for covering the body are
equilateral metal triangles or hexagons fixed to the

protective layers beneath. These are so arranged that

the projectile cannot penetrate between the joints or
overlay areas. This type of construction had ' a total
weight of 3.5 kg compared to 3.9 kg of matching
standard of Kevlar fabric vest. This design also
offers more comfort and flexibility to the wearer.
Armellino and Annellino40 , in an US patent,
revealed a ballistic protection wear comprising at
least 3 plies of ballistic woven aramid fibre fabric
each
individually
impregnated
with
resorcinol/formaldehyde latex, at least nine plies of
non-impregnated ballistic woven aramid fibre
fabric, and further a layer of impregnated fabric
from the outer protective side to the inner side.
In another patent, Lee 41 disclosed the design. of a
bulletproof protective shield. It comprises layers of
woven aramid fabric extensively bonded together to
form a stiff region. An antiballistic ceramic tile is
bonded to the laminate. An adhesively mounted
metal plate or an additional stiff support of
adhesively bound aramid or glass fibre layers may
be disposed between the stiff regions and the tile.
The .shield may also include a trauma pack.
Lee 41 reported the use of light weight armour
made out of Dyneema SK 60 or Spectra with
aramids. Construction involves outer multi layers of
aramid positioned in front of matrix comprising a
first layer, a second layer and a mass of fibres
arranged perpendicular to the layers.
Higham Ferrers42 developed a range of ballistic
materials, most of which are based on the use of
glass fibres, incorporating Dyneema (UHMPE) or
an aramid. These new types of materials not only
have an impact absorbing surface, but also tend to
retain the projectile rather than cause it to skid away.
A combination of UHMPE and fine filament glass
roving is capable of withstanding impact from most
of the small projectiles and would also resist
penetration of knives, daggers and even arrows.
In another patent, ICI43 disclosed the construction
of composite armour of a polymeric matrix
reinforced with continuous filaments that will resist
penetration by sharp objects. The matrix is normally
a polymerizable liquid such as acrylic or
methacrylic acids or methyl esters or styrene or
some such mixtures. A second component will
contain at least two acrylate or methacrylate groups
such as triethylene glycol acrylate. The polymer
matrix has a tensile modulus of at least 0.5 GPa.

BAJAJ & SRIRAM: BALLISTIC PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

There should be a strong fibre-matrix interface

which should have a trans-flexural strength . of at
least 24 MPa, preferably > 50 MPa. The continuous
filament reinforcement should be in the form of
collimated filaments extending the length and width
of the material. These continuous collimated
filaments may be arranged in superimposed layers;
filaments in adjacent layers being arranged
transversely to one another.
In a typical construction, the filament content
should be 30-70% by weight made out of UHMPE,
aramids, carbon or glass. The armour developed will
have an areal density of at least 6-8 kg/m 2. Another
preferred alternative is based on the use of woven
fabrics with balanced weaves such as plain or twill
which may then be built up as layers to create quasiisotropic orientation of the filaments in the resultant
structure.
Allied Signals44 reported a light weight, flexible
nonwoven composite which is more effective than
the conventional armour fabric. The spectra shield
composite is based on UHMPE Spectra fibre which
is coated with a very thin layer of polymer resin,
cross-plied and then encapsulated in another thin
protective film. This spectra shield is some 2.5 lb ft- 2
(12.2 kgm-2), lighter than either glass or aramid
composites, and can withstand almost all the
ballistics.
In a completely new approach to making a
spectra shield45 , hundreds of fibre bundles are laid
side by side in a unidimensional aligned beam,
which is then drawn through bath of thermoplastic
polymer to produce flexible composite layer, cut
and cross-plied (in a 90 orientation) and pressed to
produce a single ply. These plies are then stacked
and pressed together for required ballistic
application.
Sumitomo Bakelite Co. revealed46 high strength
polyethylene fibre-reinforced plastic composites
with excellent impact resistance. The composite
contains nonwoven fabric sandwiched between
woven fabrics. This composite is made from
isoprene rubber nonwoven fabric
prepeg,
sandwiched between bisphenol A epoxy resin.
Woven fabric prepeg showed surface density of 6.1
kg/m 2 and thickness of 6.5 mm with no impact
penetration.
High strength polyurethane composite especially
useful for sails and ballistic-resistant articles has

283

been reported by Allied Signals2J. The composite

consists of network of high strength fibres and
thermoplastic polyurethCl;ne matrix material derived
from an aliphatic diisocyanate and polyol.
DSM 47 reported the use of Dyneema SK56, a
special ballistic yam, for the applications where,
high energy absorption and low weight are the
criteria.
The armour is made by pressing resinimpregnated fabrics into the desired shapes. Lin et
al. 48 have reported high strength composite for
ballistic protective clothing made from a network of
high strength fibres and a matrix compound made
out of a vinyl ester and diallyl phthalate.
Bulletproof vests are generally so tailored that
they protect the body all round, the front of the vest
may be stronger than the back assuming that a shot
will generally come from the front.
In a US patent, Coppage and Coppage49 disclosed
a bulletproof dress shirt that is adjustable to
accommodate wearers of different sizes. It is made
from standard dress shirt fabric and has inner layers
on the front and back panels that are made from
bicomponent materials to draw perspiration away
from the wearer. In the garment there are panels that
can be closed and which will hold removable
bulletproof pads such as layers of Kevlar fabrics or a
construction of woven Kevlar with layers of
nonwoven spectra shield. The front of the shirt may
have an additional layer of fabric enclosing as a vital
area pad to meet the specific need. All pads are
removable so that the front and back of the shirt can
be laundered normally. Typical construction of
garments consists of an outer layer of the shirt
which is visible on the wearer which includes
buttons, pockets and areas of stitching, and areas of
shirt which does not open and merely gives the
appearance of buttoning of the dress shirt.
Finally, it should be borne in mind that no single
ballistic protective garment can provide complete
protection against all types of projectiles. It is a
compromise between various factors like the extent
of protection required, cost, weight and comfort.

5 Performance Evaluation
For quantitative assessment of the performance of
the ballistic protective clothing, two .fundamental
quantities, viz. ballistic protection and weight
efficiency, are always considered50 .

284

INDIAN 1. FIBRE TEXT. RES ., DECEMBER 1997

5.1 Ballistic Protection

This gives details about the degree of protection

provided by the armour against a specified projectile
or a series of projectiles.
Most popular methodS for testing is V50 which is
defined as the approximation of the velocity at
which 50% of the impact would result in complete
penetration and 50% in partial penetration (i .e.
stopped by the armour) or the projectile velocity at
which the probability of penetration is 50%. It is
determined by taking the arithmetic mean of an
equal number of the highest partial and lowest
complete penetrations impact velocities within an
acceptable velocity range as described by AbottS and
Stein9
Taking V50 as the measure of the efficiency,
Blumberg lO showed that at low weight per square
metre, soft ballistics are more efficient than hard
ballistics, while at weights greater than 10 kg m-2 ,
hard ballistics are more efficient which may be due
to the difference in the rigidity between the hard and
soft ballistics (Fig. 8).
A less common but useful protection criterion is
the limit velocity. It is defined as the velocity below
which 100% of the projectiles would fail to
penetrate through the target or the maximum
velocity at which the projectile can still be stopped.
This is primarily a theoretical concept because it is
difficult to define from ballistic tests alone l .
It can be found by fitting the data to form.
0, Vs<VI

residual velocity; V;, the limit velocity; and P & t, .

the constants for projectiles and target.
In this process, a thin aluminium plate is placed
behind the armour and when the projectile debris
from the armour penetrates the plate, the armour is
considered to be defeated.
5.2 Weight Efficiency

This is measured in terms of weight-merit- rating

(WMR) , which is a useful method to rank the
armours and to ascertain the weight advantage
offered by a new armour when compared to the
standard. It is defined as the ratio of areal density of
the reference materials to that of the new armour.
The reference material for vehicular type armours is
MIL-A-12560 steel 20 while for persOImel armour it
is cotton duck fabric.
5.3 Ballistic Protection Standards

The ballistic requirements to be met are normally

specified by national standards based on calibre
type, weight of the projectile and velocity. Various
protection classes have been established reflecting
different levels of exposure. Most widely used are
The National Institute of Justice (N1J), National
Bureau of Standards (NBS), Personnel Protection
Armour Association (PP AA)20 and Ballistic
Protection Standards for Gemlany. Most commonly
employed ones are the NIl standards as listed in
Table 4.

Uniform specifications for Europe are being

currently worked out in the form of European
Vr = {
P
V > V;
standards in which the specification for vest include:
s
where Vs is the strikinglimpact velocity; V" the
Safe retention of projectile in accordance with
special protection class.
700~-------------------------'
Maximum deformation of plasticine.
Maximum garment weight or weight per unit
600
area of the ballistic vest.
Various experiments were conducted for
500
evaluating the performance of the ballistic
0",
protection systems by different set ups. While
E 400
:;:
Prosser lS conducted these experiments with
>
Fragment Simulating Projectile (FSP) to know the
300
energy lost by the FSP in penetrating through the
layers of nylon fabric, Zee et al. 51 used micro
m2
200
: / IO k9/
velocity sensors to obtain time delays due to
40
30
10
20
slowing down of the projectiles shot from a light gas
gun for knowing the penetration mechanism and
fracture behaviour. These experiments are
Fig. 8--Ballistic behaviour of soft vs hard composites lO

(Vst_V;~I/ ~

285

BAJAJ & SRIRAM: BALLISTIC PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

Table 4--N11 classification of armour systerns20

Type

Wt of
projectile

Type of projectile

Velocity
ms"

2.6

0.22 calibre lead

320 12

10.2

0.357 magnum jacketed

lead soft point (JSP)
9 mm full - metal jacket
(FMJ)

381 15

11 A

18

11

IlIA

15.55
8

III

IV

0.357 magnum JSP

9mmFMJ
0.44 magnum
9mm FM]

(0)

332 15

425 15
358 15
838
425

223 Remington
(556 mmV'MJ)
0.3 carbine FMJ
12 gauge rifle slug
10.8

0.3 calibre armourpiercing bullets (US

military APM2)

868

instrumental in understanding the mechanism of

ballistic protection as discussed later.
6 Failure Mechanism in Fibrous Materials
The basic idea of ballistic protection with fibrous
materials is essentially based on the conversion of
the kinetic energy into work of deformation. Hence,
the principle influencing factors would be the tensile
properties of the protective material, the
deformability of the projectile and the armour.
Fig. 9 shows the mechanism of deformation when
a single fibre/yam is subjected to impact by a
projectile, with the longitudinal axis of the fibre
perpendicular to the path of the projectile. The
impact leads to longitudinal wave propagation and
deflection 1,2,21. The longitudinal wave propagation
velocity 'C' is nothing but speed of the sound in the
material which can be expressed in terms of density
and modulus as wider :

C=(E/p) v.
where C = Speed of the sound or longitudinal wave
velocity, E = Initial modulus, and p = Density.
The wave reaches the end of the fibre and is
reflected back as a tensile wave. This reflection of
the tensile wave is necessary so as to satisfY the

(c)

Fig. 9--Failure mechanism of single fibre under ballistic

impact2: (a) Propagation of longitudinal compressive waves,
(b) Reflection as tensile wave, and (c) Elongation of the fibre

boundary condition of zero stress at the fibre ends.

This movement of tensile wave back towards the
point of impact causes the flow of material in the
same direction. Ultimately, a tensile strain is
experienced by the fibre in contact with the
projectile, the magnitude of which is dictated by the
impact velocity of the projectile. Continued wave
reflections intensifY the tensile strain with energy
absorbed by the fibre being proportional to this
strain. At the same time, a second and slower wave
propagates along the transverse axis, i.e. across the
diameter of the fibre, moving parallel to the
projectile and at the same velocity. Because of this
transverse wave, the fibre starts moving in the same
direction as the projectile path. The fibre continues
to absorb energy and deflects until the projectile is
decelerated and stopped or the fibre strains past the
dynamic yield point and breaks. If the impact
velocity is sufficiently high, the fibre cannot
respond fast enough to exhibit strain and the lowest
velocity for which the fibre breaks without
exhibiting strain is called "Critical Velocity". It is a
function of wave speed, which is indirectly related

286

INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 1997

to the fibre modulus and density as mentioned

earlier.

splits along its longitudinal axis, which would not

only absorb energy but acts as an efficient crack
arrestor.
6.1 Mechanism of Ballistic Penetration in Woven Fabrics

1/ 2

and V=C[E(1+E)-{E(1+E).5- E}]

where

U = Transverse wave speed,

C = Longitudinal wave propagation speed,
E = Fibre strain, and
V = Projectile speed.
Thus, if strain represents the strain-at-break, then
V is the critical velocity of the projectile above
which the material would never be able to stop the
projectile because the interaction between the yam
and projectile is minimum, e.g. Kevlar 29 at 4%
elongation and a modulus of 48.5 N/tex showed the
critical velocityl2of 900 m S-I.
Therefore, the longitudinal wave velocity is the
one which determines the amount of material
involved in the interaction with the projectile.
One can generalise three main regimes that exist
in the materials subjected to ballistic impacf as
under:
Regime-I : At low projectile velocities, the
fracture in brittle materials is well described by
linear elastic fracture mechanics.
Regime-II : The projectile velocity approaches
sonic velocity (-500 ms l ) and loading history
gets dominated by the sIWck wave propagation.
This transition occurs at the strain rates of about
103 sec-I.
Regime-III: Transition to this occurs when the
damage is dominated by inertial effects and the
adiabatic response of the target leads to melting.
In this region, increasing the projectile velocity
would eventually result in the melting and
fusion of the material at the point of contact.
The mode by which the fibre separates is also
important in determining its resistance to
penetration. Three principle modes have been
identified, viz melting, brittle fracture,and plastic
deformation with longitudinal splitting.

Situation obviously gets complicated when 2-D

woven fabrics with crossover points are considered.
Its importance is with wave propagation in the
fabric; say with 106 crossover points in a square
meter of the fabric, one can expect redistribution of
the signals at these points I. A fraction of the wave
will continue along the yam, part of it will be
reflected back (if node is fixed, all the signals will
be reflected back) and a part will be redistributed
along the yam which is perpendicular to the former.
Transverse deflection of the fabric is responsible for
50% of the total energy absorbed by the secondary
yams/fibres. It is assumed that the transverse wave
transfers the energy to the adjacent yams by
frictional contact8 ; hence, the type of weave
employed in addition to the fibre selected plays a
major role.
6.2 Ballistic Penetration Mechanism in Fibrou
Composites

The failure of the composite laminates is far more

complex process characterized by interactions
occurring in the individual planes and across those
planes in adjacent fabric layers. Because of the
numerous crossover points found in these woven
fabrics, energy is quickly dissipated as the wave
encounters more and more fibre crossovers. This
dissipation usually limits the impact damage to a
small area adjacent to the impact point52 . Energy
transfer to adjacent layers (between layers) is
facilitated by the use of resin binder l 2.8 Strain
waves are transmitted from the fabric layer to resin
matrix and thus to adjacent layers; at the same time,
elastic waves are reflected into the fabric matrix at
each interface. Since the transverse wave energy is
transferred to the adjacent yams by frictional
contact, more the yams being utilized, the better
would be the transfer of energy. Thus, in the textile
structure, resin bonding restricts the yam movement,
which reduces the ballistic performance9
Nylon 6 exhibits large deformations before
The amplitudes of these waves are determined by
breaking, therefore high energy is absorbed by the a quantity called Mechanical Impedence (I), defined
fibre. Brittle fracture with low elongation-to-break is as:
typical of glass fibres. Kevlar shows some degree of
1= pC,
plastic deformation before rupture while UHMPE where p is the density of fabric, and C, the wave

287

BAJAJ & SRIRAM: BALLISTIC PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

speed.
Elastic waves may be reflected or transmitted
according to the following :

It)

2 -- x Po
PI = ( 11+ 10

Pr=[II - Io] x p o
II + 10
where
PI = Stress amplitude of transmitted wave,
Po = Stress amplitude of incident wave,
P, = Stress amplitude of reflected wave,
II = Impedence of transmitted material, and
1'1 = Impedence of incident material.
It should be noted carefully that the waves
created by the ballistic impact are nearly elastic and
transmission of these waves to resin matrix
increases the energy absorption capability of the
laminate. Cracks are formed in the matrix and
propagate parallel to the fabric layers, through
delamination process 53 . Impact energy is dissipated
in the formation and advancement of these cracks
and in the deflection caused by the separation of
individual fabric layers.
Zee et al. 51 used helium air gun, microvelocity
sensor and PE and graphite composites with
individual fabrics woven in plain, bound together
with epoxy resin of 10 layers each, to demonstrate
the failure mechanis.m. Fig. 10 shows the behaviour
of PE composites of 10,20 and 30 layers. Velocity
measurements were made at 12 different positions
with the help of microvelocity sensor in such a way
that initial ballistic contact occurs at the 3rd position
with three measurements of incident velocity prior
to impact.
The energy loss for all the samples (Fig. 10)
started from position 3 only signifies that PE
composites do not flex but behave as a rigid system,
leading to fracture of fibres and matrix. It is
interesting to note that the slope of the energy
profile is proportional to the energy dissipation
density and the rate of energy loss in a 10-layer
composite is lesser than that in thicker composites
because of the reinforcing effect.
However, the graphite composite shows a typical
brittle failure with the energy loss observed exactly
at the point of impact and energy loss peak in less
than 2.5 mm distance (Fig. 11).
In a numerical model developed by Leech and

Adeyefa 17 based on Finite Element Analysis, applied

for cloth configurations of 11 x 11 and 21 x21
orthogonal woven fabric, the time sequence of
fabric deformation beyond projectile arrest is
obtained. These time sequences clearly elucidate the
dynamics of ballistic impact on woven fabrics as
shown in Fig 12. Further, it has been demonstrated
that the triaxial fabrics out perform all other types in
ballistic protection.
6.3 Ballistic Protection with Ceramics

Although ceramics are typically very brittle, their

mechanical behaviour is dependent on (i) confining
pressure and (ii) strain rate l .
These usually fail into rubbles upon uniaxial
compression without plasticization. In addition, if
confinement pressure is increased the modulus is
unaffected, but the compressive failure strength
increases significantly. The increase in strength is
brought about by the superposition of the
compressive failure stresses, which reduce the
opening of the microcracks parallel to the loading
direction. Strength effects become important thus

::; 5

oL-_ _

_ _ _L -_ _

_ _ _~_~

o
Poaftion tNn)

Fig. IO--Energy profiles for the slowing down of the

projectile in PE composites of different layers during high
velocity ballistic impactS! [( I) 10 layers, (2) 20 layers, and (3)
30 layers]

O~--~---~---7---7.--~
Poaition(",,,, )

Fig. II - Energy profiles for the slowing down of the

projectile in PE and graphite composites during hi gh velocity
ballistic impactS! [(I) Graphite, 10 layers, and (2) PE, 10
layers]

288

INDIAN 1. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 1997

St age II

Stage 1

Stage

Stage I'l

S tage V.

Fig. 13-Failure mech anism of ceramics under ballistic

impact2

the pressure curve, which is typical of the liquid

state. The final penetration depth of the projectile is
given by the formula :

P=L.{P;

fp;

where

L =length of the projectile,

Pp =density of the projectile, and
PI =density of the projectile target material.
Since the equation doesn't involve the strength
term, the mechanism should be different from that
of fibrous materials l , as shown in Fig. 13 and
described below:
TimlZ 0 . 32 ms
TimlZ=l.Olms
Erosion of projectile tip and formation of
spherical shock front,
Fig. 12-Time sequence of the fabric deformation under
17

Appearance of the fracture conoid and failure of

balli stic impact up to and beyond the projectile arrest (Pre
strain : 10%. Transverse displacement scaled by 2)
the ceramic in compression,
Penetration of projectile into ceramic,
when impact pressure is below twice the "Hugoniot Failure of ceramic in tension, and
Elastic Limit" (HEL), which is defined as the largest Removal of ceramic debris.
Fracture behaviour of ceramic can be
elastic wave that can be transmitted in a material
and can be thought of as a measure of dynamic yield summarized as below :
stress of a material. Above the HEL, the material At low strain rates (I': < 10 2 sec I), fracture is
shear . Theoretically,
controlled
by
thermal
activations
of
undergoes
irreversible
microcracks.
ceramics are proved to flow hydrodynamically from
the fact that at higher pressure, i.e. higher impact At higher loading rates, inertial propagation
velocities, the Hugoniot curve becomes parallel to
provides significant strain rate hardening.

BAJAJ & SRIRAM: BALLISTIC PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

At strain rates approaching HEL (> 104 sec' I),

failure is by plastic flow with little
microfracture. Hence, HEL represents the point
of true plastic flow, and micro fracture is not
initiated until stresses exceed at least twice the
value ofHEL

289

the impact is approximated as the point impact.

The model successfully indicated that the
majority of the energy absorbed by the fabric
under ballistic impact was due to the strain and
the kinetic energy in the yarns directly in
contact with the projectile. This model was
further improved by Roylance himself to
remove the point impact approximation and is
7 Modelling of Ballistic Performance
Numerous models have been developed l 6-18,54-<>4 to
one of the most successful model so far.
predict the performance of ballistic protection but Another model 58 , based on finite element
till date, no single model has succeeded in
analysis, is reported by Allied Signals where the
time-step of the method and element spacing
accounting for all the complexities that are involved
with the penetration mechanism of the ballistic
were modified so that the predictions of the
model matched complementing experimental
protection. The major problem is that the whole
process typically lasts only for few microseconds
work. This model is successfully employed to
determine the failure criterion of the composite
and it is very difficult to get the specific information
of all the processes that take place and then use
materials.
them to validate a particular model. Therefore, all Srirengan and Whitcomb 59 developed a finite
the models proposed so far are the poised balance
element based
degradation
model
for
composites with transverse matrix cracks. This
between the performance characteristics and the
model was developed by analyzing a three-ply
material properties2 .
Vinson and Zukas 54 modelled multilayered body
representative volume element for predicting the
effective homogenised three-dimensional elastic
armour as single constrained conical shell under
constants of an interior ply with transverse
quasi static loading. They used a technique
matrix cracks. Each crack was modelled
which requires complex experimental work to
discretely, and the resulting model was
augment the numerical calculations. . The
evaluated first by comparing the homogenized
success of this model is impeded mainly due to
extensional modulus for a cracked laminate with
the simplification of assumptions that are made
experimental results and then with finite
and excessive dependence on the experimental
eiement discrete models. Using the degradation
data which incorrectly showed ultimate strain of
model, the prediction of load redistribution for a
185% for nylon fabric and dynamic modulus of
cantilevered laminated plate with matrix cracks
elasticity as only a small fraction of the static
subjected to transverse end load, and in a
one.
55
cracked plain weave composite subjected to
Dent and Donovan
modelled with an
uniaxial stress, was compared with a discrete
assumption that only the yarns are directly
crack
model. The degradation model showed
contacted by the projectile to absorb energy
good agreement in predicting the homogenized
without taking the fabric characteristics into
elastic
constants and load redistribution.
account and hence, concluded incorrectly that
the friction was the primary mechanism of Ko et a/.60 proposed a modified Florence model
energy transfer between the projectile and the
for evaluating the effectiveness of ceramic
fabric. Later, in the refinement of the model,
spheres on ballistic impact resistance, using
Dent
and
Donovan 56
proposed
cnmp
multifunctional armour with Al 20 3 face and
interchange as the primary mechanism .
Spectra Shield composite backing plate. Since
57
Roylance and Wang model took care of the
the Florence model predicts higher ballistic
essential physics of the impact mechanism
limit with larger size of the damaged area, this
along with impact mechanics, still keeping the
modified Florence model is of consequence
solution reasonably tractable. The main
where a relationship between predicted ballistic
assumption is that a multilayered fabric can be
limit and areal density is established which
thought as a single-ply pin-jointed network and
could be used to optimize the system by

290

INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES. , DECEMBER 1997

controlling the thickness ratio of ceramic face

and composite backing plates. The ballistic limit
evaluation showed that increasing the backing
composite thickness significantly affected the
kinetic energy absorption of the armour.
Costa and Thaumaturg061 analyzed the effects of
shock waves induced by ballistic impact on the
impact-energy absorption capacity of woven
glass fibre/epoxy composites. They used
computer simulation of shock-wave propagation
to determine the impact energy in these
composites. It was observed that the energy
absorbance capacity changes with the acting
failure mechanism and is also rate dependent. .
For ceramics, the work done by Wilkins 62 is
noteworthy. He used HEMP, a large finite
different lagrangian hydrocode, to model the
impact of 0.50 calibre projectile into disks of
alumina backed by various materials. Through
this work, the role of ceramic compressive
strength in the initial failure of the projectile tip
was established. Also, the mechanism of the
tensile failure and fracture and conoid formation

drilling residual stress measuring technique was

adapted for evaluating the thermal residual
stress. The hybrid composite showed higher
thermal stresses, especially the thermal residual
compressive stresses, which exist in the fibre
direction. Fibre/matrix interfacial strength
reduced as the hybrid composites have higher
expansion in Z-direction of the composite,
which results in reduced interlaminar strength of
the hybrid composite.
References
I

were predicted and explained on the basis of 5

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paraboloidal and the threshold velocity, i.e. the
velocity when the skin membrane is about to
rupture, has been calculated for human beings of 8
various age groups. It has been found that the
9

threshold velocity for a paraboloidal projectile of 10

certain dimensions is less than that of a spherical II
projectile under similar conditions for all age
groups.
12
Kim et al. 64 , studied the effect of intrapl)
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.
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stresses after curing of the composite. The hole

13
14
15

16
17
18
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