Heat transfer from a cylinder in an acoustic standing wave

George Mozurkewich
PhysicsDepartment,Ford Motor CompanyResearchLaboratory,Mail Drop 3028, P.O. Box 2053,
Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053

(Received14 February1995;acceptedfor publication24 May 1995)

Heat transferwas measuredfrom wires of various diameterslocated at a velocity antinodein an
acousticstandingwave.A transientmethodwasused,in whichthe rate of heattransferwasdeduced
from the rate of changeof temperatureafter heatingwas turned off. For fixed wire diameterand

acousticfrequency,the dimensionless
heat-transfer
coefficient(Nusseltnumber)Nu showsa
distinctive variation with acousticamplitude.At high amplitude, Nu follows the well-known,
steady-flow,forced-convectioncorrelation,time averagedover an acousticcycle, while at low
amplitude,Nu has a constantvalue determinedby naturalconvection.The transitionbetweenthese

regimes,which occursrather abruptlywhen the streamingReynoldsnumber (basedon wire

diameterand acousticvelocityamplitude)equals88, is discussed
in termsof a heat-transfer
bottleneckthat is openedby acousticstreaming.An empiricalcorrelationis presented.Applicability
to heat exchangersfor thermoacousticheat enginesis considered. 1995 AcousticalSocietyof
America.

PACS numbers: 43.35.Ty, 43.35.Ud, 43.25.Nm

INTRODUCTION

Thermoacousticenginesfor cooling and for soundgeneration have recently become a subject of technological

transferhas been ascribedto "convectionby time-average

steady-flowequivalent."The presentinvestigationwill suggest that this ascriptionis incomplete. Buoyancy effects,

whichgreatlycomplicate
theanalysis,
canbe neglected
8'9
interest.
In someinstances,
thepracticality
of thermoacous-whenGr/Re
2 is smallenough,
asin thisinvestigation.
(Gr

tic enginesdependson efficient operation.A major factor

contributingto overall efficiencyis the effectivenessof heat
transferbetween the soundwave and the heat exchangers.
Optimal designwill dependon an understandingof the mechanicsof the heat-transferprocess.
Thermoacousticheat exchangerscan be broadly classified into those involving internal flow in ducts or porous
geometriesand thoseinvolving externalflow aroundobjects
that are genericallycylinders.The first classis represented
by parallel-plateand honeycombstructureswhile the second

and Re are the Grashofand Reynoldsnumbers;seebelow.)

For more recentwork, see Davidson

and Peterkaand
Richardson.
TMAnother review that shouldbe of interestfor

the case of internal-flow heat transfer has recently

appeared.
2
Thermoacousticenginesoperateon the borderlinesbetweentheselimits. Becausethe oscillatingfluid conveysheat

between
theheatexchanger
andthermoacoustic
stack,
the

longitudinaldimensionof the heat-exchangestructuremust

be less than or roughly equal to the acousticdisplacement.
laboratoryhasemployedscreensandfoam and has assumed, Hence, for externalflow aroundwire screensor throughreticulatedfoams,x /d> 1. Good thermoacoustic
designof the
for designpurposes,that the heat-transfercoefficientsmay
stack
requires
transverse
dimensions
of
the
pores
to be a few
be obtainedfrom well-known, steady-flowcorrelationsfor
times
rSv.
Assuming
that
the
heat-exchange
structure
doesnot
cylinders.The presentinvestigationexploresthe validity of
have
a
grossly
different
scale,
rS,/d-1.
this assumptionfor acousticflow aroundcylinders.
This investigationwas undertakento characterizeheat
The influence of sound or vibration on heat transfer is a
transfer
from acousticflow aroundcylindersin this theoretiproblem that has generatedconsiderableexperimentaland
cally
awkward
regime that is also not well exploredexperitheoreticalinterest.A valuable, early review was given by
mentally.
The
intent
was to producea correlationthat could
Richardson,
2 who,setting
asidebuoyancy,
mapped
theprobbe
applied
to
the
design
of thermoacoustic
heat exchangers.
lem in termsof two parameters,namely,the ratiosof acousThe
correlation
that
was
obtained
is
not
directly
applicableto
tic displacement
(or vibration)amplitudex l and of viscous
thermoacoustic
devices,
however,
because
the
geometry of
diffusionlength r5v to cylinder diameterd. To avoid the sethis
experiment
differs
in
two
important
respects
from the
rious complicationof boundary-layerseparation,most theophysical
situation
relevant
to
thermoacoustic
engines
with
reticaltreatmentshavebeenrestrictedto the small-amplitude
external-flow
heat
exchangers.
First,
in
the
present
case
the
limit, xi/dl.
Those investigationshave identified the
cylinder
is
isolated,
while
in
engines
the
heat
exchangers
are
steady
flowknownasacoustic
streaming
3'4asthemechanism
adjacent
to
a
porous
body,
the
stack.
Second,
any
practical
that cartes heat away from the vicinity of the cylinder, as
suggested
in earlyexperimental
work.
5-7Mostexperimentsheat exchangermust consistof a plurality of cylindersthat
would interactwith eachotherin a complexway. Hence this
with stationarycylindersin acousticfields or with vibrating
investigationrepresentsonly a first step toward solving the
cylindersin nominally stationaryfluidshave been performed
practical
problem.
in thislimit.2 In theopposite,
large-amplitude
limit,heat
includes

2209

wire

screens and reticulated

foam.

J. Acoust.Soc. Am. 98 (4), October 1995

Work

in this

0001-4966/95/98(4)/2209/8/$6.00

1995 AcousticalSocietyof America 2209

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(2)
Moveable
Plunger
ne

The first term arisesfrom heat lost radially throughthe cylindrical surface,and the secondfrom heat flowing parallel
to the cylindricalaxis. The secondterm usuallyamountedto

a smallcorrection(<10%), exceptfor the largestdiameter

wire in the limit of naturalconvection(-50%).
This transientmethodhas advantagesover the alternative of deducingh from the temperaturedifferencein steady
state. The steady-statemethod relies on energy balance,
which demandscareful accountingfor the heat flowing out
the wire's ends. The steady-statemethod also dependson

(c)'

lb)

accurate resistance measurement, while the transient method

only entailsaccuratemeasurementof time intervals,r being

easilyand accuratelydeterminedby fitting an exponentialto
the recorded decay. Also, the transient method minimizes
gradualheatingof the gas.
A simpleexponentialdecayresultsonly if the wire temperatureis sensiblyuniform in the radial direction.This condition is met when the radial Biot number,Bi=hd/2k s, is

Loudspeaker

FIG. 1. (a) Circuitfor measuring

resistance
in presence
of biascurrent.(b)
Acousticapparatus,showingresonancetube with loudspeaker,moveable
plungerwith microphone,
andwire undertest.(c) Detailof wire mountedin
Teflon holderwith voltageprobes.

I. EXPERIMENTAL

METHOD

The experimentconsistedof placinga heatedcylindrical

wire at a velocity antinodeof a standingacousticwave and
measuringthe rate of transferof heat from the wire to the
acoustic medium. This section describes the methods of mea-

suringheat transferand of applyingthe standingwave.

The cylindrical wire servedas heaterand thermometer.
Jouleheatingwas obtainedby passinga large currentfrom a
dc sourcethrough the wire. Temperaturechangeswere deduced from a four-probemeasurementof the wire's resis-

tanceusinga smallalternating
current(1 mA at 16 kHz) and
a lock-in amplifier[Fig. l(a)]. Titaniumand rheniumwere
chosenas wire materialsbecausethey have relatively large
yet strongly temperature-dependent
electrical resistivities.
Diametersrangedfrom 0.125 to 2.0 mm.
The

heat-transfer

coefficient

h was deduced

from

the

decay of the wire temperatureTw toward ambient TO after

turningoff the Jouleheatingwhile maintainingfixed acoustic
amplitude.Assumingthat the temperatureinside the wire is
radially uniform and that the ends are maintainedat fixed
temperature,Tw is only a functionof the axial coordinatez.
Let the wire have length 2L along z between its voltage
contacts,diameterd, perimeterII=vrd, and cross-sectional

small.
4'5In these
experiments,
Bi ranged
from6X10-5 for
0.125-mm rhenium without sound to 6X10 -3 for 2.0-mm
titanium with the largestsoundamplitude.Anothercondition
is that the heat transferbe directly proportionalto Tw- T O,
which fails if the fluid propertiesvary appreciablywith temperature.Relatively small temperaturedifferencesof 10-20
K were used to minimize this complicationas well as to
simulateconditionsin thermoacoustic
heat exchangers.

The valueof h deducedfrom Eq. (2) includesconvective and radiativecontributions.The convectivepart was extracted by subtractinga radiation correctionin the form

hrad=4rrTgE,
whereo'istheStefan-Boltzmann
constant.
The
emissivity
e wastakentobe0.31forTi and0.12forRe.6
The experimentwas performedin air at ambientconditions,exceptfor one run with a helium-argon mixture. For a
given wire and frequency,measurements
were madefor several soundlevels. Jouleheatingusuallywas kept constantas
soundamplitudewas changed,althoughin somecasesheating was increasedwith amplitudeto keep Tw-To roughly
constant.

A standingacousticwave was maintainedin the appara-

tussketched
in Fig. 1(b). Theresonator,
an acrylictube1.8 m
long and 44 mm in inner diameter,was driven from one end
by a commercial10-in.woofer(Electro-Voice
DL-10X) in a
cylindrical box. The other end was closedwith a moveable

plungercontaininga microphone(Briiel & Kjaer 4134 or

PCB Piezotronics106B). The tube was mountedvertically,

exceptin one run. The wire was insertedthrougha hole 2/3

areaA = vrd2/4,andletthematerialhavethermalconductiv- of the way from the driver to the rigid end of the tube. To
facilitateinsertion,the wire was bent into a loop shapedlike
ity ks, specificheat cs, densityPs, and thermaldiffusivity
a "U," with the legs of the loop about 8 mm apart, and

xs=ks/psc
s. Thedecay
obeys
3
o2rw

mountedin a 0.5-in.-diameter
Teflonholder[Fig. 1(c)] with

o(rw- to)

ksAo9z
2 -hII(Tw-T)=PscsA
o9t '

(1)

The Appendixpresentsthe solution.To leadingorder,which

is good enough for all practical purposes,the relation between h and time constant r is

2210

J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 98, No. 4, October 1995

the plane of the loop horizontal.All wires had a free length

of about84 mm betweenvoltagecontacts.
Operating frequencieswere those at which a velocity
antinode

occurred

at the wire

location.

The

lowest

useful

operatingfrequency,approximately141 Hz, was obtained

with the plunger at the end of the tube. With the plunger
George Mozurkewich:Heat transfer in an acousticstandingwave

2210

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being a velocity node and the driver roughly an antinode,the

tube then contained3/4 wavelengths,with a velocity antinode at the wire location.

The effect of the driver

10

location's

not beinga perfectantinodecouldbe compensated

by replacing the wire by a second1/2-in. microphoneand adjusting
frequencyand plungerpositionto obtain a pressurenode at
the wire location.Higher frequenciescouldbe obtainednear
odd multiplesof 141 Hz, or, by movingthe plunger,at various otherfrequencies.The highestfrequencyusedwas 2391
Hz.

The velocity amplitudeat the wire, u l, was calculated

from the pressureamplitudeat the plunger,P l, accordingto

ul=Pl/pgC, wherepg andc arethe densityandspeedof

sound in the gas. At 141 Hz, distortion of the sinusoidal
wave form at the plungerwas insignificantup to the largest
amplitudeattempted,correspondingto a 22-m/s peak. Distortionwas greaterat higherfrequencies.For example,many
experiments were performed at 840 Hz where secondharmonicdistortionas large as p2/pl=O.15 was observed.

,1

0.001

0.01

0.1

GrPr

However, the distance between the wire location and the

plungerwas always an even numberof quarterwavelengths

for even harmonics.Therefore u2-0 at the wire location,
leavingonly higherharmonicsthat were correspondingly
depressedin magnitude.

FIG. 2. Nu vs GrPr for 0.25-mm rheniumwire. Open circles:naturalcon-

vectionmeasurements
(no soundwave);theline is a smoothcurvethrough
recommended
values(seeRef. 17). Filledcircles:measurements
with large
soundwave; line is a guide for the eye.

The characteristic variation of heat transfer with acoustic

amplitudeexhibitsthreeregimes(Fig. 3). For smallampli-

II. RESULTS

Results
arepresented
in dimensionless
form.
13Let the

tude, heat transferis independentof amplitudeand equal to

the free-convectionvalue.For largeamplitude,Nu is propor-

gashavethermalconductivity
kg, densitypg,heatcapacity tionalto Re/2,reminiscent
of thecorrelation
for laminar
Cp, andthermaldiffusivityKg=kg/pgCp.
Heat transferis steady
flow.
18Thetransition
between
theselimitingbehavcharacterizedby the Nusseltnumber

Nu=hd/kg.

(3)

Velocity is characterizedby a ReynoldsnumberRel, based

on acousticvelocity amplitudeand wire diameter:

Rel=Uld/V,

(4)

iors is fairly abruptin that, over a substantialrangeof Re1,

Nu is smallerthan would be expectedfrom the square-root
variation.This behaviorin the transitionregion suggeststhe
existenceof a bottleneckin the pathway for heat removal.
With increasingfrequency,the transitionregime moves to-

wardlargerRe1 (Fig. 4).

where v is the kinematicviscosityof the gas.For the purpose

of describingnaturalconvection,the temperaturedifference
is characterizedby the productof the Grashof and Prandtl

The square-rootbehavior at large Re1 has been ex-

lO

numbers,

Gr=d3/g(Tw- To)/V2,
Pr= v/Kg.

(5)

o vertical
,_,

(6)

1/2

............
re
1 ..../

Here,/ is the gas'sthermalexpansivity,and g is the accel-

erationdueto gravity.(The productGrPr is calledthe Rayleigh number.)For forcedconvectionin a steadyflow, Re

and Pr sufficeto determineNu. In an oscillatingflow, one
more parametermust be introducedto accountfor the fre-

quency
f of flowreversals.
8 Defining
theStokes
depth,or
viscous diffusion length during an acoustic period, by

..

..

8,=(v/rrf)1/2(Swift's
notationl),
thisadditional
parameter
is
takento be the ratio 6v/d.
The experimentalmethodwas testedby measuringnatural convection(i.e., withoutsound)from a 0.25-mm Re wire

......

........

1 oo

Re

2) areconsistent
withpublished
recommended
values.
17The
figurealsoshowsthat heat transferin the presenceof intense
soundis independentof temperaturedifference.
J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 98, No. 4, October 1995

1o

overa rangeof temperature

differenceTw- To. Results(Fig.

2211

,..
,

, , 1

1 ooo

FIG. 3. NusseltnumberversusacousticReynoldsnumberat fixedfrequency

(142 Hz) for 3/4-mm Ti wire. Resultsare shownfor horizontaland vertical

soundpropagation.
Symbols:
data.Solidlines:corresponding
fitsto Eq. (8).
Dottedline:Eq. (7).

George Mozurkewich'Heat transfer in an acousticstandingwave

2211

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in thatrange.Evenfor the2-mmTi wire(Gr20),Gr/Re

2

neverexceeded3 X 10-3 onceNu increasedaboveits natural-

lO

014,5
Hz

convection

842

the large-velocitybehavior.No methodof plottingNu vs ul

can accountfor the natural-convectionlimit. Clearly some
more involved analysisis required.
According to dimensionalanalysis, heat transfer involves one more parameterin oscillatingflow than in steady

, i i, i ,, i
10

100

Re

1000

flow.
8 In thiswork,thatparameter
is chosen
to be 8v/dso
that all data of the form of any given curve in Fig. 3 or 4
have the samevalue of the additionalparameter.Then, if the

curveis parameterized
as Nu=f(Rel,GrPr), the parameters
themselves
mustdependonly on 8/d. (It mustbe understoodthat Pr is constantthroughoutthis analysis.)

FIG. 4. Nu vs Rel at threefrequencies

for 3/4-mmTi wire. Linesare fits to
Eq. (8). With increasingfrequency,the transitionfrom smallto largeNu
movestoward larger Rel.

plainedas "convectionby time-averagesteady-flowequivalent," as demonstrated

by an early experimentusinga heated

cylinder
in water.
19ukauskas
18recommends
Nu=0.51
Pr'37Re'5for a cylinder
in steady
crossflow,
for 40<Re
<1000. Writing Re=Rel sin(tot) with to=2rrf and averag-

ingRe'5overonehalf-period,
thecorrelation
becomes

Nu=0.39Pr'37
Re
'5,

between

natural-convection

The following empirical form was chosenfor parametrizing the data:

Nu2=Nun2at
+ l+iR----elfit/-e152
.
(8)
KPr
'37
Re
)2
This form attains a constantvalue, Nuna
t, in the limit of
small Rel where naturalconvectionprevails,and it follows

Eq.(7)forlargeRel. Retitis a "critical"

Reynolds
number

(7)

which is alsoplottedin Fig. 3. The asymptoticagreementis

good.
One experimentwas performedto test the effect of orientation of soundvelocity relative to gravity. The acoustic
apparatuswas rotated to make the tube horizontal,while
keepingthe plane of the wire loop horizontalto minimize
interaction

limit.

It would be desirableto find a universalcurve to represent the data. Plotting all data versusRel causeslarge Rel
data to convergetoward a single curve, but the positionof
the transitiondependson frequency.It turns out that the positionsof the transitionscan be fairy well collapsedby plotting Re 8v/d on the abscissa,
but this procedurespreadsout

flows from the two

legsof the "U." In thissingleexperiment

(Fig.3), Nu for the

at which the formula makes a relatively abrupt transition

betweenthe limiting forms. No attemptwill be madeto justify it theoretically.The parameterswere determinedfor each

fixed-frequency
datasetby nonlinear(iterated)least-squares
fit in which the ordinatewas weightedby 1/Nu becausethe
fractional uncertaintyin r--and hence in Nu--is roughly
constant.Examplesof fits are shownin Figs. 3 and 4, and
parametersare recordedin Table I.
The variationsof the parameterswill now be examined.

horizontal orientation was 4% larger in the natural-

Thedependence
of '
tecriton 8/d [Fig. 5(a)] is well repre-

convection
limit,consistent
withthetypical
variations'
ob-

sentedby

servedthroughoutthis experiment,but as much as 25%

larger in the transitionregion.However,previousinvestiga-

tionsfoundlittle,if any,effectof orientation,

2andthefollowing paragrapharguesthat little effect shouldbe expected.
Perhapsthe differenceshownin Fig. 3 has more to do with
the orientation
of soundvelocityrelative to wire plane--for
example, an acousticallymediated thermal interactionbetweenthe two legsof the U. This matterwas not investigated
further.

The importanceof buoyancyeffectsrelative to convec-

tionby externally
induced
motion
is characterized
8 by the
ratioGr/Re.Richardson's
analysis
of data
21indicates
that
buoyancy
becomes
insignificant
whenGr/Re2
< 10-2. Forthe
circumstances
of Fig. 3, Gr0.9; the dottedline corresponding to forcedconvectioncrossesthe natural-convection
limit

forRel8, whereGr/Re
2 1.4X 10-2, whichseems
reasonable. However, Nu begins to increase only for Rel>30,

whereGr/Re2<10
-3. Therefore
littleif anyeffectof buoyancy,and correspondingly
of orientation,shouldbe expected
2212

J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 98, No. 4, October 1995

e, =(13.3+_1.3)

(9)

K containsconsiderablescatterbut indicatesno convincing

variation with 8/d. The large value of K for the largest

diameterwire (TableI) can be broughtmore into line with

the othersby allowingthe exponentof Re to be largerthan
1/2, but, in the interestof restrictingthe numberof variables,
the exponent1/2 was retained anyway. Measuredand predicted values of Nuna
t in the natural convectionlimit are
comparedin Table I. Agreementis good for the threewires
of smallestdiameter.The discrepancyfor the 2-mm Ti wire
is again not understood,although suspicionsmight be directedat the loop's small ratio of center-to-centerwire separation(8 mm) to wire diameter(2 mm); the proximityof the
legswould be expectedto increasethe wire temperaturefor
givenJouleheating,therebyreducingthe predictedvalue of
Nunat

George Mozurkewich:Heat transfer in an acousticstandingwave 2212

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TABLE I. Experimentalresults.First threecolumnsdescribeexperimentalconditions.Next threecolumnslist

parameters
obtained
fromfitsto Eq. (8). Lastcolumngivesexpected
valuesof Nuna
t (seeRef. 17)'

Wire

f (Hz)

,,/d

Rerit

1/8-mm Re

145

1.440

0.280

8.45

841

0.599

0.255

19.0

0.42

1/4-mm Re
3/4-mm Ti

Nuna
t
0.46

145

0.722

0.368

25.6

0.65

840

0.299

0.271

29.6

0.60

143

0.238

0.327

44.2

0.90

278

0.171

0.353

60.2

0.88

422

0.138

0.319

69.7

0.91

842

0.095

0.378

141.0

0.91

2391

0.057

0.270

186.0

0.98

144

0.090

0.425

214.0

1.16

840

0.038

0.425

517.0

1.11

2-mm Ti

One experimentwas performedwith a mixture of 20

mol % argon in helium at approximately1 bar, using the
0.75-mm Ti wire at 230 Hz. Nu vs Re showed the same

Nh'thy
' *nat

0.48
0.60
0.95

1.50

a heatedwire, even at small flow velocity,becausethe same

parcelsof gaswhichabst.
racheatfromthe wire subsequently carry that heat off to infinity. In oscillatingflow,

qualitative
features
andwasfit to the sameform,yielding parcelsreturnrepeatedlyto the vicinity of the hot wire, be-

Nunat=0.41,
K=0.27,andRerit:34.7.

coming hotter on each pass and less able to abstractheat.

In orderto illustratethe qualityof the fit, all data(excludingthe He-Ar mixture)areplottedon a singlecorrela-

Althoughthishindranceis mdsteasilyappreciated
whenthe

tion curve in Fig. 6. Thesedata cover a broadrange of parameters, including 1<Re < 1500, 0.04< ,,/d < 1.4, and
O.002<x/d<210. The principalusefor this curveis to give
a quick visual indicationof the quality of the parametriza-

absence of some additional rfichanism heat transfer should

tion, while Eq. (8) is moreusefulfor obtainingnumbers.

III. DISCUSSION

These measurements

indicate the existence of a bottle-

oscillationamplitudeis less than the wire diameter,in the

be impededevenat largeam151itudes.
In the large-amplitude
limit, the applicabilityof Eq. (7)
impliesthat heatis abstractedfrom the wire as effectivelyas
in steady flow. Apparently the heat is abstractedinto the
flowing parcelsat the samerate as in steadyflow with the
same(instantaneous)
velocityandis thenremovedfrom the
parcelsbefore they can rettirn to the vicinity of the wire.
How

neck that restricts heat removal from a wire in an acoustic

standingwave at intermediatevaluesof acousticamplitude.

Steadyflow is capableof removingheatfrom the vicinityof

is the heat removed?

Two mechanisms

that could re-

move the heat from a parcelwhile it is distantfrom the wire

are buoyancyand acousticstreaming,either of which would
superimpose
a steadycomponentontoits oscillatorymotion.
A third mechanismis thermal diffusion, by which heat in a
parcelcoulddiffuseout into the cooler,surrounding
gasbe-

lOOO

-E

1oo

(.)

15
EE

10
o

0.1

0.01

10

/d
0.6

(b)

0.4

0.2

0.01

dPOo

o o

0.1

o
o.1

10

/d

10

100

1000

Re1/[1
+(13.3d/Re16v)2
2

FIG. 5. Variations
with,,Id of parameters
ReritandK in Eq. (8). The
best-fitline in (a) yieldsEq. (9).

2213

J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 98, No. 4, October 1995

FIG. 6. Correlationplot basedon Eq. (8).

George Mozurkewich:Heat transferin an acousticstandingwave 2213

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fore the parcelreturnsto the vicinity of the wire. Yet a fourth

possiblemechanismis vortex shedding,as the vorticescarry
energy. Whatever mechanism is effective, the important
point is that the rate limiting stepis the transferof heat from

ture difference.This might be regardedas a weak argument

becausethe temperaturedifferencewas not varied widely

thewireintothemoving
gas,whichaccounts
fortheRel/2

and because the orientation of the tube showed some effect.

dependence.Thereafter, sufficient time elapses for the

"other" mechanismto removethat heat from the gas before
the gas returnsto the wire's vicinity. If its effectivenessde-

Nevertheless,even if buoyancyplays somesubsidiaryrole,

to 1.4d. Buoyancy does not seem to be involved because

Reritiswellcorrelated
to 6/dwithout
allusion
totempera-

thepredominant
dependence
of Reriton /d demands
another interpretation.Thermal diffusion does not seem to be

pendson Re1 morestrongly

thanRel/2, thenthe other involvedbecause,by the followingargument,this alsoimmechanismwould becomerate limiting below some lower
value of Re1.
A clue to the identity of the mechanismthat impedes
forced-convection
heat transferat smallerRe1 couldbe pro-

videdbytheobserved
inverse
proportionality
between
Rerit
and 6v/d. It is importantto realizethat the setof dimensionlessnumbersthat was chosenfor this analysisforms a com-

pleteset(withinthe assumption
of incompressible
flow near
the wire):anyotherdimensionless
numberthatcouldpossibly be physicallyrelevantto the presentproblem(Strouhal
number,Froudenumber,or whatever)canbe formedby an
appropriateproductof membersof the chosenset. By substitutingEq. (9) into Eq. (8), onefindsthattheparametrization becomesparticularlysimple in terms of the product
Re1 6v/d, a combinationwhich suggests
acousticstreaming,
as will now be shown.

Acoustic
streaming
induced
by thewireTMis a likely

pliesx 1-d for the critical case.Let L be the lengthof the

wire,Tg thetemperature
of a typicalgasparcel,andb the
thicknessof the thermallayer adjacentto the wire. In order

of magnitude,
27therateat whichhe//tis removed
fromthe
wireis kgLd(Tw-Tg)/b,andtheinteraction
timeis d/u1.
Thus

the

total

amount

of

heat

abstracted

is

kgLd[(Tw- Tg)/b]d/u1- Similarly,

thetotalheattransferred
from

the

parcel to

its

cooler surroundings is

kgLXl[(Tg-To)/b]Xl/U1. The latter expression

assumes
thatthe distanceoverwhichthe heatmustdiffuseis comparable to b, which follows from conservation
of mass.By

equating
these
expressions
andsolving
forTg,onefindsthat
the transition
fromcoolgasto hotgas,Tg=(Tw- T0)/2,
occurswhen x 1-- d.

Resultsfor the helium-argon mixture (Pr=0.40) are

more or lessconsistentwith thosefor air (Pr=0.71). Extensive experimentswith air alone are, of course,unableto dis-

cernanydependence
ofK, Rerit,orNuna
t onPr;thechosen
limit,
4'22
thecharacteristic
streaming
velocity
usinthevicin- parameterization,
Eq. (8), assumesa forced-convection
deityofthewireisus- u/ood,
forwhicha streaming
Reynolds pendence
proportional
toPr'37.
Whereas
themixture's
value
candidatefor the bottleneckmechanism.In the perturbative

number can be defined:7

Resi=

l=

'

K=0.27 falls just one standarddeviationfrom the average

for air (TableI), thatassumption
seemsto be valid.As for the

(10)

Combiningthe last form with Eq. (9), one finds that the

transition,
the mixture's
experimental
value,Rerit=34.7,
falls a little morethanone standarddeviationbelowthe predictedvalueof 39.2_+3.9basedon Eq. (9). However,onecan

transition
is characterized
byRes=88.
Thissimple
result
- generate
aninfinite
setofexpressions
thatareequivalent
in
suggeststhat streamingplays a key role in breaking the

air to Eq. (9), suchas

bottleneck.

Acousticstreamingis a physicallyreasonablemechanism becausethe consequent

steadyflow is capableof carrying heatto greatdistancesfrom the wire. Yet the physical
significance
of Res=88 (or of theequivalent
formx1=6.6

=(15.8-+1.6)

(11)

eachof whicha,rnounts
to a differentassumption
aboutthePr

isnotclear.It maybeworthnoting
thatBertelsen
23observed dependence
ofRerit.Themixture's
experimental
valuefalls
aninstability
nearRes=100ofthestreaming
jet24emanating nearly two standarddeviationsabove the predictedvalue
from a vibratingcylinder.The factthatRes hasbeendefined
usinga perturbative
form for the streamingvelocityraisesa
concern. The ratio of streamingto acousticvelocity is

29.3-+2.9basedon Eq. (11). Therefore,of thesetwo forms

the one basedon 6/d seemsto be preferred,althoughthe
presentdata permit some intermediatePr dependence,like

us/u1--Res/Re1,
whichequals
88/Re
ritat thetransitional Reritc[(
/v)1/2/d]-1.
valueof Re1. Thusin theseexperimentsthe calculatedvalue
of Us/U1 at the transitionrangedup to -10, wherethe per-

The dependence
of heattransferon themagnitudeof Res
thatis foundin theseexperimentsseemsto be unanticipated.

turbative
treatment
fails?Furthermore,
it seems
implausible Richardson's
calculations,
9 applicable
when (5/d<O.1,
on physicalgroundsthat us couldsubstantially
exceedu
Nevertheless, the data indicate that the behavior is controlled

by the numericalvalueof Res as definedin Eq. (10).

To strengthen
the argumentthat streamingis important,
an attemptwill be madehereto systematically
eliminatealternativemechanisms.
Vortexsheddingdoesnot seemto be
involvedbecauseboundary-layer
separation
becomesa con-

founda qualitativechangein behaviorfor Res--10, but that

changewasnot expectedto extendto 8/d>0.3, wheremost
of thepresentmeasurements
fall. The space,of
x l/d vs 8v/d
is shownin Fig. 7 along with the region occupiedby the
presentexperimentsand variousborderlinesanticipatedby

Richardson.
2 Thesolidlineshows
Res=88.It is apparent
that the experimentalbehaviorchangesqualitativelywhere

cernwhenx-d, 26in conflict

withtheempirical
result
that no changewas expected,and that no qualitativechangeis
thetransition
occurswhenx 1--8 for 8vrangingfr6m0.04d
2214

J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 98, No. 4, October 1995.

observedwherechangeswere expected.
GeorgeMozurkewich:Heat transferin an acousticstandingwave 2214

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ments were motivated by a practical problem in thermoacoustics, the results are not directly applicable there.
Measurementsare needed with more realistic geometries,
suchas wire screens,and in the proximity of someheat sink,
preferably a thermoacousticstack.

103
2

100
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
-1

The author is grateful to L. C. Davis, D. F. Gaitan, A.

Gopinath,S. R. Murrell, W. L. Nyborg,V. W. Sparrow,andP.
J. Westerveltfor helpful discussionsand communications.

-2

10-3

........I i o .I

10-3

10-2

10-

.,I
10 0

10
APPENDIX

FIG. 7. Coordinatespaceas dividedup into variousregions(dashedlines)

by Richardson
(seeRef. 2): convection
by inneracousticstreaming(A), by
outeracousticstreaming(B), by time-averagesteady-flowequivalent(C),
andtrivial effects(D). Circles:locationsof datapoints.Solidline:Res=88.
IV. CONCLUSION

Heat transferfrom a heatedwire at a velocity antinode

in an acousticstandingwave was found to fall into three
regimes.For small acousticvelocity, free convectiondominates.For large acousticvelocity, the heat transferis determined by its time-averagesteady-flowequivalent.In this regime, the rate determiningprocessis the abstractionof heat
from the wire into adjacentparcelsof flowing gas;whatever
the processthat eventually carries the heat to infinity, it is
fast enough that it does not limit the overall heat-transfer
rate. The transitionbetweenthe two limiting regimesoccurs
for Res=88. In the vicinity of this Res, that other process,
which appearsto be acousticstreaming,is the rate limiting
step.

This sectionpresentsthe solutionto Eq. (1), which describesthe axial temperaturedistributionin a cylinder subject to convectiveheat transportthroughits cylindrical surface. Based on the argument in the text, the radial
temperaturevariation within the cylinder is assumednegligible; the only relevantcoordinateis z, which lies alongthe
cylinderaxis. The wire initially attainsa steadytemperature
distributionby being subjectedto steadyJoule heating,and
the transientbehaviorthat ensuesafter turning off the Joule
heating is to be determined.The wire's ends at z =- L will
be assumedto be maintainedat temperatureT,.

Effectsof Jouleheatingq* per unit volumemay be includedby addingq* to theleft-handsideof Eq. (1). Defining

O(z,t)= rw(z,t)-r 0 andX-(ksA/hlI)u2,it becomes

092
0

1 090 q*
ks .

(A1)

Upon omitting the first term on the right-hand side and de-

finingU=q*X2/ks,thesteady-state
solution
is easilyfound
to be

In this experiment, the wire interactedthermally only

with gas in an open tube, while in thermoacousticengines,
the heat exchangersare locatedimmediately adjacentto the
stack. From the standpointof thermoacousticapplications,
the most importantpracticalquestioninvolves the effect of
the proximity of the stack. Provided that the gas parcels
move far enoughto interactwith the stack,the stackis presumablycapableof transferringheatto or from the parcelsas
necessary.If so, the presenceof the stack would open the
bottleneckin the intermediateregime, and the heat-transfer
coefficientwould increaseto the value expectedfrom timeaverage steady-flow equivalent. Therefore, provided that
x >>d, the relevant heat-transferrate could presumablybe

cosh(z/X)

O(z,O)U-(U+ro-rb)cosh(L/X)
'

Several directionsfor further investigationmay be suggested. All these measurementswere performed with the
wire located at a velocity antinode. By locating the wire
elsewhere,one could explore the heat-transfereffect of the
streamingpattern induced by the resonanttube's walls, as
well as any possibleinfluenceof a superimposed
oscillatory
pressure.In this work only one gas mixture was used.More
extensive

measurements

with

mixtures

are needed

to sub-

stantiate
thedependence
of te
' criton Pr. While theseexperiJ. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 98, No. 4, October 1995

(A2)

The subsequenttransient solution was found by Laplace

transformation.

The result is

cosh(z/X)

O(z,t)=(rb
- To)cosh(L/k)
n=O /'(/
q-21-)
1q-/.2(/
q-21_)2(k2/L
2)

estimatedfrom Eq. (7).

2215

z2 h20- Ks 8t

Xexp- Ks +

L2

t.

(A3)

The reader may confirm that it satisfiesEq. (A1) (with

q*=0), the boundaryconditions,and the initial condition.
[For the initial condition,considerthe Fourier-series
representationof Eq. (A2) on an intervalof length4L.] The experiment measuresnot the temperaturedistributionbut the
resistance.Taking the resistanceto be linear in T, its variable
part R(t) is proportionalto the spatialintegralof Eq. (A3)
from

-L

to L. Thus

George Mozurkewich: Heat transfer in an acoustic standing wave

2215

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soundfields on free convectionheat transferfrom a horizontalcylinder,"

J. Aero. Sci. 26, 188 (1959).

n=0 yr2(n+ )2 1+ yr2(n+ )2(X2/L2)

7p.j. Westervelt,
"Effectof soundwavesonheattransfer,"
J.Acoust.Soc.
Am. 32, 337-338 (1960).

Xexp- gs'+

L2

t.

(A4)

8j. Kestin,Trans.ASMEJ. HeatTransfer

83, 143-146(1961).
9p.D. Richardson,
"Heattransfer
froma circular
cylinder
by acoustic
streaming,"J. Fluid Mech. 30, 337-355 (1967).

1B.J.Davidson,
"Heattransfer
froma vibrating
circular
cylinder,"
Int.J.

The amplitudesof the successiveterms fall off initially

Heat Mass Transfer16, 1703-1727 (1973).

like (n+ 1/2)-2;compared

to n=0, n= 1 is already
reduced J.A. Peterka
andP.D. Richardson,
"Effects
of sound
onlocaltransport
from a heatedcylinder,"Int. J. Heat MassTransfer27, 1511-1523 (1984).
bya factorof 9. Once2(n + 1/2)2>L/X,theyfalloffeven
fasten (In the experiments,2<L/X<35.) Furthermore,the
higher terms have shorterdecay times and affect only the
initial behaviorof R(t). Therefore,to a good approximation
the decayis dominatedby the n =0 term, and the time constantis givenby Eq. (2).
The form of the exponential
in Eqs. (A3) and (A4) can
be deducedby regardingthe overall decayas the productof
two one-dimensional
problems,one eachfor radial and axial

2W.L. Cooper,
K. T. Yang,andV.W.Nee,"Fluidmechanics
of oscillatory
and modulated flows and associatedapplicationsin heat and mass
transfer--Areview,"J. EnergyHeat MassTransfer15, 1-19 (1993).

13A. J. Chapman,
Fundamentals
of HeatTransfer
(Macmillan,
NewYork,
1987),combination
of Eqs.(2.6) and(3.55).

14Ref.13,p. 119.
15V.S.Arpaci,Conduction
HeatTransfer
(Addison-Wesley,
Reading,
MA,
1966),p. 53.

16y.S.rouloukian
andD. P.DeWitt,in Thermophysical
Properties
ofMatter, (IFI/Plenum,New York, 1970),Vol. 7, Figs. 168 and220.

Adv.HeatTransfer
11,
heattransfer.
28Thetwocontributions
to Eq.(2) correspond,17V.T. Morgan,"Heattransferfromcylinders,"

respectively,to these two solutions,each of which can be

deducedsimply by elementarymeans.
The endswere assumedto be held at constanttemperature Tb . In fact, Tb will also decay once the Joule heating
has been stopped.In most cases,the central portion of the
wire, which is exposedto acousticflow, will decay faster
than T. However, it shouldbe apparentthat the exact end
conditionshave little effect on mostof the wire providedthat
L >>X.Thereforeany temporalvariationof T appearsonly as
a correction

to the correction.

2p.D. Richardson,
"Effects
ofsound
andvibrations
onheattransfer,"
Appl.
P. Mason(Academic,New York, 1965),Vol. II, PartB, pp. 265-331.

oscillatinghorizontalwire to water," Trans. ASME J. Heat Transfer 84,

251-256 (1962).

20R. M. Fand,"Mechanism
of interaction
between
vibrations
andheattransfer," J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 34, 1887-1894 (1962).

21Ref.9, Fig.5.
22H.Schlichting,
Boundary-Layer
Theory
(McGraw-Hill,
NewYork,1979),
7th ed. p. 428.

23A. F.Bertelsen,
"Anexperimental
investigation
ofhighReynolds
number
24B.J.Davidson
andN. Riley,"Jets
induced
byoscillating
motion,"
J.Fluid
Mech. 53, 287-303 (1972).

1180 (1988).
Mech. Rev. 20, 201-217 (1967).

Transfer8, 93-160 (1972),TableI. Also Ref. 13, p. 347.

19F.K. Deaver,
W. R. Penney,
andT. B. Jefferson,
"Heattransfer
froman

steadystreaminggeneratedby oscillatingcylinders,"J. Fluid Mech. 64,

589-597 (1974).

1O.W. Swift,"Thermoacoustic
engines,"
J.Acoust.
Soc.Am.84, 1145-

3W.L. Nyborg,"Acoustic
streaming,"
in Physical
Acoustics,
editedbyW.

199-264 (1975), TableII.

18A.A. ukauskas,
"Heattransfer
fromtubesin cross
flow,"Adv.Heat

25W.P.Raney,J. C. Corelli,andP.J. Westervelt,

J.Acoust.
Soc.Am.26,
1006-1014 (1954).

26j. r. Stuart,
"Double
boundary
layers
in oscillatory
viscous
flow,"J.Fluid
Mech. 24, 673-687 (1966).

27Thisargument
follows
in spiritthatofC. P.LeeandT. G.Wang,"Acous4j. Lighthill,"Acoustic
streaming,"
J. Sound
Vib.61,391-421(1978).
5C.T. WalkerandC. E. Adams,"Thermal
effects
of acoustic
streaming tic radiationforce on a heatedsphereincludingeffectsof heattransferand
neara cylindricalobstacle,"J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 31, 813-814 (1959).

acousticstreaming,"J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 83, 1324-1331 (1988).

6j. p. HolmanandT. P. Mott-Smith,

"Effectof highconstant
pressure 28Ref.15,p. 301;Ref.13,p. 140.

2216

J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 98, No. 4, October1995

George Mozurkewich:Heat transferin an acousticstandingwave 2216

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