LOCAL STUDIES

The study conducted by Garcia E., entitled Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement in

Concrete Construction in Coastal Areas: Causes and Preventive Measures, is
somewhat similar to the researchers paper. The study tackles how the corrosion
reinforcing steel in concrete can be one of the leading causes of early deterioration of
concrete structures especially those in the coastal areas which are highly exposed to
chlorides. Corrosion results from this complex phenomenon associated to physical,
structural, chemical and environmental concerns.
The development of cracking and deterioration of concrete is proven to be more
severe in coastal areas than in any other terrestrial environment. This is the result of
salt-laden air zone, which may encompass inland one to three kilometres from the
shoreline or by the mere presence of soluble salts in soils, ground water or water used
in compaction, which migrate to the surface as water goes to the atmosphere through
evaporation.
The concrete was tested if it could resist high compressive stresses excluding
tensile stresses. To know the answer to this problem, steel was used as strengthening
or reinforcement to support the concrete material against tensile stresses. Thus, the
term steel reinforced concrete or simply reinforced concrete is applied.
The focus was more on effective construction instead of relying on long term
durability and stability of structures. Still, the effect of the coastal environment to
reinforced concrete structures was not well understood. Reinforced concrete was known
because of its durability as a construction material. It was believed that using it may be

convenient since it could last for a very long time and no maintenance is needed at all.
However, the exposure of reinforced concrete on coastal areas changes the stability
and other known characteristics of the concrete. It makes one wonder what happened
to the most durable construction material in the construction industry. But still, there are
certain environments that can compromise the durability of reinforced concrete and
lessen the service life.
Based on the study of Borgonia, E. entitled, Determination of Chloride Threshold
for Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel Bars in Simulated Pore Solution Using
Potentiodynamic Techniques, steel reinforced concrete has been extensively used for
more than a century because of its durability and since it is an economical and flexible
construction material. Both steel and concrete have identical coefficient of thermal
expansion making it ideal for construction. Also, the way chloride ions induce corrosion
in reinforced steel was discussed. Chloride ions are the major reason behind the
corrosion of steel in concrete.
Chlorides could either be casted into concrete or diffused during the service life.
This happens in a de-icing salt environment or in a marine environment through sea salt
spray or direct wetting. The chloride-induced corrosion of steel reinforcement only starts
after the concentration of chloride near the steel reinforcement reaches the minimum
concentration required. Chloride ions corrosion threshold is a key parameter in the
design of structure along marine coastline. It has been observed and measured in
laboratory tests together with calcium hydroxide solutions. The value obtained here was
used to determine the maximum chloride that the cement can accumulate before the
chloride ions initiate the corrosion of steel bars implanted in concretes. The usual

chloride threshold measured is 0.59 kilogram per cubic meter (pound per cubic yard).
Corrosion occurs when the chloride concentration go beyond 0.6 of the hydroxyl
concentration, approximately 0.6% by weight of used cement.

CORROSION INHIBITOR AND CALCIUM NITRATE

Corrosion of the reinforcing steel bar or simply rebar in reinforced concrete
structures is probably the most common reason for distress and restoration, and the
penetration of chloride is more often the cause than carbonation. The addition of a
certain corrosion inhibitor to the concrete formula for structures prone to chloride attack
is one preventive measure that may increase the life span or time to necessary
expensive repair. Corrosion protection is not essential for the first year of the life of the
concrete, but must be effective when destructive species, such as chlorides, enter the
rebar surface.

A corrosion inhibitor is defined as a compound that delays on-set of corrosion but

does not stop it from occurring. Addition of an inhibitor is only a preventive measure for
corrosion but not a cure for the corrosion itself. The effectiveness of a corrosion inhibitor
depends on fluid composition, quantity of water, and flow regime. It functions in several
ways to retard or delay the corrosion mechanism: in simple terms, they form a chemical
inhibition film on the steel reinforcement at either the anode or cathode, or both.

The addition to concrete of chemical corrosion inhibitors presents a simple,

economically viable alternative to other techniques and is increasing in popularity. As
well as providing a physical barrier to the ingress of aggressive species, concrete
provides corrosion protection of embedded reinforcing steel by: (1) formation of a
protective passive film due to the alkaline nature of the pore solution in concrete;

(2) high electrical resistance of concrete limiting galvanic corrosion; (3) formation of
mineral deposits on the rebar, protecting the steel from reacting with the environment.
Unfortunately, the protective nature of this film can be compromised by a number of
factors:
i. the alkaline nature of the pore solution can be reduced as a result of
carbonation or neutralization - due to the penetration and reaction of acidic gases
(eg. Ca, SO,) from the surrounding air - resulting in general or uniform corrosion;
ii. the presence of aggressive ions, particularly Cl-, can lead to local breakdown
of the passive film, often in the form of pitting corrosion;
iii. low oxygen environments (eg. submerged or underground structures) may be
incapable of maintaining the passive film, causing low general/uniform corrosion
(Mammoliti, 2001).

Calcium nitrate is a well-tested and proven corrosion inhibitor that can provide
additional safe guard to concretes exposed to aggressive environments and offer
significant improvement in corrosion-resistance if used with good quality concrete.
Calcium nitrate alone serves as a good and efficient setting accelerator for cements.
The set accelerating efficiency of calcium nitrate relies in the kind and composition of
cement used. It is also more cost-effective, less harmful in the environment and more
available compared to other corrosion inhibitors.

Calcium nitrate inhibitors are the only inhibitors in large scale commercial use in
concrete structures throughout the world. This is mainly due to the fulfilment of three
important criteria:
i. they provide corrosion inhibition in the presence of chlorides;
ii. at the recommended dosage, they are not detrimental to concrete properties;
iii. they are available in sufficient quantities for commercial use (Berke 198%
Berke 1992).

Nitrate takes effect by transforming ferric hydroxide to ferrous hydroxide, which

is assumed to be more protective. As the proposed mechanism is considered similar to
that of corrosion inhibition by nitrite, they prefer the use of calcium nitrate as Iarger
quantities of ferric hydroxide are oxidized to ferrous hydroxide. Also, a decrease in pH
with addition of Calcium nitrate thereby increases the [CI-]/[OH-] ratio, which is
considered an indication of the level of chloride needed to initiate corrosion. (Mammoliti,
2001).

As a corrosion inhibitor, calcium nitrate is effective in delaying the onset of

reinforcement corrosion in the concrete specimens incorporating seawater and chloride
solution. The rates become lower with the addition of calcium nitrate as the corrosion
initiates. Calcium nitrate acts as a passivator, counteracting the damaging action of
chloride ions on steel through the presence of nitrate ions. However, they also act as an
accelerator when dosed into fresh concrete, increasing slump loss and reducing setting
time.