Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Professor of Linguistics
Cairo University
Cairo University
&
For
My Late Father
My Late Mentor Prof. Muhammad Yahya
My Mother
My Sisters
whose patience, optimism, moral support and love
have been a perpetual source of ambition and hope.
Acknowledgements
I thank Allah the Almighty for granting me the determination and strength to
complete my dissertation, a dream still invincible.
I owe a great debt of gratitude to many people, without their help, support,
encouragement and advice this study could not have been written. In particular, I
would like to thank my late Professor Muhammad Yahya, whom I owe more than I
can repay. I am sincerely indebted to him for his patience, nobility, inspiring remarks
and fruitful suggestions. Academically, he spared no effort to revise my dissertation
chapter by chapter once and twice, in spite of his many commitments, and to provide
me with the necessary materials and valuable references. Personally, he was to me a
second father, for whom I felt a real filial affection. His heart and friendly voice still
echo in my ears. His door was ever open to academics, scholars and students. Indeed,
he was a source of hope, optimism and inspiration. He was seized with an irresistible
determination to lead an active and interesting life up to the very end. His disability
never held him back. May his soul rest in peace! Amen!
I am also honored to be supervised by Professor Khaled Tawfiq, whom I do not only
consider my mentor, but also my elder brother and a close friend. Without
exaggeration, he was, and still is, my source of ambition and a shining star, guiding
all his followers to the right track. He never lets you down once you have his
commitment. For me, he has been one of the few role models, who combined modesty
with knowledge and respect with fascination. Really, I am lucky to be where I am
today due to his sincere efforts, care and supportive nature. Words of gratitude and
appreciation are not sufficient for all I owe him.
As for my Professor Abdel-Hakim Radi, words fail me when I attempt to express my
gratitude for his invaluable help during the course of my dissertation. I am impressed
by his knowledge and joyful approach to a hardworking world of academia. I had the
privilege of being shaped by his smiling face, his simplicity, his modesty, his
generosity and, above all, his encyclopedic knowledge and parental affection. Indeed,
I am proud of being one of his students.
Also, I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to my supervisor Professor
Gabriel S. Reynolds, Professor of Islamic Studies, the University of Notre Dame,
whose guidance and constant advice have been vital for the completion of this
research. Really, I am so honored to be supervised by such a prolific scholar and a
well-known figure among both the foreign and the American intellectuals. I was very
pleasantly surprised at the warm welcome and hospitality I received at both his office
and his home, not to mention his generous invitations at various restaurants. I can
never forget his first tour at the Hesburgh library, where he showed me how to borrow
and check out books, and where a large collection of Islamic and Arabic references
and chronicles lies. I was in his constant care through instant messages and regular
emails. Above all, his patience and open-mindedness stimulate open discussion
whenever we meet, believing that difference of opinions does not spoil amity.
Becoming a Visiting Researcher at Notre Dame University for 2 years has greatly
benefited me, as the University is full of opportunities for learning, leadership and
personal growth. I must thank the staff and the university in general for making this
ii
iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract
iii
Table of Contents
iv
List of Figures
xviii
Abbreviations Used
xix
xx
Specific Rules
xxiii
Introduction
I- Theoretical Background
Chapter One
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
1.10
17
Methodology
18
20
1.12.1 Questionnaire
20
20
22
1.12.1.3 Participants
23
1.12.1.4 Procedures
24
24
2010)
iv
25
25
25
26
1.16.1 Anonymity
26
26
27
28
28
30
Chapter Two
39
39
39
40
41
41
42
43
43
44
45
45
46
47
47
48
49
49
2.15.2 Objectivity
49
50
50
51
2.16.1 Defamiliarization
51
2.16.2 Foregrounding
52
2.16.3 Deviation
52
53
55
57
58
59
60
60
61
63
64
65
Words
2.20.2.1.5 Plural Form-based Usage
65
66
66
2.20.2.2.1 Collocations
67
68
69
71
71
71
72
Chapter Three
74
74
74
75
77
vi
78
78
79
79
80
80
81
82
82
83
84
85
85
85
3.15.3 Adaptation
86
3.15.4 Auto-translation
87
87
87
87
88
88
89
90
90
90
90
91
92
92
92
93
93
93
vii
93
94
94
94
94
95
95
3.15.29 Pseudotranslation
96
96
97
97
3.15.33 Transcription
97
3.15.34 Transliteration
97
100
100
100
102
104
105
106
106
107
108
108
109
109
110
110
111
Wilson (1995))
3.23 Translators' Practical Strategies
111
Chapter Four
viii
4. Morpho-semantic Shifts
116
116
116
116
116
117
117
117
119
119
120
121
122
123
123
123
123
124
amhil
4.1.2.2 Instrumental (Contextual) Header
124
124
125
Structure
4.1.2.2.3 Morphological Patterns-based Interpretation
4.1.2.3 Output (Translation) Header
127
127
128
128
129
130
131
132
134
ix
134
134
134
135
Tawafft-hum to tatawaffhum
4.2.1.2 Instrumental (Contextual) Header
136
136
137
139
139
140
141
141
142
143
145
146
Findings
4.2.1.4.2 Justification-based Choices of the Participants
4.2.2 T-prefixed Forms: tadhakkarn and tatadhakkarn
4.2.2.1 Precondition (Exegetical) Header
4.2.2.1.1 Seemingly-Exotic Word Order
4.2.2.2 Instrumental (Contextual) Header
147
149
149
149
150
150
151
151
151
152
152
153
155
155
157
158
158
159
160
161
Questionnaire Findings
4.2.2.4.2 Justification-based Choices of the Participants
161
Chapter Five
164
5. Morphologically-Assimilated Forms
164
164
164
164
5.1.1.2 Directionality
165
166
166
167
168
168
168
169
169
5.1.2.8 Subaudition
170
170
171
173
173
173
174
174
175
176
176
176
176
xi
177
178
178
179
179
179
179
180
181
5.1.3.19 Inconsistency
181
182
182
183
184
185
185
185
185
5.2.1.2.1 Menses
185
5.2.1.2.2 Vagina
186
186
186
186
187
187
(cleanliness)
5.2.2.2 Exegetical Analysis
188
188
189
190
190
192
192
xii
193
193
194
194
195
195
196
5. Patterns-Medial Fortition
198
198
198
198
198
199
199
200
c
200
200
201
202
203
204
205
205
205
206
206
206
207
207
208
210
xiii
210
210
211
211
213
213
213
214
214
214
215
215
215
216
217
5.4.2.10 Deviation from iktal min al-nas into iktal cala al-nas
217
218
219
219
220
220
221
221
222
Chapter Six
225
225
225
225
226
226
227
227
227
228
228
xiv
228
229
229
230
230
231
6.6.3.3 Ghl's
231
232
234
234
234
234
235
236
238
238
239
239
240
240
240
241
242
243
243
243
244
244
245
246
6.7.3.4 Wordiness
246
247
247
xv
247
248
250
250
250
250
251
251
252
252
252
253
253
254
255
255
255
256
258
258
258
259
260
261
263
263
264
264
264
265
265
266
266
xvi
267
267
268
270
270
270
271
Conclusion
274
Bibliography
280
A- English Titles
280
B- Arabic Titles
288
Appendix
293
xvii
List of Figures
Fig. 1
Shift in Pronouns
Fig. 2
73
Fig. 3
76
Fig. 4
90
Fig. 5
94
Fig. 6
103
Fig. 7
107
xviii
Abbreviations Used
The abbreviations used in this dissertation are shown below:
Symbol
Meaning
ST
Source Text
SL
Source Language
SR
Source Reader
TT
Target Text
TL
Target Language
TR
Target Reader
AD
AH
After Hijra
cf.
Compare
e.g.
i.e.
p.
Page
pp.
Pages
Q.
Qur'an
xix
Description
Voiceless glottal
stop
Voiced bilabial
stop
Voiceless dental
stop
Voiceless
interdental fricative
Voiced palatal
affricate
Voiceless
pharyngeal
fricative
Voiceless velar
fricative
Voiced dental stop
Voiced interdental
fricative
Voiced alveolar
trill
Voiced alveolar
fricative
Voiceless alveolar
fricative
Voiceless palato-
English
Graphological
Equivalent
Examples
arnab (rabbit)
bint (girl)
tamr (dates)
th
thawm (garlic)
jabal (mountain)
ulm dream
kh
kharf ram
d
dh
dalw (bucket)
dhahab (gold)
raqam (number)
samn fat
sh
sharq (east)
Here, I prefer the term 'transliteration', and not 'transcription', as 'transliteration' is the replacement of
the SL phonological units or writing systems by the TL phonological units, which, according to Catford
(1965), "are not translation equivalents, since they are not selected on the basis of relationship to the
same graphic substance" (p. 66). This replacement does not haphazardly take place, but on the contrary
it depends on a 'conventionally established set of rules', specifying transliteration equivalents, which
differ from translation equivalents. For further details, see Chapter Three.
xx
alveolar fricative
Voiceless alveolar
emphatic fricative
Voiced alveolar
emphatic stop
Voiced alveolar
emphatic stop
Voiced interdental
emphatic fricative
Voiced pharyngeal
fricative
Voiced uvular
fricative
Voiceless labiodental fricative
Voiceless uvular
stop
Voiceless velar
stop
Voiced dental
lateral
Voiced bilabial
nasal
Voiced alveolar
nasal
Voiceless glottal
fricative
Voiced bilabial
semi-vowel
Voiced palatal
semi-vowel
ib friend
arar harm
abaq plate
al m dark
gh
gharb strange
famm (mouth)
qalam (pen)
kal m (speech)
labb smart
m
n
murakkab
(compound)
n r fire
hirrah (cat)
wardah (flower)
yamm (sea)
arab Arabic
Example
dd
/shadd/
grasp firmly
/daqq/
knock
Here, for example, the consonants /d/ and /q/ in the words /shadd/ (grasp firmly) and
/daqq/ (knock) are doubled. Geminate consonants are additional tenseness-controlling
units, represented by a compensating lengthening of their single counterparts in
another language. This phonetic phenomenon is very common in Arabic.
xxi
3- Diacritical Marks
A- Nunation
Nunation is peculiar to Arabic. It is a finally-attached phonetic sound to indefinite
nouns and adjectives. Additionally, it is a grammatically-based case, as per the
following scheme:
Arabic Diacritical
Mark
-
-
Grammatical
Case Ending
English
Graphological
Equivalent
-an
-un
-in
Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
Examples
Baytan
Baytun
Baytin
B- Case Endings
Mark
Description
English Graphological
Equivalent
English
Example
Graphological Graphological
Units
Equvalent
asr r
secrets
shuhd
witnesses
nabl
noble
xxii
Specific Rules
The definite article , which is initially attached to nouns, is transliterated as al/el-. Accordingly, Arabic nouns will be transliterated as they are graphically written,
not as they are phonetically pronounced. For example, the word ( the sun) will
be transliterated al-shams, not ash-shams.
xxiii
Introduction
Introduction
This study attempts to analyze morpho-semantic shifts in some selected
English translations of the Quran, namely, Ahmad Zidan2 and Dina Zidans The
Glorious Quran: Text & Translation 1991 , Taq al-D n al-Hil l 3 and Muhammad
Muhsin Kh ns Translation of the Meanings of the Noble Qur'an in the English
Language (1996), Muhammad M. Gh l s Towards Understanding the Ever-Glorious
Quran (2003) and M. S. Abdel-Haleems The Quran: A New Translation (2004).
This necessarily implies a comparative approach to Arabic, the Source Language
(SL), and English, the Target Language (TL).
Reasons for choosing the four translations in question:
The four translators are competent in both the SL, i.e., Arabic, and the TL, i.e.,
English. For example, Abdel-Haleem, Gh l and Zidan are native speakers of
Arabic with near native English while Kh n, a native speaker of English,
masters Arabic as well. As for Arabic, they have "absorbed the nuances of its
idiom and its phraseology with an active associative response within
[themselves], and hearing it with an ear spontaneously attuned to the intent
underlying the acoustic symbolism of its words and sentences" (Muhammad
Asad, 2003, p. viii);
In rendering the meanings of the Quran, the said translators follow the
traditional order of the suras rather than the chronological order;
The authors' names, such as Ahmad Zidan and Dina Zidan, Taq Al-D n al-Hil l and Muhammad
Muhsin Kh n, Muhammad M. Ghl, and M. S. Abdel-Haleem, etc., though in Arabic, are written in
the present paper in conformity with their original works under study. Both Ahmad Zidan and Dina
Zidan will also be referred to as "Zidan" throughout the whole study.
3
oth Taq Al-D n al-Hil l and Muhammad Muhsin Kh n will be referred to as "Kh n" throughout
the whole study.
All of them are contemporary and their translations are written in modern
English, which reads easily and flows smoothly;
All of them are eager to address those who do not speak Arabic as a first
language, and those who are curious about the true understanding of Islam,
aiming at reproducing an appropriate translation of the Qur'an that is devoid of
"decontextualisation", "misinterpretation" or "bias" (M. Abdel-Haleem, 2004,
p. xxiv);
All of them believe that their translations can never be a substitute for the
Quran, "but the best expression [they] can give to the fullest meaning" (Yusuf
Ali, 1946, p. iv).
Morpho-semantic shifts are part of the Quranic discourse. That is to say the
be easily captured in translation unless a translator is fully aware of these shifts and of
their rhetorical purposes as well.
Although the two previous patterns, i.e., faccala and afcala, are employed to
express hyperbole, the former indicates a greater degree of hyperbole than the latter.
Thus, difference in morphological forms results in difference in lexical meaning. In
this regard, a distinction must be made between them to illuminate the fog of
language and to convey the content with minimal loss during the process of
translation.
Finally, the present study is divided into two parts, i.e., a theoretical part and a
practical part, a conclusion and a bibliography. Each part encompasses three chapters,
which are respectively as follows:
Chapter One discusses the concept of al-iltifat (shift) in Arabic, paying
special attention to its various genres, and the multiple significations of morphological
patterns in Arabic and their translations into English. In fact, it represents an
introduction to the following chapters that tackle rhetorical and stylistic
considerations inherent in morphological shifts in the Qur'an.
Chapter Two is concerned with surveying the various stylistic approaches to
translation and discussing the importance of stylistic dimension a translator should
maintain during the process of translation. It also explores the miraculous style of the
Qur'an and elaborates on the inimitable symphony of the Qur'an that moves "men to
tears and ecstasy", as Pickthall (1981: i) states.
Chapter Three investigates the multiple categorizations of the process of
meaning-transfer and examines inclusively the strategies and techniques adopted by
translators to reshape the ST adequately and to convey the communicative function
properly. It also probes deeply into the translator's double duty, i.e., as a reader of the
original and as a re-producer of the source text. Through this chapter, the researcher
attempts to show how translation is not a mere replacement of a ST by an equivalent
TL text.
After discussing the theoretical aspects of both stylistics and translation, a
practical inquiry into the various significations of morphological patterns in the
Qur'an and their translations into English is thoroughly launched in Chapter Four.
This chapter handles practically some selected morpho-semantic shifts in the four
translations of the Qur'an in question. In this chapter, not only a linguistic distinction
between these shifts is made, but also exegetical and contextual investigations are
extensively conducted. Additionally, it analyzes and evaluates the translations
suggested by the four translators in question. Finally, a suitable and appropriate
translation, which neither distorts the original message nor widens the cultural gap
between the SR and the TR, is proposed responsively.
Chapter
Five
discusses
the
practical
aspects
in
rendering
some
Six
selectively
but
thoroughly
scrutinizes
context-bound
I- Theoretical Background
Chapter One
Chapter One
Al-iltift (shift) in Arabic
In this chapter, I will discuss the concept of al-iltifat (shift) in Arabic, paying
special attention to its various genres, and the multiple significations of morphological
patterns in Arabic and their translations into English. In fact, it represents an
introduction to the following chapters that tackle rhetorical and stylistic
considerations inherent in morphological shifts in the Qur'an.
In other words, this chapter investigates in-depth mono-functional patterns,
such as faclah / ficlah and mifcal / mifcl, which indicate one semantic value, and
multi-functional patterns, such as afcal and faccal, which indicate various semantic
values or significations.
1.1 A Historical Overview
asan abl 1988 believes that morpho-semantic shifts represent some types of
what is called in Arabic al-iltift, which is regarded as one of the most recurrent and
common rhetorical phenomena in Arabic literature, especially poetry. It was skillfully
employed by poets of the pre-Islamic era. The famous lines of one of these poets,
including but limited to Imril-Qays, are always quoted to illustrate this feature, as
follows:
[al-amdu li-llahi rabb al-clamn*1 al-ramn al-ram* mlik yawm al-dn* iyyka
nacbud wa-iyyka nastacn] (Q. 1: 2-5). Here, there is a departure from the 3rd person
inherent in the first three verses, i.e., 'al-amdu lilahi rabbil-clamn* al-ramn alram* mlik yawm al-dn', to the 2nd person inherent in the final verse, i.e., 'iyyka
nacbud wa-iyyka nastacn' (Ibn al-Athr d. 637/1239 , 1959, II, p. 170);
2) Shift in Number, including singular, dual and plural, as in: (
( ) 3 :[ )wa-in ifatni min al-muminna iqtatal fa-ali
baynahuma ] Q. 49: 9 . Here, there is a departure from dual, i.e., ifatni, into
plural, i.e., iqtatal;
3) Shift in Morphological Patterns, namely in verbs and nouns, leads to a change in
[ ) qlat man
lexical meaning, as in: (3 : ( )
anbaaka hadha qala nabbaniya al-calmu al-khabr] (Q. 66: 3). Here, there is a shift
in anbaa, which is in the measure of afcala, and nabbaa, which is in the measure of
faccala. Such a shift indicates a semantic value as will be shown later;
4) Shift in Articles includes definite, indefinite, addition and omission, as in: (
( )66 :[ )innama al-adaqtu lil-fuqari wal-maskni
] Q. 9: 60 . Here, there is a departure from one article, i.e., al-lm, as in lil-fuqar,
into another one, i.e., al-waw, as in wal-maskn. Although the two articles are similar
in general function, they are different in specific performance;
5) Shift in Syntactic Structure includes a change from the accusative case, e.g.,
salman, into the nominative case, e.g., salmun, as in: (
c
but they differ in their marginal or contextual connotation or nuances cf. Ibr hm
Ans, 1965, pp. 106-07), e.g., sanah and cm, as in: (
)
(44 :[ )wa-laqad arsalna nan ila qawmihi fa-labitha fhim
alfa sanah illa khamsna cm] (Q. 29: 14).
1.3 Various Names of al-iltift
The Arabs were accustomed to departing from al-ghaybah (third person) to alkhitb (address), or from al-khitb (address) to al-ghaybah (third person) to capture
the readers attention and to refresh the hearers memory cf. Ibn al-Athr d.
637/1239), 1959, II, p. 168). This phenomenon was not labeled al-iltift until the time
of ibn al-Muctazz (d. 296/908), but it was given various names, such as al-arf, alinrf, al-cudl, al-talawn and mukhlafat muqtaa al-hir. All of these names are
now less common than the term al-iltift (Ibn al-Athr d. 637/1239 , 1959, II, p. 168 .
1.4 The Most Common Type of al-iltift
Obviously, Arabic abounds in this rhetorical phenomenon though it is no
longer limited to shift in pronouns, as in:
(
)22 :( )
[huwa alladh yusayyirukum f al-barr wa-al-bar atta idha kuntum f al-fulki wajarayna bihim bi-rin ayyibatin wa-fari biha jt-ha rhun cifun wa-jahum almawju min kulli maknin wa-ann annahum uia bihim dacaw Allaha mukhlina
lahu al-dna lain anjaytana min hadhihi la-naknanna min al-shkirn] (Q. 10: 22).
Shift in Pronouns
al-khitb
al-ghaybah
(Address)
(Third Person)
al-mutakallim
(First Person)
(yusayyirukum /
(bihim / fari /
(anjaytana / la-
kuntum)
jahum / ann /
naknanna)
dacaw)
Fig. 1 Shift in Pronouns
The Speaker (Allah) departs from al-khitb, i.e., yusayyirukum and kuntum, into alghaybah, i.e., bihim, fari, jcahum, ann and dacaw, then into al-mutakallim, i.e.,
anjaytana and la-naknanna (Ibn al-Athr d. 637/1239 , 1959, II, pp. 177-178). But,
in fact, al-iltift expands to imply any morphological, semantic, syntactical or lexical
change in the content affecting the core meaning or the deep structure asan abl,
1998, p. 55).
In the case of the Quran, such a phenomenon, i.e., morpho-semantic shift, is
extensively used. For that reason, it requires more examination and attentive study to
convey the rhetorical effectiveness of the Quranic discourse.
1.5 Statement of the Research Problem
Shift in morphological patterns is one of the most outstanding features in the
Quranic discourse. In other words, the Quran abounds in various patterns that are
motivated, semantically and stylistically. For instance, there are facala as in nazala;
afcala as in anzala; faccala as in nazzala; tafaccala as in tanazzala; tatafaccalu as in
tatanazzalu; fcil as in ghfir; faccl as in ghaffr; facl as in ghafr, etc. Such shifts
9
are not expected to represent any problem if the translator has the ability to
distinguish between them and/or to find adequate equivalents in the target language
(TL), capable of conveying the message without distortion.
In the case of the Quran, translators may fail to distinguish between various
morphological forms due to their different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. In this
regard, Edward Sapir (1957) emphasizes the discrepancies that exist in languages due
to culture. He tries to draw translators attention to the fact that culture is an essential
element for finding the exact equivalent. He comments, saying: No two languages
are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality
[because] the words in which two societies live are distinct worlds Edward Sapir,
1957, p. 69). Thus, finding identical equivalents is an arduous task since the two
languages, namely the SL and the TL, differ from each other, linguistically and
culturally (Larson, 1984, p.153). That is why, according to Abdul-Raof 2001 , the
source language words are often translated by a completely different set of words p.
6).
1.6 Problems Explored
As for morpho-semantic shifts, Quran translators may encounter three kinds
of problems, as follows:
1.6.1 Multi-functional Patterns
Some morphological patterns have various meanings or functions. In Arabic,
one morphological pattern may indicate various semantic values. For example,
according to Jurj cAiyya n.d., p. 18 , the pattern afcala may appear to have several
functions or purposes, such as al-tacddiyah (transitivity), makn (movement towards a
place or destination) and 'declarative' or 'estimative' states, as will be discussed in
detail later in this chapter.
10
11
ii)
iii)
12
opp,
Jacob Grimm, Edward Lhuyed, William Jones, Max Mller and Noam Chomsky.
Y qt also provides the reader with a simplified explanation of such a
specialized phenomenon. His book is characterized by its smooth style and practical
examples, excerpted from the Qur'an and pre-Islamic poetry. In addition, he devotes a
chapter
to
al-fail
al-nawiyyah
(grammatical
categories),
focusing
on
13
such as affirmation, stylistic purity, consistency, synopsis simile, lexis or contextbased interpretation, etc. Later on, he practically gives some examples of al-cudl,
including, but not limited to, grammatical shifts and lexical shifts. Additionally, he
tackles various types of al-cudl, including shift in nouns, verbs and patterns,
illustrated by examples.
Muammad Abdel-Haleem (1992), in his paper entitled "Grammatical Shift
for Rhetorical Purposes: Iltift and Related Features in the Qur'an", attempts to
examine the fascinating rhetorical device of al-iltift in some selected Qur'anic verses,
maximizing the importance of the stylistic features of the sacred text. He, first,
introduces the concept of al-iltift in Arabic and its conditions, and, then, he hinges
mainly upon the various types of al-iltift, viz., 'Change in person, between 1st, 2nd
and 3rd person'; 'Change in number, between singular, dual and plural'; 'Change in
addressee'; 'Change in the tense of the verb'; 'Change in case marker'; and 'Using noun
in place of pronoun.' To support his point of view, he provides a comprehensive
number of all the Qur'anic verses related to each type of such a rhetorical device.
However, his paper revolves basically around the rhetorical purposes of al-iltift in
Arabic, without regard to its translation into English.
In her MA thesis entitled "al-iltift f al-quran ila khir srat al-kahf",
Khadjah al-Banan (1993) discusses the phenomenon of al-iltift in the Arabic
rhetoric, but she also highlights the stylistic aspect of such a phenomenon in the
Qur'an. Specifically, she sheds light on the more commonly used kind of al-iltifat, i.e.,
shift in pronouns, in a very specific part of the Qur'an, starting from Chapter One
(Srat al-F tiah) until Chapter Eighteen (Srat al-Kahf), approximately half of the
Qur'an. To explain, she focuses on the departure from al-khitb (address) to alghaybah (third person), and from al-ghaybah (third person) into al-mutakallim (first
14
person), and vice versa. Accordingly, her study puts more emphasis on only one type
of al-iltift.
asan abl (1998), in his book entitled uslb al-iltift f al-balghah al-qur
niyyah, takles thoroughly al-iltift as a rhetorical phenomenon in the Qur'an. He
examines the six different types of al-iltift, namely 1) shift in person, 2) shift in
number, 3) shift in diction, 4) shift in morphological patterns, 5) shift in syntactic
structure and, finally, 6) shift in articles. In doing so, he explores each kind of it
briefly, but he explicitly explains them in a plausible practicl manner. In his
explanation, he focuses on both the exegetical aspects and the rhetorical ones,
regarding the Qur'anic verses he specifies, giving priority to the context-bound
exegeses.
Helal al-Jeish 2005 , in his PhD dissertation entitled Al-cudl al-arf f alqurn al-karm: dirasah dilaliyyah (morphological deviation in the Glorious Qur'an:
a semantic study), focuses on the semantic study of morphological deviation in the
Qur'an as a salient linguistic phenomenon. It aims to uncover the aesthetic values of
the Qur'anic discourse and the secrets of the Qur'anic Arabic. He tries to show how
morphological deviation results in semantic shift, especially the patterns which are
derived from the same stem. In other words, he tackles the significance of the various
morphological patterns of the same root in the Qur'an. Thus, similarity-based
derivation and context-bound signification are pivotal criteria for analyzing such a
rhetorical phenomenon in the Qur'anic discourse. In doing so, he traces both ancient
and contemporary works that handle such a phenomenon.
Jal l al-amad 2007 , in his MA thesis entitled al-cudl f iyaghat almushtaqqt f al-qurn al-karm: dirasah dilliyyah (shift in derivative patterns in
the Glorious Qur'an: a semantic study), tackles the issue of al-cudl (shift), which is
15
considered a common rhetorical phenomenon. He divides his study into two sections:
theoretical and practical. In the first section, he deals with the definition of al- cudl as
a rhetorical term and the consequent controversies, focusing on morphological
patterns and derivations.
As for the practical section, he specifies this section into three parts. The first
part is much concerned with the analysis of some verbal patterns; the second part
analyzes some nominal patterns, while the third part represents the analytical
comparisons between both verbal and nominal patterns.
In her paper entitled "Different Morphological Forms in the Holy Qur'an:
Should they be Translated the Same?", Nagwa Younis (2011) attempts to analyse
some certain morphological forms, derived from the same root, such as ( najja)
and ( anja), ( kasaba) and ( iktasaba), ( hamala) and ( ihtamala),
etc. To be more specific, her study elaborates on the various morphological forms of
the triliteral verbs in the Qur'an. Basically, her aim, first, is to classify these various
morphological patterns of Qur'anic Arabic triliteral verbs and, secondly, to analyse the
parallel corpus of the original with its rendition in seven English translations, viz.,
Sahih International (1997), Pickthall (1930), Yusuf Ali (1946), Shakir (1999), Sarwar
(1981), Mohsen Khan (1996) and Arberry (1955). Thus, her paper mainly applies "the
corpus-based approach as a viable and fruitful perspective" (p. 7).
Ibrhm al-Gazzr (2011), in his PhD dissertation entitled "A Linguistic Study
of Grammatical Shift in Some Qur'nic Verses and Its Rendering into English",
investigates the phenomenon of grammatical shift, which seems eccentric to English,
especially 'pronominal reference' and 'word order'. In his study, he refers to the
fundamentals of this kind of shift in the Qur'an, focusing on context-bound instances.
Additionally, he attempts to analyze various types of grammatical shift, such as
16
'pronominal shift', 'change in number', 'change in gender', 'change in verb tense', and
'change in word order'. It also defends the false claims or assumptions, which lie in
the grammatical errors in the Qur'an, not to mention the analysis of the seeminglyungrammatical verses.
As shown above, there is a pressing need to study and analyze morphosemantic shifts comprehensively and in detail, as many scholars have paid no
attention to the translation of this feature into English. In other words, many studies
and books have concentrated on translating abstract nouns, Qur'anic figures of speech,
the problems of icjz (inimitability), or the untranslatability of the Qur'an, etc.
In addition, most of the ancient and modern studies ignored this rhetorical
type. To explain, some of them refer briefly to it, including its various and
overlapping definitions and explanatory examples, and the others adopt other
rhetorical topics other than al-iltift, such as asrr al-balghah (the secrets of
rhetoric) by al-Jurj n d. 471/1078 , fann al-jins (the art of paronomasia) by cAl alJind 1954 and al-balghah wa al-uslbiyyah rhetoric and stylistics by Muammad
c
17
useful theoretical base for understanding text-types and for identifying the local
effects that are generated in particular texts" (Jeffries & Mclntyre, 2010, p. 133).
This kind of schema consists of three fundamental stages, according to D. E.
Rumelhart (1980), (i) Accretion, which represents the gradual build-up of the preexisting background knowledge of the text; (ii) Tuning, which implies 'the
modification of an existing' knowledge; (iii) and Restructuring, which refers to the
new output of the translation process.
1.11 The Schema Model as a Cognitive Approach
Schema theory, in Simpson's view (2004), is "an umbrella term covering a
range of individual cognitive models at the heart of which are situated the concept of
schema and the attendant concepts frame, scenario and script" (p. 89; emphasis in
original). It does not only involve "a predetermined, stereotyped sequence of actions"
in "a well-known situation" (Schank & Abelson, 1977, p. 41), but it also helps the
reader conceptualize or expect "certain types of mental representation" in "the course
of one's subject-based experience" (Simpson, 2004, p. 89). In other words, it is a
binary process by which the target reader receives 'fresh incoming information' and
concurrently interacts with his primary "preexisting knowledge", being able to
envisage his "mental representations" (Simpson, 2004, p. 89).
Schema theory is a text-based model; its importance "lies mainly in its
capacity to explain how we can understand texts without having to rely on explicit
linguistic signals" (Simpson, 2004, p. 89) within the text, allowing for unlimited new
conceptualizations. Accordingly, it moves "away from a linguistic and text-based
18
19
While keeping in mind the function of the schema theory, this study will necessarily
investigate the context of situation, which assists in retrieving the intended meaning.
This investigation focuses on the preceding and succeeding verses, as criteria for
analyzing such a theory and clarifying its unique rhetorical role in the Quranic
Arabic. Accordingly, the target reader has some certain expectations, which he aspires
to be in conformity with the world of the source text. In this regard, Christiane Nord
(1992) expresses the same point, as follows:
The recipient builds up a certain expectation as to the intratextual characteristics
of the text, but it is only when, through reading, he contracts his expectation with
the actual features of the text he experiences the particular effect the text has on
him. (p. 43)
1.12 Tools Used
1.12.1 Questionnaire
1.12.1.1 Objectives & Goals
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
As for the latter, Ibn Qutaybah (d. 276/889) provides the following instances:
- tahajjadtu potentially means either nimtu, meaning 'I slept at night' or sahirtu,
meaning 'I stayed late at night'.
- ananntu potentially means either tayaqqanntu, meaning 'I'm quite sure' or
shakaktu, meaning 'I doubt' (pp. 455-6).
Subsequently, the intended meaning of the given pattern is governed or determined by
the given context, which disambiguates or avoid any possible overlapping.
1.16.1.2 Antonymously-heterogeneous Morphological Patterns
In Adab al-ktib (rules for writers), Ibn Qutaybah (d. 276/889) discusses how
incongruous patterns indicate opposite meanings or connotations, though they are
derived from the same root. He exemplifies his point of view, as follows:
He states, for instance, that the pattern afcla may be used as opposed to that of facala,
as in: The sentence nashatu al-cuqdata, in which the main verb nashaa is in the
measure of facala, explicitly means aqadtuha bi-unshah, meaning 'I tied a knot'.
Conversely, the sentence anshatuha, in which the main verb anshaa is in the
measure of afcla, explicitly means alaltuha, meaning 'I untied it'.
Similarly, the sentence taribat yadk obviously means iftaqarat, meaning 'you
became penniless'. Conversely, the sentence atrabat here may be interpreted as
istaghnat, meaning 'you are financially independent'. Finally, the sentence akhfaytu
al-shay clearly means satartuhu, which may be interpreted as 'I hid/concealed
something', as opposed to the sentence khafaytuhu, in which the potential meaning is
ahartuhu, indicating 'I revealed/disclosed something' (p. 463).
27
VI- tafcala
XI- ifcll
II- faccala
VII- infacala
XII- ifcawcala
III- fcala
VIII- iftacala
XIII- ifcawwal
IV- afcala
IX- ifcalla
XIV- ifcanlal
V- tafaccala
X- istafcala
XV- ifcanla
Significance
Example
dhakar
kathra
Allha
(they
dhikran
recollected
Allah much/repeatedly)
28
Pattern
Significance
used
to
replace
al-madar
Example
al- jalasa jalsatan (he sat down
sitting)
arbatayn
the
manner
of
mifcal
and indicating
'implements'
and mibrad
(file);
mirh
mifcl
'instruments'
infacala
(mirror)
ifcalla
imarr
means
qawiyat
awarahu
(to
become
extremely short-sighted)
ifclla
indicating
extensively
Pattern
ifcawcala
Significance
Example
place
al-makn
became
coarse
(the
or
harsh)
ifcawalla
Significance
Example
behave nobly)
al-izlah
(negativeness
removal)
aynahu
means
(I
Pattern
Significance
Example
Zayds intercession
(I
called
him
mistaken)
(orientation/direction/ East)
destination)
indicating the signification of fawwaza (walked to the desert)
purposeful body movements
indicating the derivation of the subna alladh awwaa alobject from faccala
ikyat
(word
formation
the
(reciprocity/participation)
31
Pattern
Significance
Example
facala
him health!)
muwlh
sit down)
(coincidence
/ praiseworthy)
discovery)
indicating the signification of al- aqsama Muammadu, meaning
ighn
an
al-thulth
Pattern
Significance
Example
al-rajulu
(the
man
indicating the signification of al- abana (to enter upon the time
zamn (time)
of morning)
the harvest)
dacawtu
meaning
tafaccala
means
thawbahu,
ittakhadha
which
thawbahu
33
Pattern
Significance
expressing
Example
al-muwacah
reflexive force or function) of the cut the rope and, thus, it was cut
second from faccala
into pieces)
which
means
which
means
tadarruj (graduation)
which
means
alab (request)
be dignified)
tafcala
indicating
al-tahur
sleepy)
34
Pattern
Significance
Example
occurrence of something)
tadrj
(the
Nile
increased
gradually)
indicating the signification of al- bcadtuhu fa-tabcad (I kept him
muwacah (reflexive force or away, and he was kept away in
quasi-passive)
response)
means
al-amru,
saqaat
which
al-amru
(it
rained/has rained)
indicating the signification of al- taqaytuhu
alab (request)
al-dayna,
which
(Zayd
Zaydun
and
Amr
wa-cAmrun
quarreled
together)
iftacala
ittakhaza
Zaydun
khtaman
35
Pattern
Significance
Example
Amrun,
Zaydun
which
ikhtaam
c
wameans
Zaydun
wac
Amr
quarreled together)
indicating the signification of al- iktasaba,
which
means
which
means
(showing or manifestation)
apology)
indicating the signification of al- iqtadara,
mublaghah
(hyperbole
or
which
means
showed
his
power)
indicating the signification of al- iafa, intaqa or ikhtara (he
ikhtiyr (choice/selection)
istafcala
selected/chose)
means
maghfiratahu
alabatu
subnahu
36
Pattern
Significance
Example
ara
al-nu
ajaran
or
meaning
indicating
ikhtir
ikyat
ilayh
rjicn
expressing
al-muwacah
(the aqamtuhu
fa-istaqma
(I
him,
he
became straight)
37
and
_______________________________________________________________
Endnote
1 Here, the asterisk refers to the end of the Qur'anic verse.
2 All the books or researches mentioned in this section, i.e., "Review of Literature", are arranged
chronologically.
3 I modified these headers and their definitions to be properly suitable for the analysis of the verses
under study.
38
Chapter Two
Chapter Two
Stylistic Approaches to Translation1
This chapter is concerned with surveying the various stylistic approaches to
translation and discussing the importance of stylistic dimension a translator should
maintain during the process of translation. It also explores the miraculous style of the
Qur'an and elaborates on "the inimitable symphony of the Qur'an that moves men to
tears and ecstasy", as Pickthall (1981: i) states.
2.1 What is Style?
The American Heritage Dictionary Online defines the word style generally as
"The way in which something is said, done, expressed or performed, e.g., a style of
speech and writing", and specifically as "The combination of distinctive features of
literary or artistic expression, execution or performance characterizing a particular
person, group, school or era."
Similarly, Peter Verdonk (2002) defines the concept of style generally as "A
distinctive manner of expression, through whatever medium this expression is given
physical shape", whereas style in language is defined as a "distinctive linguistic
expression" (p. 3).
Also, C. E. Landers (2001) maximizes the significance of style, which,
according to him, lies in differentiating "between a lively, highly readable translation
and a stilted, rigid, and artificial rendering that strips the original of its artistic and
aesthetic essence, even its very soul" (p. 7).
That is why Jean Boase-Beier (2006) offers advice to translators to be fully
conscious of the style of "both source and target languages", which principally relates
to "what goes beyond content, and especially with the manner in which it is
expressed" (p. 11).
39
To explore language;
In doing so, exploring language helps the reader understand the given text and
illuminate the fog of language inherent in the plausible types of meanings.
41
42
i.e., the first degree of thirst, which next intensifies, reaching al-ama, which then
intensifies, reaching al-ada, which after that intensifies, reaching al-wm, which
finally intensifies, reaching al-huym Amn, 1965, p. 58; cf. Ab Hil l al-cAskar,
1998, p. 6).
Obviously, each degree differs from the other one, as it describes a certain
situation; however, the English equivalent is thirst. To render each case separately
into English, the appropriate strategy is to adopt an informative periphrastic
equivalent through the addition of descriptive words, such as 'the slightest degree of
thirst', or 'the fatal degree of thirst', or 'the highest degree of thirst', etc.
2.6 Principles of Stylistic Analysis
In practice, stylistics should comply with three basic principles, which are
termed 'the three Rs' by Simpson (2004: 3-4). He postulates that:
1- Stylistic analysis should be rigorous through an explicit framework of analysis
through structured models of language and discourse that show how to grasp various
patterns in language;
2- Stylistic analysis should be retrievable through explicit terms and criteria that are
agreed upon to enable stylisticians to follow the pathway adopted in an analysis, to
test the categories used, to see how the analysis reaches its conclusion and to retrieve
the stylistic method;
3- Stylistic analysis should be replicable through adopting sufficiently transparent
methods to allow stylisticians to verify them.
2.7 Levels of Stylistic Analysis
According to Simpson (2004: 5), any utterance or piece of text is linguistically
analyzed through a certain set of levels of language that are mutually connected. He
briefly describes each level, as follows:
43
Stylistic Analysis
Phonology/
Graphology
Morphology
Phonetics
The
words
and
shape
Semantics/
Pragmatics/
Grammar
Lexical
Discourse
Analysis
Analysis
way The
written words
pronounced. language
Syntax/
and words
their
or
combine
the constituent
with
of structures
vocabulary
form
the page.
and
sentences
a are used in
to language
language on are
constructed.
the words
other of
words
way
we use.
everyday
situations;
the meaning
meaning of of language
words
and in context.
sentences.
2.8 The Components of Context
Verdonk (2002: 19) specifies the main components of which a context
consists, as follows:
1- The text type or genre (for example, an election poster, a recipe, a sermon);
2- Its topic, purpose and function;
3- The immediate temporary and physical setting of the text;
4- The text's wider social, cultural and historical setting;
5- The identities, knowledge, emotions, abilities, beliefs and assumption of the
writer (speaker) and reader (hearer);
44
45
46
47
the production of the TT, with a slight modification offered by Schiavi (1996: 14) into
the following:
1) The 'author' or 'implied author', who has a 'manipulating presence' (Booth
1961: 19) is the 'biographical author' and the 'teller of the tale', who addresses
a specific narratee in the text;
2) The 'implied reader' (Iser 1974) "receive[s] a sort of split message coming
from two different addressers," namely "from the author" and "from the
translator" (Schiavi, 1996, p. 14).
3) The original 'text' constructed by the 'implied author' and the 'translated text'
're-moulded' by the 'real translator';
4) The 'real translator', who has a 'discursive presence' (Hermans, 1996a, p. 27)
or 'mediating presence' (Malmkjaer, 2004), is the one who 'deliberately remould[s] the TT to fit a pre-existing personal or public ideological framework
or narrative' (cf. Baker, 2006).
2.14 Multiple Transferred Meanings
While transferring the meaning of the source text into the target language, a
translator should be fully aware of what type of meaning s/he adopts. According to
Crystal (1997: 237), linguists differentiate between various types of meaning; for
example, he refers to 'referential/denotative meaning', which correlates closely
language to events or incidents or entities; 'attitudinal/connotative/expressive
meaning', which correlates closely language to the mental state of the speaker; and
'contextual/functional/interpersonal/situational meaning', which reflects the impact of
the extra-linguistic situation on the interpretation of the text. For his part, Larson
(1984: 36) alludes to a common type, i.e., 'organizational meaning', which is
48
49
analysis and the literary criticism, "as a branch of psychology, dealing with the states
of mind induced by art", "devoid of subjective emotionalism" (p. 22).
In this regard, Short and van Peer (1999) sum up the prerequisites 'an
objective analyst' should adopt. They believe that the analytical process should be
characterized by 'clarity', careful attention to minute detail, 'openness', and 'flexibility'.
In other words, they put it this way: "In trying to be objective, one tries to be (a) clear,
detailed and open (so that one's position is unambiguous), and (b) ready to change
one's mind if the evidence or a subsequent counter-argument demands it" (p. 273).
2.15.3 Eclecticism & Universality
According to Jeffries and Mclntyre (2010), the analysis process of any text
under investigation is subject to two focal elements, i.e., 'eclecticism' and
'universality', for "the purposes of understanding and explaining" (p. 25) the salient
stylistic features inherent thereof. In addition, they refer to the potential act of
theorization and inevitable modeling of the implicit 'textual meaning', resulting from
the analytical discourse, taking into consideration the deeply-rooted theories.
Thus, Chapman (2006) asserts the important role played by theorists in
selecting a universal approach, as follows: "Theorists in all fields generally accept that
they are unlikely to come up with the definitive account of their subject matter that
will be proved to be correct and will be universally accepted" (p. 22).
2.15.4 Choice, Analysis & Interpretation
According to Jeffries and Mclntyre (2010), they outline 'the final set of
principles', i.e., 'choice, analysis and interpretation'. As for the element of 'choice', the
author or speaker is fully entitled to opt for both the form and content that may
variably "or differently arranged, without a correspondence difference in substance"
(Ohmann, 1970, p. 264), which may contort 'the proper subject of study'. Thus, the
50
element of 'choice' resides in the preference of what over how during the analysis
process (p. 25; emphasis in the original).
In this regard, Verdonk (2002) terms style as the "motivated choice" (p. 9) of
the author, through which "stylistic features in the source text" (Boase-Beier, 2006, p.
50) are brought about. Thus, the proper translation may depend on some certain
conditions, namely, "situation, translation aims, and approach" (Boase-Beier, 2006, p.
50), and, basically, "the function of the source text" (Rei, 1981, p. 122), which
means "what decides the sort of translation required for the target text", and which is
"verbalized by the author in his text" (Rei, 1981, p. 122). Inevitably, this requires, as
Boase-Beier (2006) claims, "a stylistic reading of the source text", undertaken by the
translator as 'a reader of the original', who "aims to reach a full and detailed picture of
the inferred author's choices" (pp. 50-1).
Additionally, they outline the interplay between 'analysis' and 'interpretation'.
To explain, they seem to be more complementary than contradictory, as
'interpretation' deals with the reason behind 'the choice of data to study, 'the tools of
analysis to use, and 'the research questions to answer', whereas 'the analysis process' is
concerned with 'the analytical methods' and 'the techniques' used thoroughly (Jeffries
& Mclntyre, 2010, p. 26).
2.16 Stylistic Features
2.16.1 Defamiliarization
Defamiliarization is defined by Douthwaite (2000) as "impeding normal
processing by showing the world in an unusual, unexpected or abnormal manner" (p.
178). Thus, it is consciously undertaken to break the normal rules in literary and nonliterary genres for some certain considerations. It does not haphazardly take place, but
it is functionally employed to capture the recipient's attention and raise his/her greater
51
awareness about the unexpected irregularities embedded in the text. This process
includes the concept of 'foregrounding', which represents "the mechanism by which
defamiliraization takes place" (Jeffries & Mclntyre, 2010, p. 31).
2.16.2 Foregrounding
Mukaovsky 1964 [1958] first coined this concept, which is "the bringing of
particular textual features into prominence, e.g., distinct patterns or parallelism,
repetitions, and deviations from general linguistic rules or from the style expected in a
specific text type or genre, or context" (Verdonk, 2002, p. 118). Here, 'prominence' is
a key word through which salient linguistic features are foregrounded to convey a
certain message. These linguistic features include essentially the unexpected use of
'sounds, words, phrases and/or clauses' compared with their surroundings.
Foregrounding is a stylistic strategy, "which is motivated specifically for
literary-aesthetic purposes" (Simpson, 2004, p. 50). It is a kind of 'stylistic distortion',
achieved either through 'deviation from a linguistic norm' or through 'repetition or
parallelism' (Simpson, 2004, p. 50; Jeffries & Mclntyre, 2010, p. 31).
2.16.3 Deviation
Deviation is a linguistic device, which is extensively used in poetry. It is "the
occurrence of unexpected irregularity in language and results in foregrounding"
(Jeffries & Mclntyre, 2010, p. 31), causing surprise to the receiver and capturing
his/her attention. In other words, such unexpected irregularity may arise from one of
the followings: (a) "the breaking of normal rules of linguistic structure (whether
phonological, grammatical, lexical or semantic)"; or (b) "upon the overuse of normal
rules of usage" (Dictionary of Stylistics, p. 110). Thus, its "significance goes beyond
surface-level understanding" (Jeffries & Mclntyre, 2010, p. 32). According to
Michaela Mahlberg (2013), deviations from linguistic norms are "unusual
52
53
communicates well to all humanity. In the past, the Arab tribes grasped the Qur'an
and its message easily and directly, in spite of their diverse dialects and linguistic
mastery, due to its highly elevated style and sublime language.
To clarify, al-R fic (1973) gave the following example:
In Srat N (Chapter 71), especially the verses 14 and 15, the words nran and
sirjan seem to be synonymous, but in fact they have slight shades of meaning, for
the purpose of rhetorical diversity. Here, al-R fic (1973) tries to show the various
interpretations of the seemingly synonymous lexical items adopted by different
categories of people over time. He classifies their interpretations into four groups, as
follows:
Firstly, some of the Arabs, on hearing these verses, could infer from their context that
al-qamar nr and al-shams nr. They interpreted them similarly. They believe that
the modifiers nran and sirjan have the same connotation, though they are lexically
different due to the rhetorical diversity inherent.
Secondly, in a similar vein, some Arabs could reach the conclusion that al-qamar is
less blight than al-shams. They deducted such a conclusion from the collocated
lexical items within the context, namely the modifiers accompanying al-qamar and
al-shams. Here, the attributives nran and sirjan are attributed to al-qamar and alshams respectively. To explain, the lexical item sirjan indicates emotively the bright
light given off from the sun's warm rays. Accordingly, the sun's rays are interpreted as
nr emitting from nr.
Thirdly, in deep contemplation of the well-chosen and careful selection of the
collocations offered, some scholars infer the rhetorical considerations arising thereof.
For example, the collocation inherent in al-qamar plus nran indicates that the light
of the moon lacks al-ararah (- heat), whereas the collocation inherent in al-shams
54
plus sirjan indicates the dual combination of al-nr (+ light) and al-ararah (+ heat)
produced by the sun, which emits both (+ light) and (+ heat). Additionally, the
attributive sirjan is lexically derived from the nominalized noun al-sirj
(lantern/lamp), which is indicative of al-wahaj (flames).
Fourthly, modern scholars interpreted the previous verse in conformity with modern
science. They stated that al-qamar is a dark celestial body, "visible by reflection of
sunlight" (The American Heritage Dictionary Online), which the sun represents
sirjahu (its lantern). That is why al-sirj is mentioned after al-nr, indicating that the
former is the original source of the latter.
Finally, al-R fic (1973) wonders how one of the Arabs could be capable of grasping
all these interpretations at the time of revelation (pp. 206-7).
2.18 Secret of the Qur'anic Rhetoric
The secret of Qur'anic rhetoric lies in its studious interwoven string of
precious beads in which all the pearls are artistically and purposefully shaped where
the absence or the misplacement of any of them deforms the beautiful embellishment.
Accordingly, the Qur'an represented, and still is, a linguistic challenge to the Arabs,
the people of rhetoric, who spared no possible effort, if possible, to place accidentally
any of the words in the Qur'an or delete it to prove the erroneousness or inaccuracy of
the Qur'an, but in vain. It was very common at that time to openly criticize and correct
the blunders of their counterparts in their regular literary forums to show their mastery
and professionalism. In this regard, al-R fic narrates the literary debate taken place
between al-Khans
and ass n ibn Th bit in cUk 4, where the former rectified the
55
been considerably weakened and its weakness points significantly appeared in eight
places. He asked: 'How is that?' She replied: Firstly, you said lana al-jafanatu5 (food
utensils), which is less than ten. So, you decreased the number. It would be better say
al-jifn, indicating a large number. Secondly, you said al-ghurru, meaning al-bayu
f al-jabhah (whiteness on the forehead of a horse) (cf. Ibn Manr (d. 711/1311),
1980, V, p. 3234; Lane, 1968, V, p. 2238). It would be better to say al-b (white),
indicating a large space. Thirdly, you said yalmacna (to sparkle/glitter), which is
inappropriately used here, as al-lamc (spark/glimmer) is a subsequent outcome. It
would be better say yashruqna (to shine), indicating a broader sense, for al-ishrq
(shine) lasts much longer. Fourthly, you said bi-al-ua (by forenoon), but it would
be better say bi-al-cashiyyah (by evening) to imply proper praise, as it is habitually
common that a guest casually drops in at night. Fifthly, you said asyfuna (our
swords), which means al-asyf dna al-cashr (swords that are fewer in number than
ten), but it would be better say siyfuna (our swords), indicating multiplicity. Sixthly,
you said yaqurna (to flow blood drop by drop), indicating a few murder cases. It
would be better say yajrna (to flow blood copiously), as it indicates multiplicity.
Seventhly, you said daman, which is less preferable than al-dim, indicating a large
quantity of blood. Eighthly, you boasted of your offspring instead of your forefathers
(p. 225).6
The chronicles of the Arabs abound with munart (literary debates) and
aswq (cultural forums), though the eloquent, among them, took for granted that the
Qur'an is unique and, then, preferred not to criticize it to avoid being publicly
56
dishonored. Thus, according to al-R fic, the disbelievers were heedless of the Qur'an
in public for tribal honor and personal interests, though they were confidentially
convinced of its divine nature (p. 225; cf. Abdul-Raof, 2012, pp. 128-9).
2.19 The Inimitable Symphony of the Qur'an
Al-R fic states that the Qur'an has a 'symphony' of its own, represented in "the
very sounds of which move men to tears and ecstasy" (Pickthall, 1981, p. i), requiring
a proper recitation to be felt. It stirs up one's deep feelings and then it causes the
reader to shed tears as an expression of emotion through the Qur'an's unique order
system, regardless of race, gender, religion or class. Al-R fic adds that it is the
marvelous symphony that wins the hearts and minds of its readers, amongst whom are
the atheists and deniers of the existence of God, when they reflect closely on the
universe and themselves, through their immediately responsive and reciprocal
interaction and commitment to the intended message. In this regard, al-R fic
attributes the Qur'an's irresistible effect to the sound innate nature of humanity and the
unique arrangement of sounds that are proportional to their various points of
articulation. It is the rhetoric of the natural and intrinsic language, addressing one's
inner feelings, that obliges the reader to continue reading the Qur'an with irresistible
impulses,
though
their
ideologically,
intellectually
or
dialectically
varied
backgrounds. Consequently, the more the reader of the Qur'an has a beautiful
chanting voice, the more melodious the recitation becomes and the deeper
appreciation of the Qur'an one gains, especially those who have serene, highly-pitched
and mellifluous voice, as it gives the most convincing performance of the Qur'an's
linguistic perfection (p. 216).
57
58
Attentive reading and contemplation of the word order and arrangement show
that the morphological and linguistic diacritics are phonetically and structurally
consistent with the letters themselves and their rhythmical system. To explain, alR fic gives a practical example of how the grandeur of a sound used in the Qur'an is
peculiar to the Qur'anic discourse. For example, a sound may seem to be difficult in
pronunciation out of context, regardless of the reasons for difficulty, but its use in the
Qur'an looks beautifully smooth in connection with the preceding and consecutive
letters that enable the tongue to pronounce it easily, melodiously and compatibly (p.
227).
2.20.1 Diacritically-based Inimitability
For example, the word al-nudhur, the plural form of nadhr, is phonologically
marked with al-ammah placed over al-nn and al-dhl. Thus, it has a little bit
difficult in pronunciation, let alone the features of hardness and protrusion, especially
at pause, but it has a special use in the Qur'an, in which the feature of difficulty in
pronunciation disappears as in wa-laqad andharahum baashatana fa-tamaraw bi-alnudhur (Q. 54: 36). Here, its easy and smooth pronunciation is beautifully acquired
through the unique structure of the Qur'an, inherent in the well-chosen morphological
and phonological setting and the diacritical marks, of which all have a harmonious
arrangement of sounds and other elements, including but not limited to the
characteristics of letters in articulation. For instance, the articulation points of alqalqalah, e.g., al-dl in laqad and al- in baashatana, and the diacritical mark of
al-fat-a, e.g., al-ww in tamaraw ending in urf al-madd (prolongation letters) are
phonologically and orally motivated. The sequence of the diacritical marks of alfatat in the previous verse is to let the tongue bit by bit exercise the difficulty in
59
Word Level
Phrase Level
Ayah Level
Surah Level
60
synonymy is convincingly put forward and backed by some ancient and modern
linguists, including Ab Hil l al-cAskar d. 395 /1005 , Ibn F ris (d. 395/1004), Ibn
al-Anb r d. 577 /1181 and al-Zamakhshar d. 538/1144 in the past,
e De Jonge
1993 , Taylor 1954 , Muammad al-Mub rak 1964 and al-Sh yic (1993) in the
present. All of them deny the occurrence of synonymy in natural languages in general
and in the Qur'an in particular. For instance, in (Q. 52: 22), the word za cannot be
interchangeably replaced by limah or jirah (unfair) due to rhetorical, stylistic and
phonetic considerations.8 Similarly, in (Q. 33: 32), the word takhacna (to soften your
speech with men) is rhetorically and stylistically motivated; it is preferably used in
replacement of talna (to talk gently), as in (Q. 20: 44), due to contextual
considerations. To explain, the context of situation in (Q. 33: 32) revolves around a
divine command delivered to the Prophet's wives in particular and Muslim women in
general not to soften their speech when conversing with men, especially ghayr
maharim (non-relatives) to avoid committing sins (Ibn Kathr d. 774/1372 ; al-R z
(d. 666/1268); al-Zamakhshar (d. 538/1143)). Conversely, the context of situation in
(Q. 20: 44) deals with a gentle diplomatic speech should the Prophets, namely, Msa
and Harn, deliver to the Pharaoh. Consequently, the unique and well-chosen
selection of lexical items hinges basically on the context of situation as shown above.
2.20.2.1.1 Lexically, Semantically and Syntactically-Compressed Words
In the Qur'an, some certain multi-syllabic and compressed lexical items are
often used; they may result in difficulty of pronunciation out of the Qur'an due to its
incongruous structure in isolation. Their foreignness or strangeness becomes
accurately acceptable only through its appropriate use in the Qur'an in combination
with other neighboring words, inherent in the repetition of some letters and variety of
diacritics. For instance, the word yastakhlifannahum (Q. 24: 55) consists of ten letters,
61
i.e., al-y, al-sn, al-t, al-kh, al-lm, al-f, al-nn al-mushaddadah (double nn),
al-h and al-mm. However, it seems congruous and melodious within the Qur'anic
discourse due to its varied points of articulation and systematic diacritical marks.
Thus, it seems to be comprised of four lexical items, i.e., a four-syllabic word (alR fic, 1973, p. 229 .
Also, fasayakfkahum Allah consists of nine letters, i.e., al-f, al-sn, al-y,
al-kf, al-f, al-y, al-kf, al-h and al-mm, and comprises three syllables, in
which al-y and al-kf are twice repeated, where the former centers the latter. The
secret of rhetoric here lies in al-y (a prolongation letter), which centers al-kafayn,
requiring prolongation of articulation (al-R fic, 1973, p. 229 .
This kind of structure is termed al-alf al-murakkabah (compound or
compressed words), which are derived from triliteral or quadriliteral stems. As for
quinqueliterals, they are never used in the Qur'an due to its incongruity, excluding
non-Arabic proper names such as Ibrahm, Ismacl, L and J lt, etc. Such words are
centrally provided with al-madd (prolongation), and thus each word appears as if
composed of two words (al-R fic, 1973, p. 229 .
In this regard, Hussein Abdul-Raof (2001) investigates the untranslatability of
compressed words, "the syntactic compression of a whole syntactic in one single
word" (p. 46), such as anulzimukumha (Q. 11: 28), fa-asqaynakumh (Q. 15: 22),
zawwajnakaha (Q. 33: 37) and fasayakfkahum (Q. 2: 137). According to him, these
words are considered problematic and, thus, untranslatable, especially when the target
language lacks this morpho-syntactic feature. In doing so, the only available option is
to reproduce the original through a set of words, as follows:
Anulzimukumha = shall we compel you to accept it;
fa-asqaynakumh = (We) give it you to drink;
62
63
motivated to deliver psychologically and emotionally induced effect (al-R fic, 1973,
p. 230).
Though its odd composition, it has another symmetrical feature. It is a
disyllabic lexical item; the first is a hard lengthened syllable, whereas the second is a
light shortened syllable. Additionally, it is preceded by ghunnatayn (two nasal
sounds), a soft sharp ghunnah, as in idhan, and another hard ghunnah mutafashiyyah
(spreading nasal sound) as in qismatun. Thus, it is phonetically juxtaposed to match
the rhythmical intonation inherent in the whole verse. Finally, this four-letter word
indicates all the previous rhetorical and stylistic meanings (al-R fic, 1973, pp. 23031).
2.20.2.1.3 Seemingly Trite Words
Another stylistic aspect of the Qur'anic rhetoric is the use of seemingly trite
lexical items, as claimed by some Arab grammarians. For instance, they claim that the
Qur'an includes some unnecessary syntactic articles like ma, as in [fa-bima ramatin
min Allahi linta lahum] (Q. 3: 159), and ann as in [fa-lamma ann jahu al-bashru
alqahu cala wajhi abh fa-irtadda bara] (Q. 12: 96).
Arguably, some people may conclude that the word order system includes
such unnecessary lexical items. On the contrary, this seemingly excessive use of
words seems to be a literary and stylistic device. In other words, their omission results
in incongruity and lack of elegance. To explain, the first verse tackles the leniency of
Prophet Muammad (pbuh) towards his people, expressed orally in the prolongation
of the article ma. Additionally, lahjit al-nuq (the mode of reading) is highly
expressive and indicative of the intended meaning that cannot be rhetorically
conveyed by any other lexical item. Another functional aspect of such an article is
that it is considered an introductory detachment article, preceded by al-b and
64
followed by ramah, to draw one's attention to the intended meaning and to let one
think attentively about the value of al- ramah (leniency) (al-R fic, 1973, p. 231).
As for the second verse, i.e., [fa-lamma ann jahu al-bashru alqahu cala
wajhi abh fa-irtadda bara] (Q. 12: 96), it indicates the span of time the bearer of
good news took to deliver the shirt of Yusf (pbuh) to his father, exemplified in the
prolongation of fa-lamma, which requires sound prolongation. It also expresses both
the worries and ecstasy his father experienced, waiting for the glad tidings, orally
shown through al-ghunnah (nasalization) in ann j (al-R fic, 1973, p. 231).
2.20.2.1.4
65
(Q. 14: 52), etc. This lexical item is never used in the singular form, except by another
synonym such as al-qalb.
The singular form lubb consists of al-b, which is termed majhrah (vocal)
and shafahiyyah (labial), pronounced with al-shaddah (a diacritical mark placed
above a letter to indicate emphasis), which intensifies through the combination with
al-lm al-shaddah al-mustarkhiyah (hard or emphatic lm). Accordingly, the more
these two letters are detached by another letter, the better the word is easily
pronounced, regardless of arakat al-cirb (syntactic mark) (al-R fic, 1973, p. 232 .
2.20.2.1.6 Single Form-based Usage
On the contrary, some lexical items are used in the Qur'an in the singular
form, such as al-ar (the earth), which is always accompanied by its opposite plural
form al-samawt (the heavens). This lexical item never comes in the plural form in
the Qur'an, as in [Allahu alladhi khalaqa sabca samawtin wa-min al-ari
mithlahunna] (Q 65: 12). In this verse, the word mithlahunna is symmetrically
preceded by al-ari to indicate its plural form. In doing so, it preserves the word order
system and the symmetry inherent in the Qur'an, which vanishes if the plural form alarn is used instead (al-R fic, 1973, p. 233 .
2.20.2.2 Phrase Level
The word order system of the Qur'an is basically based on the meanings of
sentences, which are free from lexical incongruities. In other words, the context of the
Qur'an is much concerned with lexical items that are characterized by
meaningfulness, eloquence, imagery, systematic combination and rhetoric. The
Qur'anic phrase is highly marked by its various potential significance and multilayered interpretations. It is free from oblivion or mistake on the micro or macro level
(al-R fic, 1973, p. 226).
66
Furthermore, the word order system of the Qur'an lies in r al-tarkb (the
spirit of the structure), which is peculiar only to the Qur'an. Its structure is
characterized by consistency and consonance, which hinge basically on the words'
arrangement. Accordingly, each word is harmoniously combined with its neighboring
words, resulting in a new unique structure or form, let alone functionally-based
discursive meanings, as in narratives, parables and fables (al-R fic, 1973, p. 245 .
2.20.2.2.1 Collocations
Collocations are of the most salient stylistic and rhetorical features of the
Qur'an. They are precisely and accurately employed in conformity with the context of
situation, as in (l ilha illa huwa khliqu kulli shay) (Q. 6: 102) and (khliqu kulli
shay l ilha illa huwa) (Q. 40: 62). Here, it is noticeable that the phrase (l ilha illa
huwa) is mentioned twice. This phrase is initially and finally mentioned in the two
verses, in which it is purposefully positioned. In the former verse (Q. 6: 102), it is
initially used to indicate wadaniyat Allah (the Oneness of Allah or monotheism), as
its preceding verses refute the polytheists' claims, especially in (Q. 6: 100).
Conversely, in the latter verse (Q. 40: 62), the phrase (khliqu kulli shay) is
purposefully foregrounded and (l ilha illa huwa) is, thus, backgrounded. It
conforms to the preceding verses, especially (Q. 40: 57 & 62), that manifest the
omnipotence of Allah, His absolute power and endless blessings, such as the creation
of the heavens and the earth and the night and the day. Accordingly, the phrase is not
haphazardly positioned, but it is rhetorically and stylistically motivated (Abdul-Raof,
2012, p. 134).
Another example is clearly stated in [wa-rwadat-hu allati huwa f baytiha can
nafsihi wa-ghallaqati al-abwaba wa-qalat hayta lak] (Q. 12: 23), in which the phrase
[allati huwa f baytiha] seems to be excessively used, and, thus, can be deliberately
67
omitted without contorting either the grammatical structure or the possible holistic
meaning. Arguably, it may be claimed that it is quite enough to say: [wa-rwadat-hu
c
an nafsihi]. But, as a matter of fact, such a claim applies to a human activity, not to a
divine source as the Qur'an. It is only adopted by those who unfairly and wrongfully
twist the Qur'an and interpret it without knowledge or through quoting the opinions of
others (al-R fic, 1973, p. 231). Had the Arabs themselves found out any excessive
use of a lexical item in the Qur'an, they would not have been hesitated for a moment
to take it out and to maliciously defame it (al-R fic, 1973, p. 225). On the contrary,
when thinking attentively about the significance of the phrase, it is highly meaningful
and significant; it is a parenthetical phrase, which adds to the perfect word order
system and the grandeur of the Qur'an; it is purposefully embedded in a context that
sarcastically puts the blame on the wife of the governor, who placed an irresistible
temptation in Yusf's way. Instead, she should have refrained from committing such
evil, as he was considered her foster son, whom her husband intentionally aimed at
benefiting them or adopting him as a son (Q. 12: 21).
2.20.2.2.2 Aplastic Nouns Arrangement
No letter in the Qur'an is incongruously used with its miraculous system. Even
the aplastic nouns are accurately arranged through foregrounding, backgrounding and
its lexical system (al-R fic, 1973, p. 234 . In the following verse, [fa-arsalna
c
133), it has five nouns, of which (al-ufana wa-al-jarada wa-al-dama) are easily
pronounced, whereas (al-qummala wa-al-afadic) seem to be difficult to pronounce.
Accordingly, al-ufana is initially used to let the tongue be familiar with it, as it has
two kinds of al-mad (prolongation), i.e., al-waw and al-alif. Next, it is followed by aljarada, which implies one kind of al-madd (prolongation), i.e., al-alif. Then, they are
68
69
Additionally, the sound al-h here matches the blameworthy action of the
wife of al-cAziz (the governor) intended to do, i.e., to solicit her foster child stealthily
and silently: verbally through lowering her voice, and physically through shutting the
doors firmly to unveil her evil doing away from the eyes of her servants at the palace.
Similarly, at the inter-ayah level (a dynamic interrelation with the verse itself
and its consecutive verses), the previous ayah has a thematic connectivity with its
preceding verses, especially [qla macadha Allah innahu rabb asana mathwa] (Q.
12: 23). To explain, exegetes are divided over the interpretation of the referent rabb.
Some exegetes, like Muj hid, Ibn Ish q and al-Sudd, interpret in accordance with the
preceding verse, i.e., [wa-qla alladh ishtarahu min mira akrim mathwahu casa ann
yanfacna aw nattakhidhahu walada] (Q. 12: 21). Accordingly, the word rabb is much
related to his master, her husband. Linguistically, it is derived from the nominalized
noun al-rabb, which is synonymous with al-mlik, meaning 'a lord, a possessor, an
owner, or a proprietor' to whom obedience or submission is demanded (Lane, 1968,
IV, p. 1003). Interpretively, it maybe mean: 'Your husband is my lord who raised me
well and to whom I'm grateful. So, I should not render his generosity with evil doing
and should not cheat him' (Ibn Kathr d. 774/1372 ; al-abar d. 310/923 ).
On the other hand, other exegetes, like al-Zajj j (d. ca. 311/923) and alShacr w (1911-1998), are of the opinion that the word rabb could refer to his Lord,
Allah, and, thus, it could be interpreted as 'He is my Lord Who treated me honorably
and to Whom I owe grateful thanks' (al-Qurb (d. 671/1272), XI, p. 310). Their view
is based on contextual clues. First, at the intra-ayah level, rabb is preceded by the
phrase [macadha Allah], meaning 'I seek refuge in Allah from your evil temptation' (p.
310), and the phrase innahu, consisting of the emphatic particle inna and the attached
pronoun al-h, which relates closely to the nearest referent, i.e., Allah, with regards
70
ala al-khshicn] (Q. 2: 45), in which al-abr and al-alah are mentioned
respectively, but the attached pronoun, in wa-innaha la-kabirah10, refers to the latter,
which matches the pronoun in gender and number. Additionally, at the inter-ayah
level, the verse (Q. 12: 23) is followed by the phrase [kadhlika li-narifa canhu alsa wa-al-fash] (Q. 12: 24), meaning that 'Allah protected him from being
engaged in the illegal sexual intercourse'.
2.20.2.4 Surah Level
Inimitability at the surah level lies in the 'textual features' of the thematic
connectivity either "within a single surah or between two or more consecutive suras"
(Abdul-Raof, 2012, p. 136). It is much concerned with the logical cohesion between
preceding and consecutive surahs of the Qur'an. Accordingly, there are three types of
thematic connectivity between the Qur'anic surahs:
2.20.2.4.1 Thematic Connectivity between the Surah and its Name
For example, Srat al-Baqarah (the Cow) takes its name from the story of the cow the
Israelites were ordered to slaughter and their journey of quest for a cow, having some
certain features, as a result of their meticulous queries.
2.20.2.4.2 Thematic Connectivity between Beginning and End of a Single Surah
For example, Srat li-cImr n (the Family of cImr n ascertains some certain facts; it
states for sure that Allah has sent down the Qur'an unto Prophet Muhammad (pbuh),
as the Torah and the ible unto prophets Msa and cEisa, respectively. Accordingly, it
emphasizes two facts: the truthfulness of Muhammad's prophethood and the
authenticity of the Qur'an Jal l al-Dn al-Suy d. 911/849 , 1994, I, p. 551 , as in
(Alif-lm-mm* Allahu l ilha illa huwa al-ayyu al-qayym* nazzala calayka alkitba bi-al-aqqi muaddiqan lima bayna yadayhi wa-anzala al-tawrta wa-al-
71
injla* min qablu hudan li-al-nsi wa-anzala al-furqna inna al-ladhina kafar biyati Allahi lahum cadhabun shaddun wa-Allahu cazzun dhu intiqm) (Q. 3: 1-4).
According to al-Suy d. 911/849 , the beginning and the end of this surah
are thematically related; the concluding statement of the surah investigates the same
concept; it states that some of the People of the Book believe in Allah, the Qur'an and
their Scripture as well (I, p. 675), as in (wa-inna min ahli al-kitbi la-man yuminu
billhi wa-ma unzila ilaykum wa-ma-unzila ilayhim) (Q. 3: 199) (cf. Abdul-Raof,
2005, p. 43).
2.20.2.4.3 Thematic Connectivity between the End of a Surah and the Beginning
of the Following One
For instance, in Srat al-Qamar (Q. 54), the last two verses end with describing the
bliss the pious will enjoy, as they are promised, in the Afterlife, i.e., gardens and
rivers, granted by a Supreme Determiner, as in [inna al-muttaqna f jannatin wanahar* f maqcad sidiqin cinda malkin muqtadir] (Q. 54: 54-5)
In the consecutive surah, i.e., Srat al-Ram n (Q. 55), it begins with
identifying the Provider of the blissful rewards; it consistently conforms to the end of
the previous surah, stating the various attributes of Allah, combining both mighty, as
in [cinda malkin muqtadir] (Q. 54: 55), mercy and omnipotence as well as in [alRamn] (Q. 55: 1) (the All-Merciful) (al- iq c d. 885/1480 , XIX, p. 139; cf.
Abdul-Raof, 2012, p. 136).
72
_______________________________________________________________
Endnote
1 This heading is inspired by a book entitled Stylistic Approaches to Translation by Jean Boase-Beier
(2006).
2 All the descriptive words and examples mentioned here are excerpted from Margaret Atwood's
collection of short stories entitled Dancing Girls and Other Stories.
c
3 According to al-R fi , such a debate took place between al-Khans and Hassan. However, in other
chronicles, such as khaznat al-adab (1997) by Abdul-Qadir al-Baghd d (d. 1093/1682), it is not alKhans , but al-N bighah.
c
4 It is one of the most famous markets of the Arabs before the advent of Islam, known as Sq Uk,
c
"the fair at the western Arabian town of Uk" where "competitions of poetry and musical
performances were held periodically, attracting the most distinguished poet-musicians"
(www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295642/Islamic-arts/13812/The-pre-Islamicperiod#ref316612).
5 Al-jafanatu refers literary to food utensils, but metaphorically to hospitality and generosity for which
the Arabs were known.
6 The original reads:
:
...
...
: : . :
!
7 For further details, review my book entitled Synonymy in the Glorious Qur'an: Problems Explored &
Strategies Adopted, p. 113-9.
8 For further details, see Chapter 6.
9 For further details, see Chapter 6.
10 At pause, la-kabirah is pronounced with the final sound al-h, but it is pronounced with the final
al-t al-marbuah (nunation) during resuming recitation of the verse.
73
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
Translation Types & Translator's Strategic Decisions
This chapter investigates the multiple categorizations of the process of
meaning-transfer and examines inclusively the strategies and techniques adopted by
translators to reshape the ST adequately and to convey the communicative function
properly. It also probes deeply into the translator's double duty, i.e., as a reader of the
original and as a re-producer of the source text. Through this chapter, the researcher
attempts to show how translation is not a mere replacement of a ST by an equivalent
TL text, but it is a broader concept, requiring a more deliberate approach, as shown
below.
3.1 Towards a Working Definition of Translation
J. Dubois (1973) defines translation, as follows: "Traduire c'est noncer dans
une autre langage (ou langue cible) ce qui a t enonc dans une autre langue source,
en conservant les quivalences smantiques et stylistiques" (Jean Dubois et al., 1973,
p. 490), i.e. Translation is the expression in another language or target language) of
what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and
stylistic equivalences Roger ell's translation, 1991, p. 5 .
Accordingly, a distinction between 'translation', 'a translation' and 'translating'
should be made to clarify any possible misunderstanding. In this respect, Roger Bell
(1991) disambiguates the ambiguity between the three terms, as follows:
(1) translating: the process (to translate; the activity rather than the tangible object);
(2) a translation: the product of the process of translating (i.e., the translated text);
(3) translation: the abstract concept which encompasses both the process of
translating and the product of that process.
74
Mediator between
Source Text
Target Text
Delivered
Sender
by
to
Receiver
through
Written Medium
Spoken Medium
to convey
the intended message
Fig. 2 The Process of Translation
This diagram shows the important role adopted by a translator in bridging the gaps
between two cultures.
75
To explain, according to Nord, the 'extratextual factors' are much concerned with the
following questions:
1- The 'author' or 'the sender of the text', i.e., (who?);
2- The 'sender's intention', i.e., (what for?);
3- The 'addressee' or the 'recipient' of the text, i.e., (to whom?);
4- The 'medium' or 'channel' through which the text is conveyed, i.e., (by which
medium?);
5- The 'place', i.e., (where?);
6- The 'time' at which the text is communicated, i.e., (when?);
7- The 'motive' or impulse behind the communication process, i.e., (why?)
8- The desired function achieved by the text, i.e., (with what function?)
As for the 'intratextual factors', according to her, they are much concerned
with the following questions:
1- The 'subject matter' or theme of the text;
2- The 'information' or 'content' shown in the text, i.e., (what?);
3- The 'presuppositions' assumed by the 'author', i.e., (what not?)
4- The 'composition' or structure of the text, i.e., (in what order?);
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5- The 'paralinguistic elements' inherent in the text, i.e., (in which words?), plus the
'lexical' and 'syntactical' features expressed in the text, i.e., (in what kind of
sentences?);
6- The 'suprasegmental features' represented in 'intonation' and 'prosody', i.e., (in
which tone).
7- The desired 'effect', which refers to "the interdependence or interplay between the
extratextual and intratextual factors" (p. 43), represented in the last question, i.e., (in
what effect?).
In this phase, "the translator is a reader of the source text" (Boase-Beier, 2006,
p. 4) that reflects the author's "particular turn of thoughts and expression" (Lefevere,
1992, p. 104). S/he first explores the "style and manner of writing" (Robinson, 2002,
p. 208ff) of the original and then the "style and effect" (Qvale, 1998, p. 9), being fully
aware of the author's "spirit and intention [that] are often bound up with his style and
choice of words" (Lefevere, 1992, p. 53). Additionally, there is an important step to
be taken. According to Boase-Beier (2006), a translator should "attempt a reasonable
reconstruction of authorial intention" in order to "construct meaning in reading a text"
(p. 4). Thus, such a process is much concerned with 'the style of the source text' and
'how it can be preserved in translation'.
3.3 The Product of Translation
In this phrase, the translator is committed to providing "a direct link to the
work's basic thematic concerns and the kind of experience [the style of the original]
attempts to convey" (Garca & Marco, 1998, p. 65). His presence, as Hermans (1996:
42) points out, should be felt in translation, as opposed to his role as "a functionary of
the target group" (Kohlmayer, 1988, p. 147; as cited in Boaser-Beier, 2006, p. 5).
Strictly speaking, Eco (2001: 45) specifies the characteristics of a good translation,
77
which manages to 'say less', but precisely. He draws our attention to the quality of the
end product and not the quantity. Therefore, translation is seen as a "strategy that aims
to produce, in a different language, the same effect as the source discourse" (p. 93),
"if accepting the challenge of the original text so as to recreate it in another form and
another substance," (p. 94) maintaining the 'guiding spirit' of the text.
3.4 Nida & Taber's Categorization of the Process of Meaning-Transfer
Nida and Taber (1969: 33), in The Theory and Practice of Translation,
classify the stages the process of translation goes through and in which a translator's
main task is to 1) analyze, 2) transfer and 3) restructure. These three stages are shown
in the figure below.
A (Source)
B (Receptor)
(Analysis)
(Restructuring)
(Transfer)
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79
(2006) in the very beginning of her book entitled Stylistic Approaches to Translation,
specifically on page 4, focused on the role of a translator as 'a reader of the source
text', but later on page 51, she adds a new comprehensive role to the translator. She
refers to a translator as a 'communicator' whose major task "goes beyond the mental
expansion and cognitive pleasure of the translator" (p. 51). According to her, a
translator, as a writer who "triggers discovery in the reader" (MacKenzie, 2002, p.
24), is held responsible not only for the style of target text, but also for the
"unconscious linguistic motivation" (p. 51).
3.8 Translator's Double Duty
Being a reader of the original and a re-producer of the source text, the
translator has a double mission to achieve. He has first to grasp the source text,
decoding the codes included therein and, second, to reproduce them accurately to the
target reader. As Matthew Arnold (1914) states: "The primary duty of the translator is
to focus on the text of the source language, so that he can serve that text with
complete commitment" (as cited in Das, 2008, p. 20), side by side with maintaining
every peculiar quality of the original, let alone the production of the same impact as
the original.
According to Ian Mason (1994), a translator "has the double duty of
perceiving the meaning potential of particular choices within the cultural and
linguistic community of the source text and relaying the same potential, by suitable
linguistic means, to a target readership" (p. 23).
3.9 Translator as a Reporter
Henry W. Longfellow expands on the mission of a translator as a 'reporter'
and not a 'poet' or a 'commentator'. According to him, a translator's main task is
transfer verbally what the author or writer says and stylistically how he says, outlining
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his/her own business, as follows: "The business of a translator is to report what the
author says, not to explain what he means; that is the work of the commentator. What
an author says and how he says it" (as cited in William De Sue, 1964, p. 65).
3.10 Trends of Translation Typology
Bassnett-McGuire (1980 [1991]: 71) categorizes the main trends of translation
typology into five groups, as follows:
(1) Translation as a scholar's activity, where the preeminence of the SL text is
assumed de facto over any TL version;
(2) Translation as a means of encouraging the intelligent reader to return to the SL
original;
(3) Translation as a means of helping the TL reader become the equal of what
Schleiermacher called the better reader of the original, through a deliberately
contrived foreignness in the TL text;
(4) Translation as a means whereby the individual translator who sees himself like
Aladdin in the enchanted vault (Rosserti's imaginative image) offers his own
pragmatic choice to the TL reader;
(5) Translation as a means through which the translator seeks to upgrade the status of
the SL text because it is perceived as being on a lower cultural level.
Here, the classification made by Bassnet-McGuire (1991: 71) regarding the
types of translation is much influenced by 'the age of industrial capitalism' and
'colonial expansion' up to the First World War, as she believes. Later on, it is
considered a sign of a shift in attitude to translation due to a revaluation of the role of
poetry and creativity, especially during the Romantic period (cf. Bijay K. Das, 2008,
p. 21).
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3) Imitation, where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit (as
cited in Bassnett-McGuire, 1980 [1991], p. 60).
According to Dryden, the second type is considered to be the most suitable
approach to translation, provided that the translator should practically and
predominantly abide by some sine qua nons of the carefully planned process of
translation. Firstly, a translator, especially in translating poetry, should have the talent
of being a poet; secondly, s/he should be competent in both languages, i.e., the SL and
the TL; thirdly, they should fully grasp and be aware of the 'spirit' of the original
along with the 'aesthetic canons' of their own era (cf. Bassnett-McGuire, 1980 [1991],
p. 60).
3.13 Various Methods of Translation
Andr Lefevere (1975), in his book entitled Translating Poetry, Seven
Strategies and a Blueprint, introduces a number of various methods of translation, as
follows:
1) Phonemic translation, which attempts to reproduce the SL sound in the TL while at
the same time producing an acceptable paraphrase of the sense. Lefevere comes to the
conclusion that although this works moderately well in the translation of
onomatopoeia, the overall result is clumsy and often devoid of sense altogether;
2) Literal translation, where the emphasis on word-for-word translation distorts the
sense and the syntax of the original;
3) Metrical translation, where the dominant criterion is the reproduction of the SL
metre. Lefevere concludes that, like literal translation, this method concentrates on
one aspect of the SL text at the expense of the text as a whole;
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4) Poetry into prose. Here, Lefevere concludes that distortion of the sense,
communicative value and syntax of the SL text results from this method, although not
to the same extent as with the literal or metrical types of translation;
5) Rhymed translation, where the translator 'enters into a double bondage' or metre
and rhyme;
6) Blank verse translation. Again the restrictions imposed on the translator by the
choice of structure are emphasized, although the greater accuracy and higher degree
of literalness obtained are also noted;
7) Interpretation. Under this heading, Lefevere discusses what he calls versions where
the substance of the SL text is retained but the form is changed, and imitations where
the translator produces a poem of his own which has 'only title and point of departure,
if those, in common with the source text' (as cited in Bassnett-McGuire, 1980 [1991],
pp. 81-2).
3.14 Translation Theory and Language
E. A. Nida (1964) briefly establishes a connecting link between the true
meaning of language, as a means of communication, and translation, as a means of
reproduction. He points out that
Language consists of more than the meaning of the symbols and the
combination of symbols; it is essentially a code in operation, or, in other words,
a code functioning for a specific purpose or purposes. Thus we must analyse the
transmission of a message in terms of dynamic dimension. This dimension is
especially important for translation, since the production of equivalent messages
is a process, not merely of matching parts of utterances, but also of reproducing
the total dynamic character of the communication. Without both elements the
results can scarcely be regarded, in any realistic sense, as equivalent. (p. 120)
Consequently, translation is not the mere replacement of a SL text by an equivalent
TL text; it is a holistic process in different degrees (fully or partially), in respect of
different levels of presentation (equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of
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85
have 'fast access to specific information', and which involves several sub-types, as
follows:
A) Translation of the generic themes;
B) Description of the generic content, the objectives of the document and its sub-units
and the structure of the document;
C) Abridged translation of all the useful content of a text.
This type is clearly exemplified by the introduction provided by a translator of
the Qur'an to each sra to give the TR a brief outline of the theme(s) and the content
of each chapter. For instance, in Srat al-Nr (the light), Muhammad Abdel-Haleem
(2004), introduces it briefly and concisely, as follows:
This Medinan sura clarifies several regulations for the Muslim community,
mainly to do with marriage, modesty, obedience to the Prophet, and appropriate
behaviour in the household. The initial context is the false rumour against
Aisha, the Prophets wife, who was left behind unwittingly by her traveling
companions after wandering away in search of a dropped necklace. She was
escorted back to Medina by a Muslim man coming later who found her there.
The sura is named after the Verse of Light (verses 356) where Gods light is
contrasted to the darkness in which the disbelievers find themselves engulfed.
3.15.3 Adaptation
Adaptations are known to be 'free versions' or 'limitations' due to 'translational
action', such as the adaptation of Homer's Odyssey (800 B.C.) by Livius Andronicus
in the 3rd century B.C., which was based on a 'target-oriented Latin' adaptation of the
original. Later on, according to Aranda, specifically in the 17th & 18th centuries,
adaptations aimed to enhance the 'literary and cultural tastes' of the target audience,
but they were known as belles infideles, a concept which indicates the impossibility of
combining 'beauty' with 'loyalty/fidelity' in the transference to a TL. In this regard,
such a term is wonderfully epitomized through the following lines of anonymous
verse: "Translation is like a beautiful woman. If beautiful, it cannot be faithful, and if
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faithful, it cannot be beautiful" (cf. Shastri, 2012, p. 19). Today, a lot of scientific and
technical texts are reproduced for 'non-scientific readers'.
3.15.4 Auto-translation
Auto- or self-translations are carried out by the authors of the original, who are
competent in the SL and the TL, such as Samuel Beckett, Umberto Eco, Maria Luisa
Bombal or Rosario Ferr, to mention but a few. These translations are done either
concurrently with the original or asynchronously after the publication of the original.
Accordingly, self-translators may relatively intervene in the translation process, using
various strategies such as 'additions', 'omissions' or 'corrections'. For instance, the
translated novels of Rosario Ferr from Spanish, e.g., La casa de la laguna, into
English, under the title of House on the Lagoon, are considered a "second chance", by
the author herself, to rectify the inherent mistakes. Additionally, self-translations
seem to be more 'prestigious' than 'regular' ones, as they are not somehow replicas in
their writers' view.
3.15.5 Content-based Translation
According to Gouadec (1990: 332-341), this type is known as 'translation with
reconstructions', by which a translator sacrifices form for content, especially in nonliterary texts, so as to convey the message effectively and directly.
3.15.6 Crib Translation
A crib translation is a 'literal' translation. In other words, it is 'the first draft' of
a translation. It is also called 'pony' or 'trot' as an aid in translation.
3.15.7 Diagrammatic Translation
In this kind of translation, a text is transferred into a diagram. In other words,
it is "the transfer of the SL document content in form of a diagram, in order to permit
the learner to control his own knowledge of the subject" (Sager, 1994, p. 184). With
87
regards to the definition of this type, Sager (1994) comments that "This type of
information provision exceeds what is here considered translation" (p. 184).
3.15.8 Ethnographic Translation
This kind of translation pertains to the cultural context of the source text in the
target text; it is appropriate for the cross-cultural studies, such as advertising.
3.15.9 Exegetic Translation
An exegetic translation is much concerned with the explanation and
elaboration of the source text in the target text for cultural, linguistic, rhetorical or
stylistic considerations. It is also called 'an annotated translation', as opposed to a 'gist
translation'.
This kind of translation is frequently adopted by Qur'an translators as a
suitable strategy especially for translating culture-specific terms, such al-firah, alajj, al-cumrah, al-ghusl and al-tayyammum, etc. These actual examples have no full
equivalents in the target language, that is, English. The first term, i. e. al-firah, will
be analyzed in detail to clarify such an issue.
A good example of exegetic translation can be found in various English
translations of the Qur'an. Consider, for instance, the following three translations of
the word firah in Srat al-Rm (The Romans), verse no. 30, by al-Hil l and Kh n
(1997), Ghl (2003) and Pickthall (1981).
(
)36 :) (
[firat Allahi allati faara al-nasa calaiha la tabdila li-khalqi Allahi] (Q. 30: 30)
Below are the translations of the previous verse, as in:
Pickthall's Translation:
The nature (framed) of Allah, in which He hath created man. There is no altering
(the laws of) Allah's creation. (Q. 30: 30)
Gha 's Translation:
(This religion is) the original disposition from Allah upon which He originated
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mankind. There is no exchange for the creation of Allah. (Q. 30: 30)
h 's Translation:
So set you (O Muhammad) your face towards the religion (of pure Islmic
Monotheism) Hanf (worship none but Allh Alone). Allh's Fitrah (i.e., Allh's
Islmic Monotheism) with which He has created mankind. No change let there be in
Khalq-illh (i.e., the religion of Allh - Islmic Monotheism): that is the straight
religion, but most of men not.
It is apparent here that the word fitrah has no identical equivalent due to its
cultural specificity. To explain, Pickthall and Ghal likely render it into the nature
framed of Allah and the original disposition from Allah respectively, while Kh n
exegetically interprets it as a true faith of Islam.
Obviously, the above translations can be regarded as having no exegetical
elements, save for al-Hil l and Kh n's translation, which includes an exegetical gloss,
e.g., 'O Muhammad', and another gloss on anf. Additionally, al-Hil l and Kh n are
much impressed by the dictionary meaning of firah, as defined by Lisn al-cArab
Lexicon, as follows: The natural knowledge of Allah with which every human being
is endowed (V, p 3433)1 (Translation is mine). They also strongly adopt the
interpretation of Al-Zamakhshar (538/1143), a famous Arab exegete, who interprets
the above verse, as follows:
Surely He (Allah) has created them (human beings) susceptible to monotheism
and faith in Islam, (inclined naturally) not to stay away from it or to deny it,
because it Islamic faith sounds harmonious to ones mind. And if they be free
to choose their own religion, the faith of Islam will be preferable to other
religions; otherwise s/he may be lured by (evil spirits of) human beings and
Jinn. (III, p. 245)2 (Translation is mine)
Thus, James Dickins et al. (2002) comment, "while translation proper may include
elements of gist or exegesis, the dominant mode of translation is one which involves
rephrasing between the ST and TT" (p. 12).
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'extreme' or 'exotic' form of translation, for it does not "necessarily produce a 'correct'
translation" (Aranda, 2007, p. 8), as in poetry or advertising. In this regard,
Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997) give an example of this type of translation, as follows:
"The Russian word CTIIK can be graphologically translated into the Roman
form CHYTHNK by substituting Cyrillic letters not with their nearest Roman sound
equivalents, but with those Roman letters which most closely resemble them in
appearance" (p. 68; emphasis in the original).
Graphological translation is a 'restricted translation', in which 'the graphology
of the source language text is substituted by equivalent graphology in the target
language'. Such a substitution is basically based on an equivalent use of the same
graphic substance. Thus, it is considered somehow uneasy, due to the restricted range
of the writing systems used by typographers, who plan to impart an 'exotic flavor' to
written scripts. A good example of this type of translation can be seen in books about
'Islam' or 'the Arabs', whose titles written in 'Arabic-lie-script' (Das, 2008, p. 33).
3.15.15 Idiomatic Translation
Translation, as Mildred Larson (1984) states, is a transfer of meaning
alongside a 'change in form', taking into consideration the ultimate goal-oriented
translator, i. e., 'idiomatic translation', which "does not sound like a translation" but on
the contrary "[i]t sounds like it was written originally in the receptor language" (p.
16). This type of translation aims to reproduce "the meaning of the source language
(that is, the meaning intended by the original communicator) in the natural form of the
receptor language" (p. 17). In this regard, Larson (1984) proposes the following figure
in which he shows the in-between stages a translation process goes through, from
'very literal' to 'unduly free' translations.
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very
literal
literal
modified
Inconsisten
near
unduly
literal
mixture
idiomatic
idiomatic
free
TRANSLATOR'S GOAL
Fig. 4 Larson (1998: 17 Display 2.1)
3.15.16 Interlineal Translation
As opposed to literal translation, an interlineal translation is basically
grammar-based correspondence between the ST and the TT. According to L. V.
Aranda (2007), this type of translation is of great importance to novice translators or
linguists and language learners.
3.15.17 Interlinear Translation
Interlinear translation is a line per line translation of the ST. It is regarded as a
close reading of a ST and it is useful in language learning.
3.15.18 Interlinguistic Translation
According to George Steiner (1975), this kind of translation is "only a
particular case of the communicational relationship that every successful linguistic act
describes within a given language" (Eco, 2001, p. 72). On the surface level, this
translation seems simple as it defines as 'the translation from one language to another',
but on the deeper level, it is more 'complex', as Theodore Shapiro (1999: 108)
believes. He clarifies his point of view by giving an example of translating a 'noun',
resulting in a 'change in nuance and connotation'. Although lexical items share some
semantic features in common, their connotation or significance greatly varies, as in
the case of the word 'moon'. In English, its mental image is much related to
'measurement' or calendar; in French, it signifies 'brightness' and 'light', whereas, I can
add, in Arabic, it has a special significance and a conventional association, especially
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94
95
English
Greek
voiceless
deep (glottal)
(dorsal)
vocoid-shaped
fricative
lowest
a
front
vocoid
apical
voiced
d
(nasal +)
nt
stop
Fig. 5 Catford's Phonological Translation of English into Greek
3.15.29 Pseudotranslation
As its name suggests, a pseudotranslation is a fake or 'fictitious' translation. A
famous example of this type of translation is El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la
Mancha, a Spanish translation by Miguel de Cervantes, through a commission from a
collection of notebooks, written in Arabic by El Cide Hamete Benengeli, he found in
a market in Toledo.
3.15.30 Selective Translation
According to Gouadec (1990), selective translation means 'eliminating all
irrelevant information' and 'limiting the translation to one aspect of the topic of the
document' to enable the TR to have a fast access to information.
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22).
To
explain,
this
substitution
"entails
the
replacement
of
SL
(1965) explains, such a distinction resides in two ways: "[F]irst, is not necessarily
being relatable to the same graphic substance as the SL letters; secondly, in being (in
good transliteration) in one-to-one correspondence with SL letter or other units" (p.
66; emphasis in the original).
As for the process of establishing a transliteration system, Catford (1965: 66)
states 'three steps', as follows:
(1) SL letters are replaced by SL phonological units; this is the normal literate process
of converting from the written to the spoken medium;
(2) The SL phonological units are translated into TL phonological units;
(3) The TL phonological units are converted into TL letters, or other graphological
units.
In practice, this process may be simply illustrated as shown below:
SL graph.
Description
Units
SL phon.
TL phon.
TL graph.
Units
Units
Units
Voiced
//
//
TH
//
//
SH
/m/
/m/
/h/
/h/
interdental
fricative
Voiceless
palato-alveolar
fricative
Voiced bilabial
nasal
Voiceless
glottal fricative
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First of all, there are some facts that need to be emphasized before going
deeper into the explanation of the table illustrated above. First, the transliteration
under discussion is from Arabic into English. Secondly, the Arabic transcription
symbols are adopted from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), representing the
modern standard form of Arabic, with slight modifications for the purpose of
clarification. The previous table is to be interpreted as follows:
In (1) the Arabic graphological letter [ ]is phonologically represented by //
in the SL. This Arabic phonological unit // has phonic features, i. e., voice,
interdentals and fricatives, which are in common with its English phonological
translation equivalent //. Since the English phonological unit // is transformable
into the English graphological unit TH, thus this indicated double-letter TH is the
English transliteration equivalent of the Arabic [].
In (2) the Arabic graphological letter [ ]is phonologically represented by //
in the SL. This Arabic phonological unit // has phonic features, i. e., voice, palatals,
alveolars and fricatives, which are in common with its English phonological
translation equivalent //. Since the English phonological unit // is transformable into
the English graphological unit SH, thus this indicated double-letter SH is the English
transliteration equivalent of the Arabic [].
In (3) the Arabic graphological letter [] is phonologically represented by /m/
in the SL. This Arabic phonological unit /m/ has phonic features, i. e., voice, bilabials
and nasals, which are in common with its English phonological translation equivalent
/m/. Since the English phonological unit /m/ is transformable into the English
graphological unit M, thus this indicated single-letter M is the English transliteration
equivalent of the Arabic [].
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100
A clear distinction between the previous two types will be shown below, especially on
rendering an Arabic passage of high degree of semantic repetition into English.
The Source Text
.
- -
) 48( .
As for a literal translation of the previous text, Johnstone (1991: 90) offers the
following:
Poetry is an expression and description of the feelings of poets and their
thoughts, whether the experience be real or from the fabric of the poet's
imagination. And in both cases, the experience is true, because even if the
experience is not real- that is, imaginary- the poet lives in it for a long time
before he composes his poetry, sensing it in the pulses of his heart and feeling it
flow in his blood. (75 words)
Obviously, the source text is literally reproduced and replaced by an
equivalent set of lexical and grammatical words. It puts much emphasis on the form
of the original, maximizing its significance and abiding to the norms of the source
language. Thus, the target text may be larger in number than the original. For
example, the former consists of 75 words, whereas the latter consists of 48 words.
As for an idiomatic translation of the same text, I offer the following:
Poetry is a lively state, in which a poet reflects on his emotions and thoughts.
Regardless of being real or unreal, his active participation in the poetic process
requires a great deal of time and effort, both emotionally and intellectually. (40
words)
As stated above, the translation I propose hopefully seems concise and precise,
as it focuses on the intended meaning, leading to an equal set of target words. For
example, the original is about 48 words, whereas the target text is 40 words. Thus,
succinctness, along with accuracy, is the optimal target of any idiomatic translation.
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Communicative
1. Author-centered.
Reader-centered.
process.
Related to thought.
Related to speech.
individual.
4. Semantic-and syntactic-
Effect-oriented.
oriented.
Length of sentences, position and
more readily.
Faithful, freer.
6. Informative.
Effective.
8. Personal.
Social.
terms.
original.
11. More powerful.
Less powerful.
place'eternal'.
context, 'existential'.
improve or to correct.
footnote.
18. Target: a 'true' version, i. e. an
exact statement.
successful fact.
paragraphs.
original expressiveness.
21. Basically the work of
translating is an art.
is a craft.
translator.
translation team.
24. Meaning.
Message.
it, "the replaced and replacing entities being functions of two variants within one and
the same natural language, whether free (e.g., in a definition) or bound (i. e.,
belonging in two complementary systems of that language, such as two registers, two
historical layers, or two stylistic types)" (p. 1113). It is also called a 'monolingual
translation' (cf. P. D. Shastri, 2012, p. 21)
2- Interlingual translation or translation proper: this is an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of another language; it involves 'two codes', which are "two different,
independent natural languages" (Toury, 1986, p. 1113).
3- Intersemiotic translation or transmutation: this is an interpretation of the verbal
signs by means of signs of nonverbal systems (cf. Kittel et al., 2011, p. 55). But Toury
(1986) expands on this issue; he states that it pertains to "two different sign-systems,
whether one of them is verbal or not" (p. 1113).
Translation
Intralingual
Interlingual
Intersemiotic
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106
Accordingly, s/he is alone responsible for his choice, which results in her/his
criticism in both cases, as Bell (1991) postulates: "Pick the first and the translator is
criticized for the 'ugliness' of a 'faithful' translation; pick the second and there is
criticism of the 'inaccuracy' of a 'beautiful' translation" (p. 7).
Admittedly, it is likely a battlefield in which a translator loses due to the
absence of a tertium comparationis (a third choice), which enables him/her to find a
suitable outlet. Thus, Bell (1991) emphasizes that "either way it seems, the translator
cannot win, even though we recognize that the crucial variable is the purpose for
which the translation is being made, not some inherent characteristic of the text itself"
(p. 7; emphasis in the original).
3.19.2 Pragmatic Equivalence vs. Functional Equivalence
In this regard, J. C. Sager (1997) presents also two types of equivalence,
which represent "the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of
linguistics" (Jakobson, 1959, p. 233). He classifies equivalence as follows:
1- Pragmatic equivalence refers to 'implicatures', i.e., 'the implied meaning(s) in
conversation or in written discourse' and "strategies of avoidance during the
translation process" (Leonardi, 2007, p. 92); it also implies any contextual changes
brought about within a text, including 'addition' or 'reduction', but "its significance is
[still] the same for the target community as the source community" (Partington, 1998,
p. 49);
2- Functional equivalence is the re-creation of "the author's intention in another
culture in a way that enables the TC (target culture) reader to understand it clearly"
(Leonardi, 2007, p. 92); it is employed to state the 'writer's intention' and concurrently
to meet the 'reader's expectation' (Sager, 1997, p. 32).
107
108
Fig. 7 Reiss' Text Types & Various Text Varieties (Reiss, 1989, p. 105)
The previous diagram demonstrates the overlapping functions of the four
types, stating the fact that each text represents various functions, as "each has its own
characteristic mixture" (Reiss, 1989, p. 105).
3.20.1 Literary Texts vs. Non-literary Texts
Boaes-Beier (2006) differentiates between the translation of literary and nonliterary texts; she believes that the nature of the former requires 'direct translation',
which is much similar to 'direct quotation', focusing on 'how the message is
conveyed', i.e., style, whereas the latter requires translation, which is much similar to
indirect quotation, focusing on 'what is said', i. e., content (Hilal Erkazanci, 2008, p.
183).
3.20.2 Denotation vs. Connotation
Eco (2001) conceives "no one could say that a good translation is not
concerned with the denotation but with the connotation of words." He later explains
his view by giving some examples; he says: "The word cool, in English, denotes a
physical state but in the idiom keep cool connotes a psychological one" (p. 8).
109
Strategy Adopted
Creative Translation
by Ysuf Idrs
by F il al-cAzzaw
Translated by William M.
Hutchins
Expanded Translation
y Ysuf al-Muhaymd
Calderbank
111
By Khair Shalab
Translated by Michael
Cooperson
Commercialized Translation
by Bah aher
(1937)
By Tawfq al-akm
By Khall wla
By Rm asyon
By Ibr hm Farghal
Nadia Foada-Smart
They Die Strangers (2001)
Muammad cAbdel-Wal
Al-Thulathiyyah (1957)
By Nagb Mahfz
Sugar Street)
Translated by William Maynard
Hutchins, Olive E. Kenny, Lorne M.
Kenny, and Angele Botros Samc n
By cAl al-Asw n
By Mahmd al-War dn
Hala alm
Provocative Translation
Candygirl (2012)
y Muammad Tawfk
By Fahd al-cAtq
(2010)
Translated by the author
By Sin n Ann
Moralizing Translation
Al-Khlidiyyah (2004)
By Muammad al-Bis
By Selm Maar
113
114
________________________________________________________________________________
Endnote
1 The original reads:
: ( . 5 )3433
2 The original reads:
.()545/3
115
Chapter Four
Chapter Four
Morpho-semantic Shifts
After discussing the theoretical aspects of both stylistics and translation, a
further inquiry, into the various significations of morphological patterns in the Qur'an
and their translations into English, is thoroughly launched in this chapter. In other
words, it practically handles some selected morpho-semantic shifts in the four
translations of the Qur'an in question. In this chapter, not only a linguistic distinction
between these shifts is made, but also exegetical and contextual investigations are
extensively conducted. Additionally, it analyzes and evaluates the translations
suggested by the four translators in question regarding these shifts. Finally, a suitable
and appropriate translation, which hopefully neither distorts the original message, nor
widens the cultural gap between the SR and the TR, is proposed responsively.
4.1 hamzah-initial Forms
4.1.1 nazzala & anzala
These two verbs are mentioned in the following verse:
(
)3 : ) (
[nazzala calayka al-kitba bi-al-aq muaddiqan lima bayna yadayhi wa-anzala altawrata wa-al-injla ] (Q. 3: 3)
4.1.1.1 Precondition (Exegetical) Header
4.1.1.1.1 The Secret behind Such a Shift
Some exegetes tried to unveil the secret behind the shift from nazzala, which
collocates with the Glorious Quran, into anzala, which collocates with the Torah and
the Gospel. Most of them, especially al-Zamakhshar d. 538/1143 , concluded that
the pattern faccala, which indicates hyperbole and multiplicity, is quite appropriate to
the Quran, which was revealed in installments
116
Muammad pbuh) by the Angel Jibrl over a period of twenty three years. Thus, such
a pattern matches the gradual revelation of the Holy Quran. Unlike the Holy Quran,
the two Scriptures, i.e., the Torah and the Gospel, were revealed all at once (jumlatan
widah unto Prophets Msa and csa, respectively. That is why the pattern afcala,
which is void of hyperbole or multiplicity, collocates appropriately with them.
4.1.1.1.2 Morphological Differences between the Two Patterns
The verb anzala is of the measure afcala, which, according to Jrj cAiyya
(n.d., p. 51), may appear to have several functions or purposes. For example, it is used
to indicate al-tacdiyah (transitivity). In other words, it is used to indicate a change
from al-lzim (intransitive) into mutacadd (transitive), as in ajlastu Zaydan (I urged
Zayd to sit down).
According to al-Shacr w 1996 , hamzat al-tacdiyah (hamzah of transitivity)
in the verb anzala indicates that the Torah and the Gospel were revealed by Allah
unto Prophets Msa and csa peace be upon them , respectively, at once (p. 1264).
As for the verb nazzala, it is of the measure faccala. According to cAiyya, it is
used to indicate al-takthr (multiplicity), as in qaactu al-abla (I cut the rope into
pieces . This means that the Quran was revealed over a period of twenty three years
in installments unto Prophet Muammad pbuh) in accordance with the events related
to Muslims that require legislation or clarification in some cases, and support the heart
of the Prophet (pbuh) in other ones (p. 1265).
4.1.1.2 Instrumental (Contextual) Header
4.1.1.2.1 The Linguistic Difference between al-tanzl and al-inzl
In this regard, al-R ghib al-Afah n d. 502/1108 , in al-Mufradt (n.d.),
differentiates between al-inzl and al-tanzl, as follows: The former conveys the
immediate sending down of the Quran all at once, whereas the latter, the sending
117
down of the Quran in installments. An instance of this is obviously shown in sra III,
verse no. 3, as follows: [nazzala calayka al-kitba bi-al-aqq musaddiqan lima bayna
yadayh wa-anzala al-tawrta wa-al-injla] (
)in which the Quran is characterized by al-tanzl as it was revealed in
installments, whereas the two Scriptures are characterized by al-inzl as they were
revealed all at once (pp. 488-489).
According to al-Shacr w 1991 , the Glorious Quran was revealed twice; the
first revelation is called inzl, a verbal noun derived from anzala. Through such a
stage, the Quran was revealed from al-law al-maf (the Preserved Tablet) into alsam al-dunya (the Firmament) on laylat al-qadr (the Night of Glory) munajjaman
(in installments) unto Prophet Muammad pbuh by Jibrl during a period of twenty
three years in accordance with the events that require legislation or clarification (p.
1265).
As for the second stage, it is called tanzl, a verbal noun derived from nazzala,
through which the Quran was revealed from al-sam al-dunya (the Firmament).
That is why the past verb nazzala collocates with the Quran. Unlike the Glorious
Quran, the other Scriptures, specifically the Torah and the Gospel, were revealed at
once unto Prophets Msa and csa, respectively. That is why the past verb anzala
collocates with the Torah and the Gospel (p. 1265).
In addition, Ibn cshr (1984) adds that the doubling of the medial consonant
in nazzala indicates the intensification of the action, whether quantitatively or
qualitatively. Thus, shift from hamza of transitivity to the doubling of the medial
consonant is for the purpose of intensifying the meaning of the action. In other words,
the statement of nazzala calayka al-kitba is more significant than that of wa-anzala
118
al-tawrta wa-al-injla, indicating the greatness of the revelation of the Quran (III,
pp. 147-148).
Here, in this verse, there are two morphological patterns, i.e., faccala, which
characterized by the doubling of the second medial consonant. This pattern indicates
hyperbole, multiplicity and emphasis as well. The other pattern is afcala, which is
characterized by the prefixed a-, or known as a hamza-initial form. This pattern
indicates a factitive sense (III, pp. 147-148).
4.1.1.3 Output (Translation) Header
A deeper look at the translation of the previous verse is needed:
Abdel-Haleem: Step by step, He has sent the Scripture down to you [Prophet] with
the Truth, confirming what went before: He sent down the Torah and the Gospel.
Ghl: He has been sending down upon you the Book with the Truth, sincerely
(verifying) what was before it, and He sent down the Tawrh and the Injil.
h : It is He Who has sent down the Book (the Qur'an) to you (Muhammad SAW)
with truth, confirming what came before it. And he sent down the Taurat (Torah) and
the Injeel (Gospel).
Zidan: He sent down to you the Book (Quran) in Truth, confirming what was sent
before it and He sent down the Torah and the Injeel.
4.1.1.3.1 Comments on Translators' Strategies
Having reviewed the above translations, it seems that the verb nazzala is
problematic because the four translators translated it into various equivalents, whereas
the verb anzala, they all render it into "sent down." For example, it is translated into
has sent down by both Kh n and Abdel-Haleem, into sent down by Zidan, and
into has been sending down by Gh l . In other words, Kh n and Abdel-Haleem
preferred the present perfect tense as an equivalent to the past form. After reviewing
the four English translations of the previous verse, we find that the translators, namely
Kh n, Abdel-Haleem, Zidan, and Ghl, adopt different approaches to translation.
They are divided into or classified into three categories/parties:
119
1) As for the first party, represented by Kh n and Abdel-Haleem, they are aware of
the difference between the two verbs, but render them improperly. To explain, they
feel satisfied to translate nazzala into has sent down and anzala into sent down.
In other words, they opt for using two different tenses for the two past forms. They
use the present perfect to express the occurrence of the action in the past. Thus, there
is no big difference between the translations of the two verbs, as the present perfect
here indicates that the action of the sending down was done in the past.
2) The second party, represented by Zidan, opts for a literal approach to translation.
To explain, he prefers translating nazzala and anzala into sent down. He believes
that the two patterns are past forms, and, thus, there is no difference between them,
ignoring the rhetorical, stylistic and semantic connotations inherent in their use.
3) Third party, represented by Ghl, opts for the present perfect continuous tense,
which indicates that the action started in the past, but it is continuing now, for
nazzala, and the past tense for anzala.
In brief, all of them, except Abdel-Haleem, succeeded partially in rendering
the two morphological forms into English. He professionally used the modifier "step
by step" to indicate the gradual revelation of the Qur'an, but he ignored the other verb
and felt satisfied to find a lexical equivalent. Thus, the above translations can be
defined as 'faithful', but are certainly 'literal', and, as a consequent, they lose the
rhetorical sense of the original, as they hinge heavily on "the lexical meaning of the
single words" (Eco, 2001, p. 8), not on the meaning of the whole sentences.
4.1.1.4 Internal Conceptualization (Proposed Translation) Header
After evaluating the four translations mentioned above, I suggest the following
translation to avoid the translation loss discussed earlier, as follows:
120
Step by step, He sent down to you the Qur'an with the Truth, confirming what went
before it and He sent down the Tawr h and the Injl at once.
Here, the adverbial modifiers, i.e., "step by step" and "at once", are used to
disambiguate the words' sense in the context. Additionally, translation by intervention
is purposefully used to convey the rhetorical and stylistic features inherent in the
original. Basically, it fairly represents the consensual exegeses of the Qur'an. Hence,
the requirement for 'an informative periphrastic' translation is inevitable. The word
nazzala, however, is appropriately rendered as 'sent down step by step', by AbdelHaleem, or 'sent down gradually', perhaps by coincidence, or by profession, whereas
the word anzala is appropriately rendered as 'sent down at once'.
4.1.1.4.1 Statistical Representation of the Questionnaire Findings
Translators
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
(A)
0%
Proposed
Translation
(B)
12
60%
Ghl
(C)
20%
Kh n
(D)
0%
Zidan
(E)
20%
translation. The remaining participants, i.e., 12, who represent 60%, opt for my
suggested translation.
4.1.1.4.2 Justification-based Choices of the Participants
Most of the participants, who preferred my suggested translation of the current
morpho-semantic shifts, realized the distinction made between anzala and nazzala
through the suitable choice of their English equivalents. As for those participants who
preferred Ghl's translation, they justified their choice that the present perfect
progressive and the past tenses are sufficient to express the intended meaning of the
two morphological verbs with no need to use excessive lexical items. As for the other
choices, namely those who preferred Zidan's translation, they are fully convinced of
their preference, ignoring the morphological, semantic and contextual distinctions
explained in the questionnaire.
Accordingly, through my humble attempt I do not claim it to be inclusive or
perfect, but it is acceptable at least in accordance with the commonly accepted norms
of translation, though being aware of the impossibility of perfect translation, for
translation is an uphill task. Translators in particular and people in general proceed to
translate, heedless of such a fact. In this regard, Umberto Eco (2001) points out that
"Every sensible and rigorous theory of language shows that a perfect translation is an
impossible dream. In spite of this, people translate" (Introduction, ix). I am principally
influenced by the translation of both Abdel-Haleem and Zidan. In spite of their
succinctness and directness, some slight linguistic modifications are proposed to
avoid any possible distortion caused by unintentional or inattentive attempts of the
translators at hand.
122
mah+
hil
am+
hil
Description
However, they are appropriately used, as the form mahhil, which is medially
geminated through the voiceless glottal fricative al-h, indicates 'gentle and lenient
talk with the disbelievers'. Thus, its articulation signifies 'long delay'. Interestingly,
the second form amhil is used side by side with ism al-ficl (nominal verb) ruwayda,
which is the diminutive form of irrwd, meaning 'for a while'. Parallelly, mahhil and
124
ruwayda indicate emphasis; the former includes phonetic and semantic emphasis
whereas the latter includes lexical emphasis, as in (Q. 10: 99), where the two
modifiers kulluhum and jamca, meaning 'all of them', are collocated together, to
mention but a few. In other words, variety in words is rhetorically and uniquely used
to avoid a triple repetition implied lexically in mahhil, mahhil and mahhil. Thus, they
are rhetorically and stylistically motivated and any lexical interchangeability could
result in dissonance and cacophony.
Thus, the phrase amhilhum ruwayda may be interpreted as a varying command
and stylistic deviation from long-term deliberation into temporary respite while
preaching to the disbelievers. Thus, shift in verbal forms is stylistically and
rhetorically justified and convincing then.
3- Furthermore, in our daily life, many conversations take place, in which verbal
emphases are variously used to avoid repetitions. For example, one may say, ibir..alabr ya-camil-aj shuwayyah..el-donya mish-har. Here, the two words ibir and alabr are fully synonymous, though the former is an imperative and the latter is a
verbal noun. They indicate semantic emphasis, as they are mutually derived from one
stem, i.e., the triliteral root d-b -r ( ) to mean 'to be patient'. Thus, lexical
diversity or variety may be functionally employed to enhance communication and at
the same time to avoid jargon.
4.1.2.2.2 Lexis-based Levels of Interpretations = Elliptical Structure
The verse under discussion may be interpreted as follows:
Mahhil
al-kfirn
Tamhlan
qallan
amhil
al-kfirn
Imhlan
qallan
mahhil
mahhil
Mahhil
al-kfirn
amhil
al-kfirn
Amhilhum
amhilhum
125
In the first interpretation, the verb mahhil, which is of the pattern faccala, is
used to indicate graduation, multiplicity, and deliberation, which require enough
time to be unfailingly patient with the disbelievers throughout their journey to belief.
In this regard, Ibn Jenn d. 392/1001 comments: The reduplicative medial radial of
the verb indicates the multiplicity of the action taken place, as in kassara, qaaca,
fattaa and ghallaqa (I, p. 223). Consequently, the verbal noun tamhila is derived
from the verb mahhil. Finally, the word qalila, which is equivalent to ruwayda, is an
attribute, which modifies the manner in which the Prophet had to behave.
In the second interpretation, the verb amhil, which is of the pattern afcala, is
used to indicate transitivity, which requires less time and shows haste regarding the
delivery of his message to the disbelievers as a result of their long resistance.
Consequently, the verbal noun imhla, which is derived from the verb amhil, may be
interpreted here as ism marra (noun of occurrence), indicating specifically the shortterm of respite or delay.
In the third interpretation, al-Naysabr (d. 728/1327) comments on the
structure of the verse; he refers to the inimitability inherent in using concise and
elliptical words, such as mahhil, amhil, which indicate being patient while calling the
disbelievers into Islam, and ruwayda, which means gently but for a while (VI, p.
481). Such an eloquent statement is rhetorically and stylistically motivated; it is used
to avoid unnecessary lexical repetition of imperatives that is exemplified by the third
interpretation discussed above, which does not match the Word of Allah.
Finally, in the fourth interpretation, al-Als d. 1270/1853 states that all the
commands inherent in the previous verse are synonymous, or they have the same
meaning; it can be read as: amhil al-kfirn amhilhum amhilhum, and the actual
emphasis intended is indicated through the first mention of amhilhum, not through the
126
third one. He adds that emphasis may be achieved through words that are lexically
and semantically common, quoting the following Hadith: [ayyuma imraah ankaat
nafsaha bi-dn waliy fa-nikuha bil bil bil] (Any woman who gets married in
person without a guardian, her marriage is deemed null and void)1 (Translation is
mine). In a nutshell, he believes that any dispute basically arising out from the
sentences and words is nothing but a superficially-based one.
As for the original, it is eloquent and adequate, as it combines between two
forms, i.e., mahhil, which is of the pattern faccala, indicating deliberate graduation,
and amhil, which is of the pattern afcala, indicating temporary deliberation,
collocated together with a temporal modifier, i.e., ruwayda.
4.1.2.2.3 Morphological Patterns-based Interpretation
Since the form tafcl, which is the pattern of the verbal noun of tamhl, may
indicate extension or elongation, a lexical deviation, i.e., amhil, from which the verbal
noun imhl is derived, is purposefully used, first, to let the Prophet know that
respite is intended, but for a short period of time, and, secondly, to reassure the
Prophet that their evil end will take place sooner or later and thus he will feel
powerful and iron-willed. Consequently, according to al- iq c d. 885/1480 , the
shift inherent in the verb amhilhum implies turning away from the disbelievers
abruptly after a previously deliberate respite, supported by the adverb ruwayda,
meaning a very limited interval (XXI, pp. 385-386).
4.1.2.3 Output (Translation) Header
The translations of the previous verse drive this argument home:
Abdel-Haleem: [Prophet], let the disbelievers be, let them be for a while.
Ghl: So give the disbelievers (more) leisure; give them leisure awhile.
h
: So give a respite to the disbelievers. Deal you gently with them for a while.
127
128
as use of free time for enjoyment. Thus, their rendition is not adequate here
according to famous exegetes, as it negatively connotes time-consuming duties,
though the message is serious and the situation is perilous.
Similarly, Kh n renders mahhil into respite. Although it literally seems
faithful, it is referentially inadequate. After consulting the Cambridge Advanced
Dictionary Online, in which it defines as a pause or rest from something difficult or
unpleasant, it is obviously unsuitable as it logically contradicts the message or
command, which is on the contrary good and pleasant. Hence, inadequacy results
from its negative connotation. Respite here translates as iramhum min al-dacwah
(preach to them no more), which implies a negative connotation in Arabic, similarly
as the phrase yafirr min instead of yafirr il, instead of iramhum bi-al-dacwah (keep
preaching them . In addition, his translation looks unfaithful or irrelevant, as he
renders amhilhum ruwayda into deal with them gently for a while. In doing so, he
falsely and dishonestly adheres to the original without a reasonable pretext, ignoring
the authorized well-known exegeses.
4.1.2.3.3 Criteria for Judgment
As for Abdel-Haleems translation, it is formal and concise rather than
adequate and acceptable. To explain, according to Lawerence Venuti (1995), the
acceptance of a translated text depends upon fluency, the absence of any linguistic
peculiarities, transparency, accessibility of the foreign writers personality or
intention or the essential meaning of the foreign text (p. 1), and domestication,
the risk of reducing individual authors styles and national tricks of speech to a plain
prose uniformity (as cited in Venuti, 1995, p. 6).
In this regard, Venuti (1995) summarizes the criteria for judging or evaluating a
translated text as follows:
129
130
possible to preserve the structures of the SL but concurrently not to distort or ignore
the TL structures.
Here, being a reader of the original and a re-producer of the source text, I feel
that my task is to grasp the source text first, through the authorized exegeses,
including but not limited to Al-Qurub, Ibn Kathr, al-abar, Ibn cshr and AlAls, and, secondly, to render it, both verbally and stylistically, by a suitable
linguistic means to a target readership. For example, mahhil, according to the majority
of the commentators of the Qur'an, is meant to imply la tadc bi-halkihim wa-latastacjil bih ([Prophet!] Do not call down curses upon them and be patient!) by alR z and al-Naysabr, or tamahhal f al-amr ([Prophet!] Be patient!) by Al-Qurub.
Accordingly, I prefer to adopt an exegetical translation, capable of maintaining every
peculiar quality of the original in conformity with the norms of the TL. That is why I
prefer to render mahhil into "be unfailingly patient", using purposefully the modifier
'unfailingly', referring implicitly to the phrase, i.e., '[Prophet]! Be patient regardless of
difficulty or frustration', and amhilhum ruwayda into "respite them for awhile" as a
lexical replacement of the SL text.
4.1.2.4.1 Statistical Representation of the Questionnaire Findings
Translators
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
(A)
30%
Proposed
Translation
(B)
20%
Ghl
(C)
0%
Kh n
15%
131
(D)
Zidan
(E)
35%
132
preference, for it seems to them very close to the original, ignoring the morphological,
semantic and contextual distinctions explained in the questionnaire.
Statistically, the translated text is far less economical than the original. In
other words, the original, which consists -briefly but meaningfully- of 4 words, has
been compensated by a set of words, totaling 13, in translation. Thus, succinctness
and brevity are of the linguistic features of the original, particularly in this context. To
this end, the target language lacks the identical equivalents to the original wording,
equal in number and similar in function.
133
)31 :) (
[inna alladhina tawaffhum al-malikah limi anfusihim ql fma kuntum ql
kunna mustaafina f al-ar ql alam takun aru Allahi wasicah fa-tuhajir fha faulika mawhum jahannamu wa-st maira] (Q. 4: 97)
)
(
)22 :(
[alladhina tatawaffhum al-malikah limi anfusihim fa-alqaw al-salama makunna nacmal min s bala inna Allaha almun bi-ma kuntum tacmaln] (Q. 16: 28)
4.2.1.1 Precondition (Exegetical) Header
4.2.1.1.1 Context-and-Situation Awareness
Many exegetes agree that the two verbs are semantically similar. However,
Ibn Jenn's opinion contradicts theirs. He believes that if two words are
morphologically similar except in one letter, this results in a minute change in the
intended meaning (II, p. 277). Thus, the addition of the letter al-t to the verb
tawaffhum is functionally used in accordance with the context. To explain, each verb
is totally appropriate to its situation. According to Ibn Kathr d. 774/1372 , this verse
is about some hypocrites, who left the Prophet (pbuh) in Mecca, and accompanied the
people of Quraysh, though they were able to immigrate with their Muslim brethren in
the battle of Badr, where they were killed. They had to abandon the disbelievers and
settle down away from them, especially in case of failure to practice their rituals.
They were physically able to immigrate, but they did not. Thus, they did injustice to
134
themselves. Accordingly, the verse shows their mistaken discretion and blameworthy
action (II, pp. 388-389).
As for the second verb, i.e., tatawaffhum, it is functionally used in an
appropriate situation. According to Ibn Kathr d. 774/1372 , this verse tells us about
the state of the unjust disbelievers during the agonies of death and the advent of
angels to take their evil souls. They will pretentiously say: We did nothing wrong,
but Allah knows best what they have truly done. Commenting on their end, Ibn Kathr
(d. 774/1372) says they will abide in hell since their death and be tortured in its
flames until the Day of Judgment on which their souls will return to their bodies to
abide eternally in hell. Accordingly, the situation here describes the state of those
disbelievers whoever do wrong to themselves and how their souls will be taken,
regardless of temporal-spatial boundaries (IV, p. 567).
Thus, it is very obvious that the first verse describes a certain kind or category
of people and a certain event in the past. That is why the verb used, i.e., tawaffhum,
is past in tense, concise in form, and purposeful in function. On the other hand, the
second verse describes the fate of a very general and recurrent type of people, who
defy the messengers of Allah and deny their divine messages. That is why the verb
used, i.e., tatawaffhum, is present in tense, and significant in function.
4.2.1.1.2 Rhetorical & Stylistic Reasons behind Shift from tawafft-hum to
tawaffhum
Having carefully read the verse in which the verb tawaffhum is mentioned,
one will think attentively over the following question, i.e., why does the Quranic text
employ the verb tawaffhum instead of tawafft-hum, as long as the two verbs express
the past?
135
After consulting various and well-known exegeses, such Ibn Kathr d. 774/1372 , alQurub d. 671/ 1272 , al-Zamakhshar d. 538/1144 , etc., hoping to find an answer
to my raised question. Unfortunately, I found nothing. In addition, I surfed the whole
Quran in search of tawafft-hum, which is mentioned only in Srat Muammad,
verse no. 27, as follows:
)21 : ) (
(
[fa-kayfa idha tawaffat-hum al-malikah yaribn wujhahum wa-adbarahum]
(So how will it be when the Angels take them up, striking their faces and their hind
parts?)
So, what is the difference between the two verbs? And are they interchangeable in the
two verses? Again, I consulted various exegeses as much as I could and as far as I
know, but all were in vain. Among them was al-Kashshf, in which al-Zamakhshar
(d. 538/1144) states that tawaffhum is recited tawaffat-hum. He justifies his opinion
saying: According to lections, it could function either as a past form, i.e., tawaffathum, or a present form, i.e., tatawaffhum, derived from waffaytu, meaning that Allah
enable the angels to take up the disbelievers' souls. Similarly, al-Shawk n d.
1250/1834), in his book entitled fat- al-qadr, points out that "It could be interpreted
either as a past form, i.e., tawaffat-hum, from which t al-tanth (the feminine
marker), directly attached to the verb, is deleted due to the angels' untrue femininity,
or a future form, i.e., tatawaffhum, from which the letter al-t is omitted" (p. 323).
4.2.1.2 Instrumental (Contextual) Header
4.2.1.2.1 Contextual Structure
An attentive reading of the two verses shows how they are symmetrically
arranged and chosen. Each verb is functionally used in accordance with the context.
For example, the verb tawaffhum and tatawaffhum are morphologically and
136
and Muammad,
trying to find the logical reasons behind such an inimitable shift, I did not feel
137
hum
tawaf
fat
hum
Thus, it also matches the context of situation and the very common category. In
addition, any morphologically-attached increase in the word indicates a semantically-
138
loaded increase in its meaning as most rhetoricians believe. Thus, the verb
tatawaffhum implies signification and multiplicity at the same time.
4.2.1.2.3 Eventfulness and Tellability
According to al-Samarr 2006 , the dying people in Srat al-Nis
are part
of those who engaged in wronging themselves, who are generally mentioned in Srat
al-Nal. As for those who are mentioned in Srat al-Nis , they are the oppressed and
represent minority. That is why the omission of the letter al-t from the verb
indicates the brevity of the action in comparison with that in Srat al-Nal. In other
words, the verb tatawaffhum matches the large section, which requires a long time,
whereas the verb tawaffhum matches the few section, which requires a little time.
Here, the choice of verbs is appropriate for the events taken place (p. 11).
4.2.1.2.4 Diversity in Gender Juxtaposition
The verb tawaffhum, in Srat al-Nis , indicates masculinity, whereas the
verb tatawaffhum, in Srat al-Nal, indicates femininity. As for the former, some
exegetes, such as al-Qurub, are of the opinion that angels are the pure servants of
Allah, and they are not females as Quraysh claimed. Thus, the verb may be
interpreted or functioned as a masculine past form as the word al-malikah is not a
genuine feminine noun.
1- Qurayshs false assumption is refuted in the Quran. It reads:
(
)43 :) (
[wa-jacl al-malikah alladhn hum cibadu al-Raman inatha a-shahid khalqahum
sa-tuktabu shahadatuhum wa-yuscaln] (Q. 43: 19)
(And they make the angels -who are the servants of the Beneficent Allah- female
(divinities). What! Did they witness their creation? Their evidence shall be written
down and they shall be questioned.) (Q. 43: 19)
139
140
Conversely, a masculine verb may be used side by side with a feminine subject to
indicate plurality of the subject. Thus, according to him, the Arabs used to violate the
verb-subject-agreement for the purposes of majority and minority.
4.2.1.2.6 Ingenuous Femininity
According to al-R z d. 604/1207 , this shift inherent in the phrase qla
niswatun instead of qlat niswatun is functionally used for two reasons: First, the
word niswah is a singular collective noun for the plural form of al-marah, and its
femininity is not genuine. That is why the verb is devoid of t al-tanth (the
feminine marker). Secondly, according to al-W id, the precedence or foregrounding
of the verb requires deleting the feminine marker, i.e., al-t. In addition, according to
al-Kalb, those women are only four, as follows: the maid of al-Azizs butler, the
maid of al-Azizs baker, the maid of al-Azizs jailer and the maid of al-Azizs
animals guard, but Muq til added the maid of al- jib usher (XVIII, pp. 127-128).
4.2.1.3 Output (Translation) Header
These are the translations of the two verses:
Abdel-Haleem:
When the angels take the souls of those who have wronged themselves, they ask
them, What circumstances were you in? They reply, We were oppressed in this
land, and the angels say, ut was Gods earth not spacious enough for you to
migrate to some other place? These people will have Hell as their refuge, an evil
destination. (Q 4: 97)
Those whose lives the angels take while they are wronging themselves will show
submission: We were doing no evil. Yes you were: God knows fully everything
that you have done, so enter the gates of Hell. There you will remain the home of the
arrogant is evil indeed. Q 16: 28
Ghl:
Surely the ones whom the Angels take up, (while) they are unjust to themselves- (to
them) (the Angels) say, "In what (condition) were you?" They say, "We were deemed
weak in the earth." They (the Angels) say, "Was not the earth of Allah wide so that
you (could) have emigrated in it?" So, the abode for those (men) is Hell, and what an
odious Destiny! (Q 4: 97)
141
(The disbelievers are the ones) whom the Angels take up while they are unjust to
themselves. So they will cast forth full submissiveness. "In no way were we doing
anything odious." Yes indeed, (yet) surely Allah is Ever-Knowing of whatever you
were doing. (Q 16: 28)
h :
Verily! As for those whom the angels take (in death) while they are wronging
themselves (as they stayed among the disbelievers even though emigration was
obligatory for them), they (angels) say (to them): "In what (condition) were you?"
They reply: "We were weak and oppressed on earth." They (angels) say: "Was not the
earth of Allah spacious enough for you to emigrate therein?" Such men will find their
abode in Hell - What an evil destination! (Q 4: 97)
Those whose lives the angels take while they are doing wrong to themselves (by
disbelief and by associating partners in worship with Allah and by committing all
kinds of crimes and evil deeds)." Then, they will make (false) submission (saying):
"We used not to do any evil." (The angels will reply): "Yes! Truly, Allah is AllKnower of what you used to do. (Q 16: 28)
Zidan:
Those who accepted oppression for themselves, surely when the angels seize their
souls saying, Why have you accepted this oppression? They shall say, We were
deemed weak in the land. The angels shall say, Was GODs earth not spacious
enough for you to emigrate from that oppression? So these it is whose abode is Hell,
an evil resort. (Q 4: 97)
Those who wronged themselves, when the angels will come to seize their souls they
will surrender, saying: We were doing no evil, the angels say: Yes indeed, GOD
is All-knowing of what you were doing. Q 16: 28
4.2.1.3.1 Common Remarks
It is noticeable here that all the four translators overlooked the following:
1- The tense of the two verbs, i.e., tawaffhum, which is a past form, and
tatawaffhum, which is a present form. All of them used the present simple tense
instead;
2- The accuracy or appropriateness of the verb tawaffhum in comparison with the
verb tatawaffhum;
3- The contextual necessity of the two verbs except for Kh n, who resorted to using
within-the-text explanatory notes;
142
a parenthetical explanation, i.e., "as they stayed among the disbelievers even though
emigration was obligatory for them." Satisfactorily, he explains the special
circumstances under which the verse in general and the verb tatawaffhum in
particular were revealed in Srat al-Nal through the following parenthetical gloss:
"[B]y disbelief and by associating partners in worship with Allah and by committing
all kinds of crimes and evil deeds." However, he failed to adopt an equivalent
translation. His translation of the two verbs never reflects their eloquence in Arabic.
Instead, he feels satisfied to render tawaffhum and tatawaffhum into whom the
angels take in death and whose lives the angels take respectively. Here, it is very
clear that he uses the present simple tense, though he, in the first verse, explains the
143
circumstances of those people and the reasons for sending down such a verse, using a
past tense.
The translation of Zidan is a little bit acceptable. He, in the first verse, showed
the fate of ill-willed disbelievers, who did not emigrate and preferred to stay under the
patronage of the unfaithful, but he used the verb tawaffhum in the present form, as a
recurrent state. However, he, in the second verse, used the future simple tense to
indicate the fate of those who wronged themselves. In doing so, he re-states or retranslates the first verse and draw a recurrent image of the two parties engaged in the
two various situations. However, his translation of the two verses is still similar, and
does not show the rhetorical and stylistic aspects of the Quranic Arabic verbs.
As for Ghls translation, it is a literal translation as he stated early in his
Introduction. That is why his choice of English equivalents is repetitive. His
translation does not provide convincing or acceptable alternatives for the source
words. He just renders them into English, regardless of their linguistic differences.
As for Abdel-Haleems translation, despite its concision and adequacy, it does
not seem to be different from the three translators. Instead of focusing on the
synonymous verbs tawaffhum and tatawaffhum, his emphasis was put on the
adverbial phrase, i.e., lim anfusihim, in which he used the present perfect, in the
first verse, and the present continuous, in the second verse. In doing so, his translation
ignores the rhetorical distinction between the two Arabic verbs.
Thus, their renditions seem to be 'translated', and not 'natural', incapable of
giving the reader 'an unobstructed access to great thoughts' to what is 'present in the
original'. In addition, all of them are fully aware that "the linguistic elements of the
original cannot be replaced adequately in structural, linear, functional or semantic
144
terms in consequence of a lack of denotation or connotation" (as cited in BassnettMcGuire, 1980 [1991], p. 34).
4.2.1.4 Internal Conceptualization (Proposed Translation) Header
After evaluating the four translations mentioned above, I suggest the following
translation to avoid the translation loss discussed earlier, as follows:
Verily! As for those who live under oppression (willingly), the angels
(reprehensively) will ask them, on their deathbed, What circumstances you were
in? They will reply, "We were oppressed in this land." Cynically , the angels will
reply: "Was not Allah's earth spacious enough for you to migrate to some other
place?" Hell will be their abode, an evil destination. (Q. 4: 97)
Those who associate partners with Allah undergo an extreme death agony by the
angels, whom (the disbelievers) submissively-but-falsely address, saying: "We were
doing no evil." "No! (You were.) Allah knows fully everything that you have done."
(Q. 16: 28)
As has already been suggested, I try to find a suitable strategy through which
the most daunting of problems could be conquered with respect to the governing
system of interpretation and exegesis. Additionally, I aim to rectify unintentional
errors committed by translators due to linguistic incompetence, producing "an
accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style" (Bassnett-McGuire, 1980
[1991], p. 49). I am totally aware of the difficulty, if not impossibility, of finding
identical equivalents, capable of reproducing the same effect the original has on the
SR, but it is a humble attempt, through which I try to avoid the blunders other
translators may commit.
Here, I prefer adopting the semantic approach to translation to avoid repetition
and convey the intended message at the same time. For instance, the verb tawaffhum
is semantically rendered into "on their deathbed", implying their near-death scene. In
other words, this rendition is purposefully and intentionally functioned to indicate
metaphorically al-wafah (death/act of dying) and to visualize the scene of a particular
group of people to whom the verse was revealed. Conversely, in Srat al-Nal, I
145
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
16
146
80%
(A)
Proposed
Translation
(B)
20%
Ghl
(C)
0%
Kh n
(D)
0%
Zidan
(E)
0%
147
She also adds 'gradually' to the verse in which the verb tatawaffhum is mentioned to
express the agonies of death per the following:
Those whose lives the angels take [gradually] while they are wronging
themselves will show submission: We were doing no evil. Yes you were: God
knows fully everything that you have done, so enter the gates of Hell. There you
will remain the home of the arrogant is evil indeed. Q. 16: 28
On the other hand, the minority (20%) prefer my suggested translation. They
focus principally on the intended meaning of the two morphological terms and the
details that are poignant to the recepient. They place significant weight on the
ordinary meanings due to their awareness of the distinction made between
tawaffahum and tatawaffahum through the suitable choice of their English equivalents
inherent in my translation. For example, one of them justifies her choice of my
translation, as follows:
The translator has managed to render a translation that reflects the difference
between both terms tawaff and tatawaff. For the first, the adverb
reprehensively is used since the focus is on the censure received by those who
wrong themselves. In the second, however, the focus is on the severe emotional
and physical suffering by them on deathbed, which is expressed in undergo an
extreme death agony. No such difference is highlighted in any other
translation.5
148
), which originally means the habitual use of a certain lexical item in one's tongue.
Additionally, it implies recalling or bringing back to one's mind, especially through
attentive and conscious effort.
afala-tadhakkarn is preferably used instead of (lacallakum tatafakkarn), as the
Oneness of Allah is inferentially and instinctively induced, as stated clearly in (Q. 7:
172), as follows:
(
)412 :) (
149
[wa-idh akhadha rabbuk min ban adam min uhrihim dhurriyyatahum waashhadahum cala anfusihim a-lastu bi-rabbikum qal bala shahidna an taql yawma
al-qiyama inna kunna can hadha ghfln] Q. 7: 172 .
Secondly, the Oneness of Allah is clearly stated through the messengers, whose main
mission is to worship only Allah, and through the salient universal signs, such as the
creation of the heavens and the earth, the alternation of day and night, etc.
According to al-Als d. 1270/1853 , cajz al-yah (ending part of the verse)
entails a two-fold rhetorical question. First, it is directed or addressed to the
unbelievers to insinuate that they are to blame for not taking heed and for being
unmindful. Secondly, it is rhetorically employed to indicate their mindlessness in the
presence of cosmic signs, which necessitate contemplation and consideration (XI, pp.
65-66).
4.2.2.2 Instrumental (Contextual) Header
4.2.2.2.1 The Function of the Context
According to al-Zarkash d. 794/1391 , the function of the context should include the
following:
1- clarifying the obscure;
2- determining the intention of the speaker;
3- particularizing the general;
4- qualifying the unqualified; and
5- varying signification (as cited in Ali, 2000, p. 53).
150
Thus, according to Ali (2000), the context, as far as its function is concerned, does not
provide information only, but it, as a sign of the intention of the speaker, confines and
modifies instead.
4.2.2.2.2 Context Disambiguation
This requirement is one of the most salient features of context disambiguation.
Here, it is clear that morphological disambiguation is based on the context of the
verses, which helps clarify the intended meaning. In other words, the context of each
verse consists of a set of signifying elements, as follows:
4.2.2.2.3 Guiding Lexical Markers
The context, in which the two verbs are mentioned, contains some guiding
lexical markers or lexical collocations. These markers justify the rhetorical and
stylistic reason behind the brevity of the verbal form afala-tadhakkarn, as opposed
to the t-prefixed verbal form afala-tatadhakkarn. They reside in the following:
4.2.2.2.4 Context-induced Analysis/Interpretation
Although the two contexts apparently seem similar, the context in Srat alSajdah is detailed and comprehensive. To explain, there are much detailed
descriptions in it. For example, the Sra begins with the creation of the heavens and
the earth, what is between them, the establishment of Allah above the Throne and the
question of protection and intercession. The following verse describes the mighty and
power of the Creator, Who manages the affair of all things. Finally, it concludes with
the duration of the ascension of His affair.
As for Srat Ynus, the events and descriptions are concise and less detailed.
In other words, the context briefly describes the creation of the heavens and the earth,
the establishment of Allah above the Throne, the management of all things, and,
finally, the impossibility of intercession except after Allahs permission. Thus, the
151
context, in Srat al-Sajdah, is detailed and eventful. That is why the verb form is
prefixed with the letter al-t. On the contrary, the context, in Srat Ynus, is concise
and eventless. That is why the verb form lacks the additional letter al-t.
Thus, the success of any communication hangs basically upon the harmony
and agreement between 'the intended meaning' and 'the interpreted meaning',
otherwise the message is ambiguous and misunderstanding or distortion is inevitable.
Consider the following Hadith:
Before Prophet Muhammad's death, he told his wives: "asrckunna liqan b
awalukunna yadan" (lit., the first one amongst you who will meet me immediately is
the one who has the longest hand).6
In the above example, the Prophet's wives misunderstood the intention of the
Prophet (pbuh). They literally conceived of awalukunna yadan as 'the one who has
the longest hand' in its surface meaning, whereas the Prophet intended it to be the
most generous one. Accordingly, the true interpretation of the previous Hadith is:
"The first one who will die after me is the most generous one among you."
4.2.2.2.5 Pragmatic Implications
Pragmatic implications play an important role in justifying the appropriate and
adequate use of each form of the two imperfect verbs, i.e., tadhakkarn in Srat
Ynus and tatadhakkarn in Srat al-Sajdah. To explain, the morphologically reduced
form, i.e., tadhakkarn, is functionally and rhetorically used. It is used in a context
pregnant with certain pragmatic implications that justify its appropriateness and the
impossibility of its interchangeability, as follows:
4.2.2.2.6 Category-centered Address
The first verses in Srat Ynus begin with the address of the disbelievers. The
verses show the signs of the Creator that prove His monotheism and His ability to
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administer all the affairs of His creatures. Following that, Allah enjoins those
disbelievers to worship and obey Him alone. Verse no. 3 starts with addressing the
disbelievers with the word rabbakum, which comprises rabb, a noun, followed by
kum, the 2nd person masculine plural possessive pronoun, which implies the address of
the disbelievers. It is an emotive word that addresses the reader in a very delicate
manner and lets him/her react emotionally to the event. Such words, which appeal to
one's emotions, are used to create an intimacy and an atmosphere of friendship
between the speaker and the hearer. For example, when an old man asks a youngster
to help him cross the street, he calls him on by a pet name, saying: y bunayy or ya
wald mumkin ticadn el-shric (O sonny! Could you help me cross this street?) In
addition, the word rabb lexically means the one who creates and brings up. It literally
means a lord, a possessor, an owner, or a proprietor; it is a synonym of mlik. That is
why we say rabb al-usrah and rabb al-bayt, meaning the houses chief/master and the
familys leader. Technically, this term is concerned with Allah, the Creator, Who is
the Lord of believers and disbelievers, the obedient and the disobedient, the good and
the evil.
Furthermore, in Srat Ynus, the context vividly shows the features and
characteristics of the address directed to the disbelievers. According to the most
famous exegetes, this verse is mainly mentioned to refute the deeply-rooted belief,
which states that idols will intercede with Allah on behalf of the disbelievers, and thus
seek Allahs forgiveness for them. That is why the word shafc is solely mentioned
without the apparently synonymous word waliyy as in Srat al-Sajdah.
4.2.2.2.7 Syntax-based Analysis
Through an attentive reading of the two verses in Srat al-Sajdah and Ynus,
the reader will find some syntactic features that show the grandeur of the Quranic
153
discourse. To explain, in Srat al-Sajdah, for example, verse no. 4 begins with the
nominative proper noun, i.e., Allah, accompanied by a masculine singular relative
pronoun, i.e., al-ladh, as a signifying modifier, which is functionally used to
emphasize the Oneness and Unity of Allah. Then, the verses denote the absolute
power of Allah, the Creator, and His exclusive intercession.
As for Srat Ynus, verse no. 3 is frequently initiated and concluded with an
emphatic syntactic structure. First, it is initiated with inna, an accusative particle,
which functions as an emphatic particle in Arabic, followed by rabbakum, which
consists of rabb, an accusative masculine noun that is syntactically affected by inna,
and thus it is to be in an accusative mood, and kum, the 2nd person masculine plural
possessive noun, then followed by Allah, a nominative proper noun, and finally
followed by al-ladh, a masculine singular relative pronoun. Thus, the Quranic
structure here serves a certain purpose and fulfills a certain function. It asserts the
certainty and absolute power of the Creator for those who deny either the existence of
Allah or the Resurrection Day. In Arabic, it is commonly known that when a sentence
contains more than one emphatic particle, it implies certainty against deniers.
Splendidly, the verse ends with the same emphatic structure. It ends with
dhalikum, which consists of dha, a demonstrative pronoun, referring to Allah, and li,
which implies distance, and kum, a 2nd person masculine plural pronoun, followed by
Allah, a nominative proper noun, followed by rabbukum, semantically implying
emphasis, which consists of rabb, an accusative masculine noun, and kum, a 2nd
person masculine plural possessive noun. Here, we notice that there is a variety in the
head (beginning) verse and in the tail (end) verse. Such a variety is functionally
employed. It begins with rabbakum, which has three meanings: (i) Lord and Master;
(ii) Sustainer, Provider, Supporter, Nourisher and Guardian, and (iii) Sovereign and
154
Ruler, He who controls and directs, as the verse demonstrates the Absolute Power of
the Creator. It is a comprehensive epithet, which is not peculiar to the believers or the
obedient, but it extends to include all humans. Furthermore, it collocates with the
word Allah twice in the verse, initially and finally-positioned, purposefully to indicate
the following facts:
- Allah is rabb in all the three meanings of the term;
- The rational of the basic Qur'anic message is to serve none but Allah;
- Since Allah is man's rabb, meaning Lord, Sustainer, Provider, Nourisher, etc., He
alone should be the object of man's worship and service.
4.2.2.2.8 The Marked Qur'anic Word Order
Here, the discourse is directed to the polytheists. That is why the verse initially
begins with the emphatic particle inna, and the phrase afala-tadhakkarun is placed
sentence-finally to mark a reproaching question. In one way or another, interrogation
is functionally used here to fulfill four communicative goals:
- Disapprobation of what the unbelievers say;
- Bringing to the attention of the reader the notion of calumny which the unbelievers
usually make about God;
- Deploring and condemning the association of others with God;
- Preserving the supreme status of God as Creator by foregrounding (Allah) and
placing it before (rabbukum) which is taken from its sentence-initial position.
4.2.2.3 Output (Translation) Header
It is of prime importance to examine the translation of the previous verse:
Abdel-Haleem:
- It is God who created the heavens and the earth and everything between them in six
Days. Then He established Himself on the Throne. You [people] have no one but Him
to protect you and no one to intercede for you, so why do you not take heed?
155
- Your Lord is God who created the heavens and earth in six Days, then established
Himself on the Throne, governing everything; there is no one that can intercede with
Him, unless He has first given permission: this is God your Lord so worship Him.
How can you not take heed?
Ghl:
- Surely your Lord is Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth in six days;
thereafter He levelled Himself upon the Throne, (How He did do is beyond human
understandings) conducting the Command. In no way is there any intercessor (ever)
excepting ever after His permission. That is Allah, your Lord; so worship Him. Will
you then not be mindful?
- Allah is (The One) Who created the heavens and the earth, and whatever is between
them in six days; thereafter He leveled Himself upon the Throne. (How He did so is
beyond human understanding) In no way do you have, apart from Him, any patron nor
any intercessor. Will you then not remind yourselves?
h :
- Surely, your Lord is Allah Who created the heavens and the earth in six Days and
then Istawa (rose over) the Throne (really in a manner that suits His Majesty),
disposing the affair of all things. No intercessor (can plead with Him) except after His
Leave. That is Allah, your Lord; so worship Him (Alone). Then, will you not
remember?
- Allah it is He Who has created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between
them in six Days. Then He Istawa (rose over) the Throne (in a manner that suits His
Majesty). You (mankind) have none, besides Him, as a Wali (protector or helper etc.)
or an intercessor. Will you not then remember (or be admonished)?
Zidan:
- Indeed your Lord is GOD, Who created the heavens and the earth in six periods of
time, and is firmly established on the Throne, directing the affairs. No intercessor,
except by His leave. This is GOD your Lord, therefore worship Him, will you be
admonished?
- GOD is the One Who created the heavens and the earth and all that is between them,
in six periods of time, and is established on the Throne. You have no guardian or
intercessor other than Him, will you not be admonished?
As for Abdel-Haleems translation, it seems to be professional and adequate. It
is also precise and concise in wording. He, as a native speaker of Arabic and a
prominent scholar in Quranic studies, not to mention his mastery of English, has
succeeded in rendering the two negative interrogative questions into English without
much loss. Instead of focusing on the verbal forms and reproducing two adequate
equivalents of them in English, he spared no effort to fully grasp the context of
156
157
's Translation
tatadhakkarn?, into Then, will you not remember? and Will you not then
remember or be admonished ? respectively. He resorts to using an additional
parenthetical explanation for the second tailed verse, i.e., afala tatadhakkarn?, which
functions as a compensating strategy for a potential loss that may take place. In doing
so, he considers them fully synonymous, and thus they are interchangeable, while in
fact they are not. Each word, if not each letter, in the Quran is purposefully and
functionally employed. Its substitution or interchangeability is impossible since it is
governed by certain considerations, such as the context of situation, juxtaposition,
lexical collocations, etc. Accordingly, his translation may fail to reproduce the
stylistic and rhetorical effectiveness of the original, and which is considered one of
the most salient features the Quran abounds with. That is why his translation seems
to be inadequate, but acceptable.
4.2.2.3.4 Zidan's Translation
As for Zidans translation, he adopts one strategy, i.e., one-to-many. In other
words, he renders afala tadhakkarn? and afala tatadhakkarn? into will you be
admonished? and will you not be admonished? respectively. In my point of view,
as for the first choice, he either forgot that the verse ends with a negative interrogative
question and thus he rendered it without the negative particle, or he intentionally
overlooked the negative particle. As for the first assumption, this means that he has
committed a human mistake, and he is to blame for that, and he should revise it and
make necessary corrections. As for the second assumption, this means that he
intentionally overlooked the negative particle for certain considerations according to
him, but without any justification. Stylistically, there is a difference between the
affirmative interrogative question, i.e., will you be admonished? and the negative
interrogative question, i.e., will you not be admonished? As for the former, the
159
speaker, i.e., Allah, does not anticipate a certain response one way or another. In other
words, He does not know whether they will reply affirmatively or negatively, and this
is not true or impossible, as Allah knows the stealthy looks and whatever the hearts
conceal.
On the contrary, the latter indicates the Speakers anticipation and certainty of
the hearers response and reaction. He knows that the hearers are inattentive and
heedless to His signs indicating His absolute power and uniqueness around them. In
English, for instance, the utterance Are you ashamed of yourself? is stylistically
different from Arent you ashamed of yourself? To explain, the former implies the
speaker's uncertainty or inexpectancy of a response one way or another, whereas the
latter indicates that the speaker's supposition or anticipation of the addressee's certain
response, i.e., being ashamed of something. Thus, his translation of afala
tadhakkarn? is considered inadequate, as it contradicts the context of situation, and
distorts the intended meaning.
4.2.2.4 Internal Conceptualization (Proposed Translation) Header
After evaluating the four translations mentioned above, I prefer the following
translation to avoid the translation loss discussed earlier. My favorite translation in
this particular situation is Abdel-Haleems. That is why I did not suggest any other
translation.
- Your Lord is God who created the heavens and earth in six Days, then established
Himself on the Throne, governing everything; there is no one that can intercede with
Him, unless He has first given permission: this is God your Lord so worship Him.
How can you not take heed?
- It is God who created the heavens and the earth and everything between them in six
Days. Then He established Himself on the Throne. You [people] have no one but Him
to protect you and no one to intercede for you, so why do you not take heed?
160
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
(A)
40%
Proposed
Translation
(B)
0%
Ghl
(C)
20%
Kh n
(D)
20%
Zidan
(E)
20%
which is "pregnant at all times with alternative realizations" (Ross, 1981, p. 21) and
multi-layered interpretations, and the TT, which is a replica of the original, as
consistently as possible. Relativizing the concept of dynamic equivalence, he, as a
'dependable mediator', sets himself the goal to be faithful as much as possible to the
ST and to "reproduce it in a manner that is acceptable to the ST author's intentions
[according to reliable exegetes] and the TT reader's expectation(s)", "in terms of
knowledge and skills translators must have in order to engage in ST/TT interplay
successfully" (Wilss, 1996, p. 82). Professionally, he distinguishes between the semisynonymous finally-verse words. Instead of reproducing the original word for word,
he renders them stylistically and semantically into English to stimulate all the positive
and negative connotations related to the context of situation. Accordingly, I
personally prefer his translation to the other ones and strongly recommend it.
Conversely, other participants defend their choice of Ghl's translation,
believing that it conveys best the spirit of the original.9 Others justify their
preference of Zidan's translation, as per the following: The rhetorical questions in the
original, which indicate contemplation and refelection, as in (Q. 10: 3), or reproach
and censure, as in (Q. 32: 4), are rendered professionally by Zidan, through his
appropriate choice of English equivalents, such as 'admonish'.10
Thus,
regarding
the
translation
of
afala
tadhakkarn?
and
afala
tatadhakkarn?, only four, and not five, translations, are intentionally chosen in the
questionnaire, as I myself feel satisfied with that of Abdel-Haleem.
162
_____________________________________________________________________
Endnote
1 The original reads:
:
} . {
163
Chapter Five
Chapter Five
Morphologically-Assimilated Forms
This
chapter
discusses
the
practical
aspects
in
rendering
some
164
village requires a short period of sending a messenger. This means that the action
takes time less than that is required for nations. Thus, the form of the verb seems to
be morphologically short.
5.1.1.2 Directionality
On the other hand, al-Samarr 2006 elaborates on the distinction between
the two contexts of situation. He analyzes the collocations accompanying each verb.
For example, he states that in Srat al-Anc m, the phrase wa-laqad arsalna ila
umamin is a clause which implies that the process of sending messengers to peoples
requires preaching and reporting, and not stay. In this regard, he gives an example; he
says that you may send a message to a person, and get back once you fulfill your task.
On the contrary, in Srat al-Acr f, sending in a village or a town requires preaching
and stay as well. The preposition f (in) indicates al-arfiyyah (conditional and
temporal aspects). This means that the prophet stayed among them, preaching and
reminding them of supporting signs of Allah. Undoubtedly, this requires them to
submit excessively and fully to Allah. Accordingly, the hyperbole form is employed
to indicate the hyperbole of action and multiplicity (p. 39).
Additionally, the context of Srat al-Anc m is totally different from that of
Srat al-Acr f. To explain, the former narrates the stories of a group of messengers,
and thus the intended message is generalized to state a universalized wisdom that
resulted from the long journey of messengers to their peoples at the revelation era and
afterwards.
On the contrary, the latter is much concerned with the state of dacwah
(preaching the principles and teachings of Islam) commissioned by Prophet
Muammad pbuh), and his polemic with the opponents. Accordingly, the discourse is
informative to: 1) relieve his preaching-induced sufferings; 2) fortify his heart and
165
strengthen his soul; 3) and, finally, intimidate the infidels of Quraysh and admonish
them on the other hand (cf. al-Samarr , 2006, p. 39 .
5.1.2 Instrumental (Contextual) Header
5.1.2.1 Recitation-induced Reinterpretation
In Srat al-Anc m, the verse wa-laqad arsalna il umamin includes the
preposition il, which ends with the letter al-alif al-maqurah, which is one of the
three-vowel Arabic letters, collocated with umamin, which initially begins with the
letter al-hamza. According to the rules of tajwd (elocution of the Qur'an), this kind is
defined as al-madd al-munfail (detached/disconnected prolongation), which is one of
six subdivions of al-madd al-farc (secondary prolongation). It requires that one of the
prolongation letters, i.e., al-alif, al-waw and al- y, which is abbreviated in the word
wy, finalizes a word or comes at the end of it, and the succeeding word should
initially begin with al-hamz (initially prefixed words with the letter a-). For example,
inn acaynk al-kawthar, wa-f anfusikum, wa-Allahu yadc ila al-jannah, etc. All
these phrases have this type of al-madd, which is called al-munfail, as the letter of
prolongation, as in inn, f and yadc, is detached from al-hamz, and appears in an
independent word, as in acaynk, anfusikum and ila. In other words, they are written
separately in two words, not in one word, as in al-sm, taf or tab, which is known
as al-madd al-muttail (connected prolongation), in which the letters of prolongation
and al-hamz are combined together in one word. Accordingly, the ruling of tajwd in
al-madd al- munfail is jiz (permissible). It means that the reciter of the Qur'an is
permitted either to abide by al-madd (prolongation) or al-qar (shortening/reduction)
according to al-riwyah (lection/mode of Qur'anic recitation), including but not
limited to af, cim and al-kas for the former, and thus prolongation ranges from
4 to 6 arakah movement , or Ibn Kathr, al-Ss and Ab cAmr for the latter, and
166
thus prolongation disappears and the two words are normally recited. Thus, al-madd
may be employed here to indicate the unknown large number of nations inherent in
the context, and that is why the stretched form of the verb yataarrac is used (M.
Misin, 2002, pp. 34-5).
5.1.2.2 Double Gemination
Gemination is defined as "any phonological change in which a simplex
segment is converted to a geminate" (The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative
Linguistics, p. 130). It is noticeable that the verb yaarrac is of the pattern yaffaccal,
which includes double gemination, whereas the verb yataarrac is of the pattern
yatafaccal, which includes single gemination.
As for the first pattern yaffaccal, it is extensively used in the Quranic
discourse whenever hyperbole is meant or motivated. Gemination is frequently
employed for the purpose of hyperbole, as in qataca and qattaca, kasara and kassara.
To explain, qattaca and kassara are of the pattern faccala, and indicate multiplicity
and hyperbole (for further details, see Ch. 1; al-Samarr , 2006, pp. 37-8).
As for the second pattern, i.e., yatafaccal, it indicates graduation. In other
words, the action takes place step by step, as in takhaa, tamashsha, tabaara, and
tajassasa. Accordingly, there is a linguistic difference between khaa, which indicates
a steady or constant movement, and takhaa, which indicates a gradual movement. In
addition, this pattern may imply exaggeration and exertion, as in taabbara, which
denotes ones capacity or willingness to endure hardship (for further details, see Ch.
1; al-Samarr , 2006, pp. 37-8). Accordingly, it signifies a long period of time and
deliberate talks, as degemination of the medial letter of the verb implies long
articulation. Thus, such a pattern matches the action or the event (cf. Al-Samarr ,
2006, pp. 37-8). In this regard, Ibn Jenn comments that They the philologists
167
inferred the frequent occurrence of an action from the gemination of cayn al-ficl (the
medial letter of the verb), as in kassara, qattaca, fattaa and ghallaqa as cited in alSamarr , 2006, pp. 38 .
5.1.2.3 Syllabicity-oriented Interpretation/Morphological Stress
The two verbs used indicate another stylistic feature of the Quran, i.e.,
syllabicity. In other words, one of them is more syllabic than the other. To explain,
the verb yataarac, which is of the pattern yatafaccal, consists of four syllables,
whereas the other verb, i.e., yaarrac, which is of the pattern yafaccal, consists of
three syllables. Accordingly, the form having four syllables indicates long and gradual
action, and thus takes too much time. On the contrary, the form having three syllables
indicates short and hasty action, and thus takes less than the former. In doing so, it
proves the grandeur and splendidness of the Quranic discourse.
5.1.2.4 Splendid Arrangement/Word order
In Srat al-Anc m, the verses 42 and 43 are splendidly arranged. The first
verse, i.e., no. 42, ends with the verb yataarracn, which is of the pattern yatafaccal,
indicating graduation and long time, and the succeeding verse, i.e., no. 43,
employs the verb taarrac, which is of the pattern tafaccal, indicating graduation
and long time.
5.1.2.5 Seemingly-Synonymous Items
Another Quranic feature is the occurrence of seemingly synonymous items,
but, in fact, they are not. For example, the words al-bas and al-arr seem to be
synonymous, but they have slight differences or nuances of meanings. Exegetes of the
Qur'an have various interpretations. They are interpreted either separately or
collectively. Separately, the former indicates 'abject poverty' or 'straitened
circumstances' whereas the latter, 'diseases and aches' or 'curable illnesses' (al-R z d.
168
604/1207), 1981, XII, p. 235; al-abar d. 310/923 , 2001, IX, p. 242; Ibn Kathr d.
774/1372), 1999, III, p. 256). Collectively, they together indicate 'adversity,
wretchedness or loss' (al-Zamakhshar, 1999, II, p. 346; al-Als d. 1270/1853 , n.d.,
VII, pp. 150-1).
5.1.2.6 Arabic Hendiadys
The term hendiadys literally means hen dia duoin, derived from Greek,
meaning "one through two" (Collins Dictionary Online) or "one by means of two"
(The American Heritage Dictionary Online), but linguistically it is a "phrase that uses
two words connected by a conjunction [usually and] to express a complex concept"
(Babylon English Dictionary). In English, it is a rhetorical device through which two
nouns are used either instead of an adjective and a substantive, such as grace and
favor instead of gracious favor (The American Heritage Dictionary Online), or
instead of a noun and a modifier, as in to run with fear and haste instead of to run
with fearful haste (Collins English Dictionary Online). Similarly, this linguistic
phenomenon is extensively used in Arabic, which is known for its recurrent use of
lexical couplets, including but not limited to noun couplets, as in al-ulm and al-jawr
(injustice); verbs couplets, as in tatawalladu wa-tanshau (emerges); participialadverbial couplets, as in wad wadan (only alone); and modified-modifier couplets,
as in bi-kull quwwah wa-thiqal (with powerful stability) (B. Johnstone, 1999, pp. 3950). Thus, this device is common in Arabic and so common to the ears of the native
speakers of Arabic as well.
5.1.2.7 Rhetorical Use of Prepositions
According to Ibn cAshr (2000), there is a shift in prepositions here in this
verse; he says that the verb arsalna is collocated with the preposition f instead of ila
for some certain rhetorical purposes. In his view, it is properly functioned to match
169
the genitive feminine indefinite noun, i.e., al-qarya, which is not literally meant, but it
is figuratively used to imply "the people of the village." He elaborates that "A village
(itself) is not a target, but its people instead; it is elliptically comprised of (a looselyrepetitive clause), i.e., [wa-ma arsalna f qarya min nabiyy ila ahlaha illa akhdhna
ahlaha] (When We send a prophet as a warner into a village, We test its people with)
(IX, p. 17).
That is why the word ahlaha is explicitly mentioned in Srat al-Acr f instead
of akhdhnaha, as al-qaryah itself is not spatially, but demographically, meant,
whereas the other verse in Srat al-Anc m the word fa-akhdhnahum is economically
mentioned, in which the pronoun -hum, referring to umam (nations/communities), is
attached to the verb fa-akhadhnahum.
5.1.2.8 Subaudition
There is a subaudition in this verse. According to Al- aghaw d. 516/1122 , it
includes two implied-but-understood omitted phrases, such as fa-kadhdhabh (they
denied him), and ina lam umin (as a result of their disbelief). Thus, the whole verse
reads: "Whenever We sent a prophet unto the people of any village, and they denied
him, they would be afflicted and suffered severely, due to their denial and disbelief,
so as they might repent to Allah immediately." Here the message implied is rendered
communicatively to avoid translation loss and likely misunderstanding (p. 419).
5.1.2.9 Ellipsis-related Functionality
Here, when you recite the Qur'an, you have to be aware of the message, which
is sometimes conveyed explicitly and sometimes implicitly; sometimes partly and
sometimes wholly as in (Q. 58: 3) (Al-Zarkash d. 794/1391 , n.d., III, pp. 216-18).
Accordingly, the reciter has to bear in his/her mind that the Qur'an is not a book of
instructions, in which a list of actions or rules is stated one by one, but it is rather a
170
book that addresses a human being endowed with a mind, able to grasp and/or read
between the lines. Thus, ellipsis is one of multiple rhetorical devices in which the
Qur'an abounds to let your mind wander, and your heart be overly attentive.
Therefore, the harder you make up your mind inquisitively to think over the rhetorical
function of ellipited or omitted sequences, the greater delectation and pleasure you
reap (p. 105).
In this regard, al-R z d. 604/1207 justifies the ellipsis functioned here; he states that
it is rhetorically used, as the ellipted words are understandable within the text Al-R z
(d. 604/1207), 1981, XII, p. 235).
5.1.2.10 Rhetorical Purposes of Ellipsis
Ab Sh d 1992: 149-51) in his book entitled al-adhf al-balgh f al-quran
(rhetorical ellipsis in the Qur'an) enumerates the numorous merits of ellipsis, as
follows:
1- Brevity and straightforwardness;
2- Admonition and encouragement-oriented purposes, as in [fa-ql lahum rasl Allah
naqat Allah wa-suqyaha] (Lit., and the messenger of Allah said: "the she-camel of
Allah and her drink) (Q. 91: 13). Here, the phrase naqat Allah implicitly indicates a
warning, i.e., dhar (do not harm her & let her go), and the phrase wa-suqyaha
implies an encouragement, i.e., ilzam (let her drink);
3- Let the unsaid be said or imagined, especially in elaboration-related situations, such
as the verses describing the dwellers of the paradise, as in [atta idha jha wafutiat abwbiha] (Q. 39: 73) [the moment they reach it, and its gate will be opened
thereof]. Here, the verse implies an ellipsis where the hidden treasures and beauties
are kept unsaid to indicate their endless meaure or increadible description and to let
171
173
z-based Translation
174
render the two near-synonymous words al-bas and al-arr, which are
controversial and problematic among the commentators of the Qur'an, concisely and
precisely into "suffering and hardships." To explain, it is considered controversial due
to its varied senses. For example, it has been said that Ibn Mascd defined al-bas as
"abject poverty", whereas al-arr is "accidental diseases", "drought", "bane" or "bad
conditions." Additional definitions are included, such as al-bas is much related to
"straiten circumstances", "desperate straits" or "destitution", whereas al-arr,
"physical harm" or "injury." On the other hand, other earlier scholars pointed out that
the former is "much related to the times of war", whereas the latter is "much
concerned with drought" (cf. Al-R z d. 604/1207 , 1981, XII, p. 235; al-abar d.
310/923), 2001, IX, p. 242; Ibn Kathr d. 774/1372 , 1999, III, p. 256). Additionally,
he semantically, not literally as Ghl, renders fa-akhadhnhum and akhadhn ahlaha
into "afflicted their people" and "afflicted its [disbelieving] people." In doing so, he
keeps the intended message intact and valid.
5.1.3.5 Maximization vs. Minimization
Here, it is noticeable that Abdel-Haleem is much influenced by the
commentary of al-R z, who explains that disbelievers seek Allah's refuge only in
case of hardships. But this does not underestimate the artistry of Abdel-Haleem; he
has successfully translated the two seemingly-synonymous phrases; he rendered lac
former into "they could learn humility" and the latter into "they might humble
themselves" respectively. In so doing, he is much aware of the semantic differences
that are morphologically induced.
175
176
part of the verse, i.e., [wa-laqad arsalna ila umamin min qabilika], which fragmentaly
represents a part of a whole, and thus it cannot stand alone, or grasped apart from the
whole verse. Here, Khn has rendered it separately, through the use of a full-stop,
which indicates the end of a sentence in English, and which in turn carries a complete
unit of thought. Then, he resumes rendering the second half of the verse, i.e., [faakhdhnahum bi-al-bas wal-al-arr la-calahum yataarracn], which represents
the inevitable outcome of the disbelievers' denial. Later on, he realized such a
violation and avoided it regarding translating the verse of Srat al-Acr f, where he
divided the verse into three clauses through the use of a comma, indicating the
combination of two independent clauses:
And We sent no Prophet unto any town (and they denied him), but We seized its
people with suffering from extreme poverty (or loss in wealth) and loss of health and
calamities, so that they might humiliate themselves (and repent to Allah).
Accordingly, this reflects his inattention and partial awareness of the ST and TT as
well.
5.1.3.10 Verbatim Adherence to the Original
It is obviously clear here that verbatism is a salient aspect of Khn's strategies
in translation. In Srat al-Acr f, he literally translates [wa-ma arsalna f qaryatin min
nabiyn illa] into "And We sent no Prophet unto any town but"; he mistakenly
translated uslb al-qasr (restriction style), which in Arabic consists of ma illa
nothing but); he feels satisfied to render them into "no" and "but". Thus, the
reproduction of the original is distorted and meaningless.
Formally speaking, the conjunction
"but"
indicates
"exception" or
"contradiction" in meaning; for example, "He is poor but happy", "No one but Yusuf
attended the lecture." However, it has some other informal usages, including the
following:
177
178
using more adverbs fills the gap between the original and the TT and disambiguates
the fog of the TL. On the contrary, the result leads to distortion.
5.1.3.13 Consistency vs. Inconsistency
Through an attentive reading of the translation of the two verses, we find that
Ghl adheres sometimes to consistency and to inconsistency elsewhere. In this
example, he adopts consistency, he renders al-bas and al-arr into "misery and
tribulation", but he idiomatically renders fa-akhadhnhum into "We took them (to
task)", whereas he simply translates akhadhn ahlaha into "We took its population."
Accordingly, his translation lacks consistency, which is one of the necessary
prerequisites of translation.
5.1.3.14 Lexical Indeterminacy
Additionally, Ghl seems unlucky in his choice of the word ahlaha; he
renders it into "its population", which is much related to demographical statistics. He
ignored other possible equivalents, such as "its people", as Abdel-Haleem, Yusuf Ali,
Kh n, and Shakir did. Similarly, Pickthall translates it into "its folk", an archaic word,
believing that it matches the ancient arena or Bedouins. In spite of its simplicity, they,
mainly both Ghl and Pickthall, failed to translate it properly into English.
5.1.3.15 Zidan's Translation
We have already sent Messengers to nations before you, and We tested them with
good and bad so they might be submissive. (Q. 6: 42)
And whenever We sent a Prophet to any town, We first afflicted its people with
adversity and calamity, that they might humble themselves. (Q. 7: 94)
5.1.3.16 Adherence to the TL Word Order
Here, it is clear that all the translators, save Kh n, regarding the translation of
the verse in Srat al-Acr f, abide by the word order of the TL; they give priority to the
TL to which the original is reproduced. For example, Zidan renders [wa-laqad
arsalna ila umamin min qabilika] and [wa-ma arsalna f qaryatin min nabiyn] into
179
"We have already sent Messengers to nations before you" and "And whenever We
sent a Prophet to any town" respectively. They maximize the importance of the
intended message through their honest adherence to the word order of the TL.
5.1.3.17 Slight Modifications Inserted
Zidan here feels free to render the two verses under study communicatively;
he reproduces figuratively the original fa-akhdhnahum, which literally means "took
them", into "tested them" in accordance with the context and the message intended.
Here, the choice of "tested" is appropriate and acceptable, as the word "test" implies
"a means of so examining" or a procedure to identify or reveal "a person's or
something's qualities" (The Concise Oxford English Online Dictionary). Here, and
according to Zidan's point of view, it is not a punishment, but rather a trial to be
submissive and learn humility as well. That is why he preferred to collocate "good
and bad", which represent hetero-equivalents to al-bas and al-arr according to
Arab commentators and linguists, with "tested."
As for Srat al-Acr f, he figuratively reproduces akhdhna ahlaha into "We
first afflicted its people"; he opts for another equivalent, i.e., "afflicted", though the
original is orthographically and morphologically the same in the two situations, i.e.,
fa-akhdhnahum and akhdhna. To clarify, he uses the modifier "first", which the
original lacks, to imply that affliction is a little bit grievous trial that takes the shape
of punishment as a sign of admonition. That is why he opted for "adversity and
calamity" for al-bas and al-arr. In so doing, he ignores the rhetorical ellipsis
implicitly inherent in the verses, either intentionally to avoid translation loss and
distortion, or professionally to fill the gap inherent in the TL and to re-produce the
original meaningfully.
180
181
calamity", as the given context concerns the retribution of denial and disbelief.
Accordingly, the situation is pregnant with punishment and warding off.
5.1.4 Internal Conceptualization (Proposed Translation) Header
After evaluating the four translations mentioned above, I prefer the following
translation to avoid the translation loss discussed earlier, as follows:
- We have already sent Messengers to nations before you, and We tested them with
good and bad so they might be willingly submissive. (Q 6: 42)
- And whenever We sent a Prophet to any town, We first afflicted its people with
adversity and calamity, so that they might forcibly humble themselves. (Q 7: 94)
Although the four translators have spared no effort to reproduce the ST
adequately, imperfection, through a critical eye and careful study, is revealed. In other
words, none of them could render the lexical items explained earlier perfectly as in
the original, but each one succeeded partially in reproducing "the mesh of special
rhetorical texture and culture-bound references" (Al-Qinai, 2012, p. 73) and the
morpho-semantic ambiguity inherent in the Qur'an.
5.1.4.1 Statistical Representation of the Questionnaire Findings
Translators
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
(A)
20%
Proposed
Translation
(B)
0%
Ghl
(C)
40%
Kh n
(D)
0%
Zidan
(E)
40%
182
183
Submissive
1. Willing to carry out the wishes of others;
2. Submitting without objection or resistance.
Humiliate
To deprive of esteem, self-worth, or effectiveness
From the above definitions, some semantic connotations and distinguishing
features can be identified, though they seem to have common features. As for
'submissive', it seems to have the following componential features: [+willingness],
[+determination],
[+flexibility]
[-resistance]
[-objection].
Thus,
its
positive
184
185
5.2.1.2.2 Vagina
Some commentators are of the opinion that al-ma here means the place
where the monthly flow of blood discharges from the uterus. In this regard, it is
narrated on the authority of Thana Sacd that Masrq asked cisha: "What is
forbidden for a husband towards his wife during menstruation?" She replied: "Her
vagina" (al-abar d. 310/923 , 2001, III, p. 726 .
5.2.1.2.3 Sexual Intercourse
It is narrated on the authority of Masrq ibn al-Ajdac that he asked cisha
(may Allah be pleased with her): "What is permissible for one to practice with his
wife during her menses?" She replied: "All except sexual intercourse" (Translation is
mine) (al-abar d. 310/923 , 2001, III, p. 725 .
5.2.1.2.4 From the Waist Up
All the narratives unanimously state that it is permissible for a husband to hug,
cuddle and embrace his wife gently, not to mention petting and stimulating erogenous
zones in her body from the waist up. It is related to have been said by Maymna that
the Prophet (pbuh) used to fondle any of his wives with clothes on during menses (alabar d. 310/923 , 2001, III, pp. 729-30).
5.2.1.3 Recitation-based Interpretation
Reciters of the Qur'an differ over the reading of the word yahurn. Some read
it yahurn, in which the letter al-h is being pronounced with al-amm (fully rounded
lips) without gemination, whereas some else read it yaahharn, in which al- and
al-h are geminated. Accordingly, the same word has two interpretations based on its
two readings. First, the reading of the former, i.e., yahurn, implies the primary
orientation of meaning, which is the cessation of menses, according to Mujahid,
c
Uthm n ibn al-Aswad and cIkrimah (al-abar d. 310/923 , 2001, III, p. 731-32).
186
Lexically, the phrase ahurat al-i aw al-nufas means the cessation of her
menses (al-Mucjam al-Wa).
Secondly, the reading of the latter, i.e., yaahharn, implies the secondary
various meanings, which include performing ghusl (full bath), only al-wu
(ablution) or cleaning one's private parts, as shown below (al-abar d. 310/923 ,
2001, III, p. 732). The advocates' point of view is that the word is originally
yatahharn, but the letter al-t is assimilated with the letter al-, due to their close
points of articulation. Lexically, taahharat al-marah means she performed ghusl (alMucjam al-Wa). Their views are basically based on a consensus, i.e., it is forbidden
for a husband to engage in sexual intercourse with his wife after the cessation of
menses without being physically clean (al-abar d. 310/923 , 2001, III, p. 732 .
5.2.2 Instrumental (Contextual) Header
5.2.2.1 The Juristic Controversy over the Process of al-taahhur (cleanliness)
Some Muslim jurists or scholars are of the opinion that al-taahhur implies alghusl (washing the whole body). On his commentary, al-abar points out that there is
a mutual agreement among Muslim scholars that performing prayers is considered
invalid unless she (a menstruating woman) first performs ghusl. Hence, it is
prohibited to engage in sexual intercourse unless otherwise physically purified. Some
else conceive that it means performing al-wu (ablution), so as to be able to pray).
Others state that it means cleaning one's vagina, as a condition before having sexual
intercourse with her husband (al-abar d. 310/923 , 2001, III, p. 732 .
Conversely, some are of the opinion that it is permissible for a husband to
engage in sexual intercourse with his wife after the cessation of menses and before
having bath and cleanliness. Similarly, al-abar comments that this opinion differs
from that of the majority of Muslim scholars, who believe that purification does not
187
only mean the cessation of menses, but a woman should also purify her whole body
with water (al-abar d. 310/923 , 2001, III, p. 734).
5.2.2.2 Exegetical Analysis
The people of the pre-Islamic era, specially the Jews and Magus (cf. alZamakhshar d. 538/1144 , 1999, I, p. 432 , used to abandon the menstruating
woman during meals, i.e., eating, drinking, or sitting together or dwelling at the same
place. Consequently, the early Muslims misunderstood the verse at the time of
revelation. They caused their wives to go outdoors during menses in bitter winters.
Having known that, the Prophet (pbuh) simply explained the intended message. He
told them to avoid having sexual intercourse during menses, not to force them to stay
outdoors, following in the footsteps of the non-Arabs. Accordingly, this verse
moderately commands the Muslims neither to have anal sex with their wives during
menses, nor to abandon them physically, but to avoid only sexual intercourse during
their periods (al-abar d. 310/923 , 2001, III, p. 721 .
5.2.2.3 Shift from al-ay into al-ma
This morphological form may be used in the sense of a position/place, like almabt, al-maql, or al-mafirr, or in the sense of an infinitive noun, like aat maan,
ja majan, or bata mabtan (al-R z d. 604/1207 , 1981, VI, p. 67; Al- aghaw d.
516/1122 , 2002, p. 126; Sbawayh, 2008, IV, pp. 87-88).
It seems that this word is controversial, and such a controversy is over its
significance. On one hand, some scholars state that al-ma is of the pattern mafcil,
and not the standard pattern mafcal. On the other hand, some else state that the
significance of the word al-ma depends upon identifying its category, whether it is
madar mm (a mimated infinitive, ims makn (noun of place), or ism zamn (noun of
188
time) (H. al-Jish, 2005, p. 53; al-Afah n d. 502/1108 , n.d., p. 136; al-Shawk n
(d. 1250/1834), 2007, p. 145).
Each party has his own justification. Some opponents deny the interpretation
of al-ma into the sense of mawdic al-ay; they refute this view, depending on the
Qur'anic context itself. They prove that the phrase huwa adha is meant to describe the
harm or infection caused by the menstrual blood. Accordingly, the adjectival phrase is
functioned to describe al-ma, which is in the sense of al-ay (menses), not alma, which is in the sense of the place where the menstrual blood flows. In
response to their disapproval, another group of advocates defend their point of view.
They believe that the phrase huwa adha implies ellipsis, i.e., huwa dh adha, which
means it causes harm or huwa mawf bi-kawnh adha, which means "it is known to
cause harm." Also, they claim that the phrase huwa adha indicates another ellipsis,
i.e., huwa mawdic adha, which means "it is a harmful place/position" (al-Zamakhshar
(d. 538/1144), 1999, I, p. 432). Thus, al-ma can be interpreted as mawdic al-ay
(the vagina where the menstrual blood discharges), as it is understood through the
ellipsis hidden in the previous phrase (al-R z d. 604/1207 , 1981, vol. 6, pp. 68-9).
5.2.2.4 Multi-layered Interpretation of al-ma
The word al-ma is mentioned twice in this verse. However, the
interpretation of the first one is not similar to the second. In other words, although
they are lexically the same, they are semantically different. Such interpretations can
be inferred from the context of situation. To explain, the word al-ma in wayasalnak can al-ma could be read as damm al-ay (menstrual blood) or al-i
(a menstruating woman), or itiyn al-i (having sex with a menstruating woman)
(al-R z d. 604/1207 , 1981, VI, pp. 68-9; al-Shawk n d. 1250/1834 , 2007, p. 145).
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190
the target source. For example, he ignores all the views expressed by linguists and
philologists regarding the possible interpretations of al-ma, yahurn/taahharn and
wa-la taqrabhunna/fa-thunna. Instead of finding appropriate equivalents capable
of expressing the rhetorical and stylistic aspects of the original, he felt satisfied to
interpret them verbatimly. For example, he translates al-ma, which is mentioned
twice in two different contexts, into 'menstruation'; yahurn/taahharn into 'they are
cleansed'; and wa-la taqrabhunna/fa-thunna into 'do not approach/you may
approach' respectively. In doing so, his translation seems to be acceptable, but
inaccurate.
Ghl
And they ask you concerning menstruation. Say, "It is hurt; so keep apart from
women during menstruation, and do not draw near them till they are pure. So, when
they have purified themselves, then come up to them (i.e., to have sexual intercourse)
from where Allah has commanded you." Surely Allah loves the ones constantly
repenting, and He loves the ones constantly purifying themselves.
191
h :
They ask you concerning menstruation. Say: that is an Adha (a harmful thing for a
husband to have a sexual intercourse with his wife while she is having her menses),
therefore keep away from women during menses and go not unto them till they are
purified (from menses and have taken a bath). And when they have purified
themselves, then go in unto them as All h has ordained for you go in unto them in
any manner as long as it is their vagina . Truly, All h loves those who turn unto Him
in repentance and loves those who purify themselves (by taking a bath and cleaning
and washing thoroughly their private parts, bodies, for their prayers).
5.2.3.2 Transliteration Strategy
Transliteration is a common strategy in Kh n's translation of the Qur'an in
general. Here, he transliterates adha, which is not a culture-specific term or
problematic and is easy to be translated, into 'harm', 'harmful', 'to cause harm' or 'hurt',
etc. Additionally, he explains the Arabicised word by using an improper parenthetical
expansion based on exegetical views. His expansion defines as "a harmful thing for a
husband to have a sexual intercourse with his wife while she is having her menses." In
so doing, he limits the harm caused by the mutual sexual intercourse to a husband
only, and not to both of them. Thus, this explanation is not completely acceptable.
5.2.3.3 Loose & Unnecessary Explanations
Kh n excessively uses repetitive alternatives as equivalents to the original; he
sticks literally to the original, trying to be as close as possible to it. For example, he
renders [wa-la taqrabhunna atta yahurna fa-idha taahharna fa-thunna min
haythu amarakum Allah] into "and go not unto them till they are purified (from
menses and have taken a bath). And when they have purified themselves, then go in
unto them as All h has ordained for you go in unto them in any manner as long as it
is their vagina)". Here, his rendition is not as concise as the original, but he uses
unnecessary and repetitive explanations instead, such as "go not unto them" versus
"go in unto them", and "till they are purified" versus "when they have purified
themselves."
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193
194
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
(A)
40%
Proposed
Translation
(B)
40%
Ghl
(C)
0%
Kh n
(D)
20%
Zidan
(E)
0%
195
prefer my
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through adopting a sole context-bound exegesis, maximizing the manner in which the
verse is expressed.
In practice, I rendered the first mention al-ma into 'menstruation', which
means 'the menstrual cycle' of a woman. The English equivalent I opt for seems
consistent with the causal successive co-text, which represents a reply to a question
raised about al-ma. As for the second al-ma, I concisely rendered it into an
adverbial based equivalent, i.e., 'sexually', implying the place where the cyclical
discharge of blood flows, consistently with the phrase 'until the blood ceases', aiming
at transferring the content to show the Islamic ruling euphemistically expressed in the
original.
Additionally, I sacrificed the long conditional clause of the original, which
consists of uslb nahiy (a negative imperative), as in wa-la taqrabhun, specifying the
prohibition of sexual intercourse, and uslb amr (an imperative), specifying the
proper place of coitus, for an economical English sentence, i.e., 'And do not approach
them properly as stated by Allah unless'. Finally, I do not claim that my attempt in
any way conclusive, but I have merely explored one facet of the mode of
representation in the Qur'an, which is not only "words, clauses and sentences which
are juxtaposed, but larger semantic units are juxtaposed in a manner which I
endeavored to describe as mosaic or patchwork" (Marais, 1998, p. 172).
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5. Patterns-Medial Fortition
5.3 isca and istaca
(
)31 : ) (
[fa-ma isac an yaharhu wa-ma istac lahu naqba] (Q. 18: 97)
Here, the Quranic context used two verbs, i.e., isac and istac, which are
derived from one stem, i.e., -w w-cayn ( ).
5.3.1 Precondition (Exegetical) Header
5.3.1.1 Similarity-adopted Interpretation
Some exegetes of the Quran believe that the two forms have the same
meaning, and t al-ifticl is used for the purpose of facilitation as the letter al- t is
very close to the point of articulation of the letter al- (See: al-Zamakhshar, 1999,
II, p. 402; al-R z, 1981, I, p. 173; al- aghaw d. 516/1122 , 2002, III, p. 236 .
5.3.1.2 Syntactic-based Phonological Explanation
Al-Khab al-Isk f d. 420/1029 magnificently justifies such a shift. Here, he
replies to the ever raised question behind the deletion of the letter in the first form
only. He is of the opinion that the second form, i.e., istac, is followed by a verbal
noun, i.e., naqba, which is easy to pronounce. Accordingly, the verb is fully used in
its complete form with no omission. Additionly, its object is impeded in the use of almadar al-muawwal (subjunctive mood), comprising an (a subordinating
conjunction) and the verb following it. Here, the phrase an yaharhu consists of four
parts, as follows:
1- an: subordinating conjunction;
2- yahar: 3rd person masculine plural imperfect verb;
3- : subject pronoun;
4- hu: 3rd person masculine singular object pronoun.
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199
the ultimate goal, if it is so, the repetition of the first form instead of the second one
will achieve such a goal asan abl, 1998, p. 64).
5.3.2 Instrumental (Contextual) Header
5.3.2.1 Discrepancy between isca and istaca
We assume that the two forms have the same meaning, but they have some
nuances or slight shades of meanings. The variety of usage indicates a secret to be
justified. Each of them occurs in a negative context, indicating lack of ability. To
explain, the inability inherent in the phrase wa-ma istac signifies the inability to
take any action, being emotionally attached to it, after a series of trials and laborious
efforts. On the other hand, the inability inherent in the phrase fa-ma isac signifies
increasingly frustrated inability, which inspires hope to get what one wants and totally
diverts him from emotional attachment or exerting any effort to fulfill it asan abl,
1998, pp. 64-5).
5.3.2.2 ab 's Stance on the Controversy over the Two Verbs
abl shows the verses in which the verb istaca is mentioned, positively and
negatively, in the Quran, through which he tries to prove that it indicates exertion of
physical efforts and consumption of energy. For example, in Srat al-Taghabun, verse
no. 16 reads: [fa-ittaq Allah ma-istacum wa-ismac wa-ac ] (Q. 64: 16)
Remain, then, conscious of God as best you can, and listen [to him], and pay heed
(Asad's translation) (Q. 64: 16)
And in Srat al-Anf l, verse no. 60 reads:
[wa-acidd lahum ma istactum min quwwatin wa-min rib al-khayl] (Q. 8: 60)
(Hence, make ready against them whatever force and war mounts you are able to
muster Asad's translation) (Q. 8: 60)
And in Srat l-imr n, verse no. 97 reads:
200
been a righteous man, and so thy Sustainer willed it that when they come of age they
should bring forth their treasure by thy Sustainer's grace. And I did not do [any of]
this of my own accord: this is the real meaning of all [those events] that thou wert
unable to bear with patience.") (Asad's translation) (Q. 18: 82)
Through an attentive reading of the two situations, the secret behind such a
shift seems exegetically justifiable and so contextually convincing as well. To
explain, the situation, inherent in the first verse, revolves around the in-depth
explanation and clarification of the actions, undertaken by the pious servant to
Prophet Msa
pbuh , i.e., scuttling the ship, killing the innocent chap and
203
[qala sa-tajidun in sh Allah biran wa-la aci laka amra] (Q. 18: 69)
(Replied [Moses]: "Thous wilt find me patient, if God so wills; and I shall not disobey
thee in anything!") (Asad's translation) (Q. 18: 69)
Later on, Prophet Msa could not remain patient, especially after the
seemingly-illogical actions taken by the pious servant, i.e., making a hole in the boat
they embarked on. Accordingly, feeling blameworthy, he apologized, as in:
[qala la-tukhidhn bi-ma nastu wa-la turhiqn min amr cusra] (Q. 18: 73)
(Said [Moses]: "Take me not to task for my having forgetton [myself], and be not
hard on me on account of what I have done!") (Asad's translation) (Q. 18: 73)
Here, according to abl, Prophet Msa's oblivion-based apology does not only
indicate his long-stay and endless patience, but it shows also his unshakeable selfconfidence in abiding by his promise (p. 66).
After illumination, the unsaid is said, especially when the pious servant
justified the divine wisdom behind those incidents. At that time, Musa reached the
moment of enlightenment, being fully aware of his inability to question the wisdom of
those actions due to his limited human capacity. Accordingly, the first form indicates
c
ajz al-muwalah (the lack of attempt), especially when he was externally attached
to the incidents, whereas the second one indicates cajz al-taslm (the lack of
obedience/submissiveness), especially after being told of the secrets behind such
divine incidents abl, 1998, p. 66 .
5.3.3 Output (Translation) Header
Now, we will have a look at the translations of the previous verse:
Abdel-Haleem: Their enemies could not scale the barrier, nor could they pierce it,
Ghl: So, in no way were they able to surmount it, and in no way were they able to
bore it.
h : So they [Ya'juj and Ma'juj (Gog and Magog)] could not scale it or dig through
it. (Q18:97)
Zidan: So they were unable to scale it or to cut through it;
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205
206
least that the translation must seek to preserve them as far as possible Werner
Koller, 1979, p. 187; as cited in Nord, 1997, p. 7; emphasis in the original).
5.3.4 Internal Conceptualization (Proposed Translation) Header
After evaluating the four translations mentioned above, I suggest the following
translation to avoid the translation loss discussed earlier, as follows:
[So, they did not give in to trial by surmounting (the barrier), nor did they give up
piercing it.]
5.3.4.1 Statistical Representation of the Questionnaire Findings
Translators
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
(A)
15%
Proposed
Translation
(B)
20%
Ghl
(C)
20%
Kh n
(D)
40%
Zidan
1
5%
(E)
As shown above, the table shows the statistical representation of the
questionnaire findings regarding the translation of isc and istac. Here, the total
number of responses is shown in order as follows: 3 participants (representing 15%)
prefer Abdel-Haleem's translation; 4 participants (representing 20%) prefer mine; 4
participants (representing 20%) prefer Ghl's translation; 8 participants (representing
40%) prefer Kh n's translation; and, finally, 1 participant (representing 5%) prefers
Zidan's translation.
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209
On the other hand, the verb kla is of the pattern facala, the basic stem. As
opposed to the verb iktala, it lacks the initial and medial augmentation, i.e., al-alif and
al-t. Additionally, the form of the two verbs, i.e., kla and wazana, is elliptically
shown, lacking the lexical collocation of the preposition li (for) and the direct object
of the sentence, i.e., al-nas (people), which is lexically compensated for through the
coarticulation of both the 3rd masculine plural verb, i.e., kl and wazan, and the 3rd
masculine plural object pronoun, i.e., -hum. Accordingly, the economical form of the
two verbs, i.e., klm and wazanm, is rhetorically functioned to indicate the
insufficiency of weight or underweight, and thus, it matches the context of situation.
210
-taw
-si
awt ln qasr (short soft
sound) +
consisting
of
sukn,
arakah and sukn
secondary stress
-fn
-rn
awtn
sakinan
(two
unvowelled sounds)
consisting
of
sukn,
arakah, sukn and sukn
primary stress
Additionally, the final syllable in the two words consists of arf mad abic,
i.e., al-waw, which requires long articulation or prolongation that is often used
pragmatically to focus attention on the ideas associated with or accompanying them,
such as overweight, as in yastawfn, and underweight, as in yukhsirn.
5.4.1.3 Componential Analysis
Componential analysis or lexical decomposition is a tool for disambiguation
and for explication of the different meanings possessed by ambiguous lexical items
(Malmkjr & Anderson, 1991, p. 534). It is a highly praised method of analysing and
classifying the given words into their essential components in terms of either
markers, i.e., common features, and distinguishers, i.e., distinguishing features, or
'pluses and minuses' (Ali, 2011, pp. 121-26). For example, the components of klal
and iktala will be analyzed below, as follows:
211
Distinguishing Features
iktala
kla
Exaggeration
Dogged Insistence
Pretension
Exertion
Participation
Showing
Premeditation
Pilferage
Villainy
Here, the table shows that the verb iktala is more comprehensive and
inclusive than the verb kla. To explain, the former has negative connotations, such as
"pretension", "dogged insistence", "exaggeration", and "premeditation", and its
meaning has been emphasized by the collocation of the second part of the descriptive
conditional state, i.e., yastawfn, meaning having more than one's due share or
weight.
On the other hand, the latter has positive ones as opposed to the former, but it
has acquired a negative connotation through accompanying the second part of the
descriptive conditional state, i.e., yukhsirn, meaning giving less than one's due share
or weight.
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213
214
d. 538/1144
justification for the change in preposition; he is of the opinion that the preposition cala
is much relevant to the verb yastawfn, preceded presumably the object al-nas for the
purpose of al-khuiyyah (particularity/specificity). Thus, it could be read: yastawfn
c
ala al-nas khah, fa-amma anfusahum fa-yastawfn laha (For themselves, they
excessively take full measure and, for people, prejudicially give short measure) (VI,
pp. 334-335; al-Als d. 1270/1853 , n.d., XXX, p. 68).
5.4.2.6 Substitutability of Prepositions
According to al-Farr
interchangeable in this regard. In other words, the former is in the sense of the latter.
They have the same meaning, as when you say, iktaltu calayk, it simply means iktaltu
mink (I took what I owe you) (al-Farr (d. 207/822), 1983, III, p. 246).
It is commonly known that the verb iktala takes one object, i.e., al-makl (the
measured item). For instance, you say, iktala fulanan icaman, meaning X bought
food. But when it collocates with the preposition min, it takes more than one object,
e.g., iktala icaman min fulan, meaning X bought some food from Y. Here, in the verse
under discussion, there is a shift in prepositions, where cala is used instead of min so
as to imply the sense of injustice and underestimate (Ibn cshr, 1984, XXX, p. 190).
5.4.2.7 The Omission of the Object
The phrase iktal cala al-nas literally means they bought from people, but the
verb itself iktal refers implicitly-but-understandably to such ellipsis, meaning iktal
makilan (they bought measurable items), where the object makilan is ellipted.
Similarly, the successive verse, i.e., wa-idha klhum aw wazanhum yukhsirn
syntactically and rhythmically matches the previous one, i.e., al-ladhna idha iktal
215
ala al-nas yastawfn. Syntactically, the object, i.e., makila, is explicitly omitted, but
it is still known and understood within the context, as it could be read as follows: "But
in case of sale or weight, they sell insufficiently." As for rhythm or meter, the two
verses are metrically balanced, and thus the deletion or addition of any lexical item
leads to dissonance, unless otherwise compensated. To explain, the omission of the
relative pronoun al-ladhna and the genitive masculine plural noun al-nas in the
second verse are compensated for through the addition of al-wawn in klhum and
wazanhum in compensation for the former and through the detached/connective
pronouns, i.e., hum in klhum aw wazanhum in compensation for the latter.
5.4.2.8 Relevance-based Analysis/ Reciprocal Ellipsis
In the verse, it is noticeable that the verb iktl is solely mentioned without the
verb ittazan, but they are both mentioned in the succeeding verse, i.e., wa-idha
klhum aw wazanhum yukhsirn. Ibn cshr rhetorically justifies such ellipsis; he
is of the opinion that it suffices to have the weight mentioned in the second verse to
avoid using the verb ittazan, which is rarely or uncommonly used in discourse and
which is difficult to pronounce in the context. Additionally, on his part, there is
another consideration that al-muaffifn, especially the people of Yathrib, were known
to engage in buying and selling; they used to barter goods brought and measured
almost with al-kayl, such as dates and wheat and the like, for gold or silver, whether
coined or not; their daily transactions were limited to al-iktiyl due to the customs or
conventions commonly adopted at the time. Furthermore, the two types of measure,
i.e., al-kayl and al-wazn, are both mentioned in the second verse, as al-muaffifn used
to sell their goods with al-kayl and receive awzan in return (Ibn cshr, 1984, XXX,
pp. 190-91).
216
217
218
219
However, their rendition is fussy and wordy, for they fail to find
220
in which the public voice of leadership was largely male" (p. 5). Another considerable
justification is that "Arabic is a highly gendered language and English is not" (Rim
Hassen, 2011, p. 214).
Similarly, Ghl adopts the same approach of Kh n. He renders it into
mankind, which is a generic noun, specifying neither masculine nor feminine gender
(The American Heritage Online Dictionary). As for Zidan, he ambiguously renders
al-nas into others, which impartially indicates the meaning of people. In doing so, he
remains aloof from being biased to either gender. Apart from the said mentioned, his
rendition seems to be closer to the original as opposed to the other three translators.
5.4.4 Internal Conceptualization (Proposed Translation) Header
After evaluating the four translations mentioned above, I suggest the following
translation to avoid the translation loss discussed earlier, as follows:
Woe to the defrauders:
Who take full measure when buying;
And give less than due when selling.
5.4.4.1 Statistical Representation of the Questionnaire Findings
Translators
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
(A)
0%
Proposed
Translation
(B)
12
60%
Ghl
(C)
0%
Kh n
(D)
40%
Zidan
(E)
0%
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222
preceded by a transliteration, like Kh n, or those who give short measure, like AbdelHaleem.
Additionally, I attempt to propose a dynamic translation, which contains a
balance that is constructed and modulated through Michael Sells, 1999, p. 5
parallel structures. For instance, I did my best to render the two morphological verbs,
i.e., iktl and klhum, precisely and properly into take full measure when buying
and give less than due when selling, respectively, trying to be as much as possible
close to the original and to reproduce the same rhetorical and metrical nuances of the
source text through simplicity of expression. In other words, my attempt is a mode of
recreation that "aims to reproduce, in a different language, the same effect as the
source discourse" (Eco, 2001, p. 93), i.e., the Qur'an, maintaining the 'guiding spirit'
of the original.
To conclude, in this chapter, an attempt has been made to examine some
selected samples of Qur'anic shifts, especially morphologically-assimilated ones. The
objective of this investigation is three-fold: to identify shifts of cohesion in the STTT text pairs that occurred through translation, to explain and justify their occurrence
and, finally, to describe the likely consequences of shifts in the translated texts K.
al-Amri, 2004, p. 279).
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_____________________________________________________________________
Endnote
1 It is one of the participants' justifications; his name is Muammad Ibrahm.
2 It is one of the participants' justifications; his name is Peter Smith.
3 It is one of the participants' justifications; his name is David Kesler.
4 It is one of the participants' justifications; his name is Chris Miller.
5 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Fat-iyya Refq.
6 The original reads:
:"
. :
)346 " ( .
7 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Maryam Kamel.
8 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Tehreem Muneeba.
9 It is one of the participants' justifications; his name is Muammad Ibrahm.
10 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Fat-iyya Refq.
11 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Fat-iyya Refq.
12 It is one of the participants' justifications; his name is Muammad Ibrahm.
13 It is one of the participants' justifications; his name is Peter Williams.
224
Chapter Six
Chapter Six
Context-bound Morphological Shifts
This
chapter
selectively
but
thoroughly
scrutinizes
context-bound
226
227
The verse refers concisely but precisely to the long and various histories of
hypocrites' cunning schemes against the believers, who abide by the rulings of Allah
and the teachings of His messenger. To explain, the hypocrites deceptively conceived
that their evil plot against the believers had a favorable outcome. In doing so, they
enjoyed life to the full, and indulged in unrestrained pleasures and desires, mistakenly
believing that they could scheme against Allah (see Q. 57: 13-15). Accordingly, the
shift here in the verbal mood is rhetorically and stylistically motivated; it is
functioned to jog the listeners' memory, especially the believers', and to be fully aware
of the hypocrites' failure scheme and of their unexpectedly overtaken punishment at
the end reciprocally.
6.6.1.1 Qur'anic Intertextuality
There is another fascinating feature of the Qur'an, i.e., explainability. In other
words, the Qur'an interprets itself, and what is briefly mentioned somewhere in the
Qur'an is elaborately given elsewhere. Thus, any embedded or hidden ambiguity
becomes unfold through tracing thematically and semantically similar verses in
various situations throughout the Qur'an.
6.6.2 Instrumental Header
6.6.2.1 Potentiality-versus-Decisiveness-based Choice of Verbs
Another unique feature of the Qur'anic rhetoric is the choice of verb forms,
which are morphologically various, for certain considerations inherent in the given
context and in conformity with the given situation. In other words, the verbal shift
indicates rhetorical function grasped through attentive care and in-depth study of the
shift taken place to get the intended message and to react accordingly in a certain way.
To explain, the imperfect verb yukhdic, i.e., form III, implies the potentiality of the
doer to achieve his/her goal unlawfully or illegally by any means. Additionally, it
228
presents a factitive view of the status quo of the hypocrites at anytime, who used to
practice deception in the past during the spread of Islam. It is a recurrent picturesque
image of the same attitude or behavior by the same type of people.
6.6.2.2 Generality of Wording vs. the Specificity of Occasion
Some scholars refute the specific occasion-based significance, citing the most
common juristic rule, i.e., cumm al-laf l khu al-sabab (the generality of the
wording rather than the specificity of the occasion). They firmly believe that the
wisdom learnt while reading the Qur'an, unless otherwise stated clearly or implied
overtly in accordance with authorized exegeses, is not confined to the surrounding
habitat or arena of the revelation at that time or the specified circumstances of the
verse at hand, but to the general meaning intended.
On the other hand, the nominative masculine active participle khdic implies
the static reaction, in a manner suitable to the Creator only, in retaliation for their
intended action, targeting a potential goal, but dynamic, in a sense that it is valid for
any time and any place. In other words, it implies continuity plus decisiveness
predetermined in Allah's knowledge. Generally speaking, the active participle
employed in any given context differs functionally from the imperfect verb; the
former is used to indicate a factitive and stable image of the reaction taken, whereas
the latter is liable to change, either to cease or to take another shape. Accordingly,
accurate and adequate choice of words adds to the grandeur of the Qur'an.
6.6.2.3 Tense-induced Rhetoric
Splendidly, the hypocrites' evil practice is expressed in the present simple
form, i.e., yukhdicn, which consists of yukhdic, 3rd person masculine (form III)
imperfect verb+(n), subject pronoun, indicating plural form. This tense implies a
recurrent situation or state in all times. Furthermore, it implies that their recurrent
229
attempts are no longer valid or successful, as the past form would read as follows:
[inna al-munafiqin khadac/khdic Allah] (Surely, the hypocrites did deceive
Allah/are deceiving Allah). Thus, the original reveals their human failure as opposed
to their challenge to their Creator. In other words, the verse shows their foolishness
and stupidity to think, not to proceed indeed, of the possibility of attaining their evil
goal.
6.6.3 Output Header
It is quite important to have a close look at the translations of the verse at hand:
Abdel-Haleem: The hypocrites try to deceive God, but it is He Who causes them to
be deceived. When they stand up to pray, they do so sluggishly, showing off in front
of people, and remember God only a little.
Ghl: Surely the hypocrites try to deceive Allah, and He is deceiving them; and
when they rise up for prayer, they rise up lazily, showing off to (other) men, and they
do not remember Allah except a little.
h : Veirly, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allh, but it is He Who deceives them.
And when they stand up for As-Salt (the prayer), they stand with laziness and to be
seen of men, and they do not remember Allh but little.
Zidan: Surely the hypocrites seek to deceive God, but God is leaving them to deceive
themselves, and if they stand up pray, they stand up lazily to be seen of the people,
and do not remember God except a little.
6.6.3.1 Similarity-based Approach
Abdel-Haleem and Ghl successfully opt for rendering yukhdicn into "try to
deceive", which implies their serious and recurrent attempts and great failure at the
same time. Additionally, there is another semantic value inherent in their acceptable
choice of words, that is, the possibility of success or failure, which the verb "try"
implies. Due to either their professionality and experience or coincidence, they have
succeeded in choosing the verb "try" for the following reasons:
230
- It implies a hidden intent to achieve one's goal in general, regardless of being good
or bad, as defined by Concise Oxford English Dictionary Online (COED), as follows:
"to make an effort to achieve; to make an effort with a view to success";
- It implies one's attempt to use any means to get benefits, as defined by COED
Online, as follows: "to examine the effectiveness or usefulness of for a purpose";
- It implies one's attempt to test the outcomes, as defined by COED Online, as
follows: "to make an experiment to find out."
Similarly, Kh n and Zidan have succeeded in rendering yukhdicn into "seek
to deceive", regardless of being intentional or not. Having consulted the COED
Online, there is no big difference between "seek" and "try." But, the former is more
comprehensive than the latter in a sense that "seek" implies "determination" plus
"attempt", as it's defined by COED Online, as follows: "to try or want to find or get."
Thus, the translators attempt to show the failure of the hypocrites to deceive Allah,
and to express verbally the unattainability of their goal, though their persistence and
serious attempts.
Thus, translationg yukhdicn into Eglish is not problematic, as the four
translators have successfully found an appropriate equivalent, capable of conveying
the message properly.
6.6.3.2 Dissimilarity-based Approach
As for the second part of the verse, it seems that the four translators are
divided into two parties; namely, literal-oriented approach, represented by Gh l and
Kh n, and semantic-oriented approach, represented by Abdel-Haleem and Zidan.
. .3.3 Gh
's
's i e a
roach
231
He prefers the present progressive tense to express the hypocrites' failure regarding
their vain expectations of deceit, and, secondly, to show the ever determined and
known result, i.e., Allah's will is of perpetual priority. In doing so, he adheres to the
literal approach of translation; he maximizes the significance of the original at the
expense of the target text. He is totally satisfied to stick to verbatim translation to
avoid misunderstanding based on self-subjectivity approach or exegesis. Thus, this
verbatim approach may be acceptable, but not accurate, as it lacks the rhetorical
effectiveness of the original.
As for Kh n, his translation lacks here the grandeur of the Qur'anic Arabic; it
sticks to the surface meaning of the verse, and thus the translation loss is inevitable.
He overlooks the semantic connotations inherent in the morphological shift in
yukhdicn and khdicum. Accordingly, his translation reflects either his unawareness
of the fully target equivalent, or his unawareness of the linguistic difference
embedded in the two morphological forms.
6.6.3.4 Abdel-Haleem's & Zidan's Semantic Approach
As for Abdel-Haleem, he also seems to be aware of the rhetorical purpose
inherent in the shift in the two morphological forms, i.e., yukhdic, which is of the
pattern yufcil, and khdic, which is of the pattern fcil. Accordingly, he avoids the
verbatim approach to translation and prefers the communicative one instead.
Professionally, he renders wa-hua khdicuhum into "it is He who causes them to be
deceived." Though the original is concise, he has elaborately reproduced it, to fill the
gap inherent in the lack of the full English equivalent, and to unfold the ambiguity
may result from literal translation. Here, he reproduces the original accurately, in a
manner suitable to Allah, the Almighty, and acceptable and imaginable to the reader.
To explain, he differentiates between the action undertaken by the hypocrites and the
232
bad consequence thereof, being fully aware of the divine attributes of Allah. In doing
so, he keeps the original intact, since no two languages are completely similar,
through rendering the intended message accurately and professionally due to being
competent
in
the
two
languages.
Additionally,
he
avoids
distortion
or
233
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
(A)
20%
Proposed
Translation
(B)
20%
Ghl
(C)
0%
Kh n
(D)
40%
Zidan
(E)
20%
translations, excluding Ghl's translation. Each of them had his own personal
justification. For example, one of the participants commented on his preference of
Abdel-Haleem's translation, as follows:
The word khdichum takes the form of an active participle, which describes an
inherent characteristic. Translating it as causes them to be deceived
communicates the meaning, because the deception by Allah to hypocrites is
more serious than they think it is, whereas their plots are actually futile. They
are deceived without being aware that theyre driven to their doom. Using also
it is He Who emphasizes the adverse effects of their hypocrisy, which turn to
afflict them instead of causing worldly gains.1
Others preferred my translation as it is 'simpler', whereas some participants
preferred Zidan's translation as it is considered, according to them, the best among
the five translations.2
Though the renditions of Abdel-Haleem and Zidan seem to be acceptable, they
do not show the rhetorical and stylistic effectiveness of the original. Since a
translation cannot replace the original, and since no two languages are identical, an
exegetical approach to Qur'an translation is highly recommendable. Accordingly, a
proper and consensual exegesis is preferable. In this regard, the following translation
may be reasonable:
1- Verily, the hypocrites try in vain to deceive Allah; they perform prayers inactively;
they pretend to be worshippers before people; they rarely glorify Allah.
2- Indeed, the hypocrites stealthily act to deceive Allah, Who will punish them
thereof; they improperly and hardly perform prayers; they pretend to be worshippers
before people; they rarely glorify Allah.
6.6.4.4 Translation by Omission Strategy
In the first proposed translation, I followed Translation by Omission Strategy,
in which I ignored the phrase wa-hua khdicum, not because it is not particulary
important. The real reason is that its translation may unnecessarily distort the target
text and disambiguate the message. Thus, I focused completely on the false act of the
235
hypocrites, using the modifier in vain to prove their failure in performance before the
Creator.
As for the second proposed translation, I adopted the exegeses of al- aghaw
(d. 516/1122), al-R z d. 604/1207 and al-Qurub d. 671/1272 , which revolve
around the following interpretation of the phrase wa-hua khdicum: [mujzihim bi-alc
iqb cala khidcihim] (inevitably, they will be punished for their deception).
Here, their interpretation shows the possible paradox inherent in al-
mushkalah (the seemingly contextual agreement), as shown below, between the two
forms yukhdicn and khdicum. Though they seem to have a similar connotation, one
of them differently signifies the opposite, as discussed earlier.
6.6.4.5 Suitably Representative Metaphor
Here, the shift implies a representative metaphor, which matches the context
of situation in retaliation for the hypocrites' evil deeds and cunning schemes. Its
rhetorical efficacy, in which the Qur'an as a whole abounds, is highly and richly
reinforced through al-mushkalah (the seemingly-contextual agreement), i.e., which
depends upon the use of near-synonyms in neighboring words, implying extra
connotations within the context, unlike the micro-level ones, i.e., the surface ones, due
to the act of lexical collocation. It is based on borrowing or employing a word, which
is similar to another root-cognate one, to indicate a connotation contrary to its first
sense; however, the semantic value between the signified and the signifier is derived
only from the word's imitation. In other words, it is a cluster of words, which has the
same pronunciation and spelling, but they differ in their intended meanings as in the
verse of cAmr ibn Um Kulthm, as follows:
...
[al l yajhalan ahadun calayn fa-najhala fawqa jahli al-jhlna]
236
[We only overstep the standards of proper conduct the way we are overstepped.]
(Translation is mine)
Here, the word fa-najhala is lexically similar to yajhalana. Both of them are
derived from the same stem, i.e., jm-h -l m (--), but they denote contrary
meanings within the context at hand. Literaly, both of them indicate the accusation of
being ignorant. But, technically and according to the context, the former means bad
temper, rage or fury, as opposed to patience, resulting in bad deeds, whereas the
latter indicates the retribution incurred due to the impoliteness of the ignorant, though
punishment and disciplinary rules are irrelevant to ignorance.
237
238
As for the wisdom behind such a morphological shift, some exegetes of the
Quran justify and explain the reason behind such a shift in the patterns used in the
Quranic discourse. Al-Qurub d. 671/1272 , for example, comments saying that the
active participle, i.e., shkir, is rhetorically employed in the previous verse to indicate
that not all the human beings, but a few of them, are grateful to Allah, the Creator.
But, as for the ingratitude and the denial of the blessings granted by Allah, the
hyperbolic pattern kafr is rhetorically employed in the previous verse (al-Qurub (d.
71/1272), XXI, p. 450). Other exegetes state that such a pattern suits the majority who
deny the countless blessings of Allah, whereas the pattern shkir suits the minority,
who thank Allah and seek His pleasure. That is why the morphological shift is
functionally and reasonably used in the Quranic discourse (Abdul-Raof, 2001, pp.
42-3).
6.7.1.1 Functionality of the Active Participle
According to al- iq c d. 885/1480 , the active participle is rhetorically
employed without hyperbole to imply the impossibility of thanking all the countless
bounties and blessings of Allah. Thus, he differentiates between the two epithets of
shakr and shkir. To explain, the former is semantically used to imply one's
permanent and continuous gratitude by the grace of Allah, whereas the latter is
semantically used to imply one's intermittent and random gratitude (XXI, pp. 133134).
.7.1.2 The Qu a ic e evance Theory
In this regard, al- iq c d. 885/1480 maximizes the importance of cilm
munsabt al-Qur'an the Quranic relevance theory in decoding the context of
situation and the rhetoric of the Quran, as follows:
c
240
Abb s and said: 'There is redundancy in Arabic.' Ab al-cAbb s inquired: "In which
situation did you notice that?" The man answered: "I noticeably found the Arabs
practising it. For example, they say: cAbdullah qim, inna cAbdallahi qim, and
inna cAbdallahi la-qim. Thus, there is redundancy, though the meaning is the
same." Then, Ab al-cAbb s commented: "The meanings are different due to the
difference in words. To justify, their first statement, i.e., cAbdallahi qim, refers to
the action of standing, and their second statement, i.e., inna cAbdallahi qim, is an
answer to a question, whereas their final statement, i.e., inna cAbdallahi la-qim, is a
reply to whoever denies that cAbdullah is standing"'5 (Translation is mine) (al-Jurjan
(d. 471-74?/1078-81?),1984, p. 315.; Ali, 2011, p. 52).
Consequently, the repetition of words, especially in Arabic, does not
necessarily imply the same meaning. On the surface level, they seem to be redundant
or repetitive, but, on the deeper one, they denote a certain kind of meaning. In
addition, the previous dialogue shows the ignorance of the inquirer as he lacks the
faculty for grasping the Arabic rhetoric.
6.7.2.2 Functionality of the Particle imma
Here, the particle imma can be variously interpreted in accordance with the
context. For example, it may be interpreted either as adt tafl (an
elaboration/explanation particle), which in turn implies the multiple moods or
attitudes and the unity of the self. In doing so, it means We guided mankind the way
by which s/he achieves the target, i.e., the right path, through universal signs, after
241
reaching the age of taklf (discretion or maturity), in case of both thankfulness and
ingratitude.
On the other hand, this particle may be interpreted as adt taqsm (a division
particle) for the guided, including various identities and attributes. In doing so, it
means We guided him/her the way over which they are deeply divided; some are
thankful, being guided by the truth, and some else are ungrateful, through turning
away from the right path. Briefly, it simply interprets, as follows: "We showed
him/her the guidance and Islam, among them some who are Muslims and some else
who are disbelievers" (al-Als d. 1270/1853) (n.d.), XXIX, p. 153; al-Zamakhshar
(d. 538 / 1143) (1998), VI, p. 275).
6.7.2.3 Relevance-based Interpretation
The final part of the verse, i.e., imma shkira wa-imma kafra, could be
variably and flexibly interpreted within the context. First, this phrase may be
interpreted as a resumed explanatory phrase, which qualifies the first object al-insn,
represented in the 3rd person masculine singular object pronoun, i.e., al-h, in the
verb hadaynhu. Thus, it means that Allah metaphorically shows the right path to
mankind, who will be divided into two groups: thankful and ungrateful (al-Als d.
1270/1853), n.d., XXIX, p. 153; al-Zamakhshar d. 538/1143 , VI, p. 275).
inn- hadaynhu
al-insn
either
or
shkiran
kafran
242
means that Allah metaphorically shows mankind the right path, through which s/he is
to be thankful, or through which s/he is to be ungrateful (al-Als d. 1270/1853 , n.d.,
XXIX, p. 153; al-Zamakhshar d. 538/1143 , VI, p. 275).
inn- hadaynhu al-sabl
either
or
e a io of imma
243
blame in case of excessive ingratitude (al-Als d. 1270/1853 , XXIX, p. 153; alZamakhshar (d. 538 / 1143), VI, p. 275).
In addition, the expression of al-huda (guidance) is associated with al-shukr
(thankfulness) prior to al-kufr (ingratitude), as the former takes precedence over the
heart of the guided, especially after being reminded by Allah that man was nothing
before their birth, then Allah created them. To explain, man is granted the senses of
hearing, seeing and the faculty of gaining knowledge, then the right path is differently
shown and clearly distinguished among others to choose freely which one to take or
tread (Qub, 2003, VI, p. 3780).
6.7.3 Output (Translation) Header
Now, after discussing the reason behind the morphological shift inherent in the
above verse, a close look at the translation of the previous verse reveals the following:
Abdel-Haleem: "We guided him to the right path, whether he was grateful or not"
(Q. 76: 3).
Zidan: "Indeed, We showed him the way, it is for him whether he is grateful or
ungrateful" (Q. 76: 3).
h : "Verily, We showed him the way, whether he be grateful or ungrateful" (Q.
76: 3).
Ghl: "Surely, We have guided him upon the way, whether he be thankful or most
disbelieving" (Q. 76: 3).
As for the evaluation of the above translations, the said translators have opted
for a different approach to translation, as shown below:
6.7.3.1 Equivalence-oriented Approaches
As shown above, it is obvious that the four translators are divided into two
parties: Abdel-Haleem, Zidan, and Kh n, who prefer "dynamic equivalence" (Nida,
1964, p. 159), which "seeks to render the original language with a language (words
and syntax) in the receiver language that has the same function as the original"
244
(Cosgrove & Edgerton, 2007: 39, emphasis in the original), on one hand. In other
words, they seek to express the meaning of the original into clear and contemporary
English. On their part, the importance of this approach lies in its clarity and
simplicity; however, interpretive bias may be closely associated with the TT.
6.7.3.2 Exegetical Translation
Here, Abdel-Haleem is much influenced by the exegesis of al-Zamakhshar,
ignoring the emphasis in the very beginning of the verse inherent in the emphatic
particle inn-. For example, the original does not specify or qualify al-sabl, which is
interpreted into "We showed him (mankind) the route to misery and bliss" by
Muj hid, or into "the womb from which a baby emerges" by Ab li and al-Sudiyy,
or "We showed him the route to monotheism through obvious signs" (Translation is
mine; al-Qurub (d. 671/ 1272), 2006, XXI, p. 449).
Also, Abdel-Haleem renders imma shkira wa-imma kafra into "whether he
was grateful or not." In doing so, he renders the original in accordance with the
ellipted meaning herein, which is sawan kana shkiran aw kana kafran as stated
by al-Zamakhshar and al-Shawk n. Although his rendition is grammatically and
semantically acceptable, it is not accurate in accordance with the original. It does not
show the grandeur and rhetoric of the original inherent in the morphological shift
from fcil into facl, exemplified by kafra instead of kfira. Here, he sacrifices the
rhetorical considerations for the norms of the target language, through which he fails
to express the original professionally.
As for Zidan and Kh n, they feel satisfied to render shkir and kafr into
grateful and ungrateful respectively. In doing so, they fail to distinguish between the
two forms in English and overlook the rhetorical and semantic effectiveness inherent
in their morphological shift, i.e., from fcil into facl.
245
246
the meanings of the Quran. Here, the word kafr is derived from al-kufr, that is, the
opposite of al-shukr (gratitude or thankfulness). It indicates jud al-nicmah
(ingratitude) (Ibn Manr d. 711/1311 , 1980, V, p. 3897). In this regard, according
to Muslim scholars, al-kufr is of four kinds:
1-Kufr inkr indicates the denial, or disacknowledgment, of God with the heart and
the tongue, having no knowledge of the unity of God;
2- Kufr jud indicates the acknowledgment with the heart without confessing with
the tongue;
3- Kur al-mucnadah indicates the knowledge of God with the heart, and confession
with the tongue, with refusal to accept [the truth];
4- Kufr al-nifq indicates the confession with the tongue with disbelief in the heart (V,
pp. 3897-3898; Lane, 1968, VII, p. 2621).
Accordingly, the intended meaning is kufr jud in conformity with the
contextual clues inherent in its opposite, i.e., shkir. Thus, it is not kufr inkr as Ghl
presupposes in his rendition. In doing so, he contorts the intended message.
Additionally, he renders inn- hadaynhu al-sabla into "Surely, We have guided him
upon the way." Thus, his translation seems ungrammatical.
6.7.4 Internal Conceptualisation Header
6.7.4.1 My Proposed Translation
[Verily, We showed mankind the path, through which s/he will be either thankful, due
to success granted by Allah, or ungrateful, due to her/his wrong choice.]
6.7.4.2 Statistical Representation of the Questionnaire Findings
Translators
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
247
0%
(A)
Proposed
Translation
(B)
20%
Ghl
(C)
40%
Kh n
(D)
0%
Zidan
8
40%
(E)
As shown above, the table shows the statistical representation of the
questionnaire findings regarding the translation of shkir and kafr. Here, the total
number of responses is, as follows: 4 participants (representing 20%) preferred my
translation; 8 participants (representing 40%) preferred Ghl's translation; and,
finally, 8 participants (representing 40%) preferred Zidan's translation.
6.7.4.3 Justification-based Choices of the Participants
The majority of the participants, i.e., 16 participants (representing 80%) are
equally divided into two parties: one preferred Ghl's translation and the other
preferred Zidan's, whereas the remaining 4 participants (representing 20%) preferred
my translation. Each of them had his own personal justification. For example, one of
the participants commented on his preference of Ghl's translation, as follows:
The translation reflects the morphological difference between the fcil and facl
patterns. Using just the opposite of the adjective used for the first pattern may
not be effective in highlighting the morphological and the semantic differences.
So, the adjective disbelieving is more expressive than ungrateful or
unthankful, since it shows that man should always be thankful to Allah, or
else he would be designated as a disbeliever.6
Here, the suitable strategy to achieve "the principle of equivalent effect" (Rieu
& Phillips, 1954, p. 760) is to adopt an exegetical approach. To explain, a translator
may render the Quran in accordance with a certain exegesis to convey the message
properly and to avoid translation loss. As for this verse, my above-mentioned
248
translation may be used to make up for the desired effect based upon the exegeses of
al-Als and al-Zamakhshar.
249
(d. 207/822) and al-Akhfash (d. 215/830) argue that nakhirah and
nkhirah have the same meaning, and then they are interchangeable, such as al-mic
and al-amic, meaning greedy; and al-bkhil and al-bakhil, meaning stingy. They
believe that the two readings are similar dialects. Consequently, the two readings are
acceptable.
On the contrary, it is said to have different meanings, like Ab cUbaydah, who
states that the attribute nakhirah seems acceptable in accordance with the literature
we traced regarding al-cim (bones), and he denies the soundness of the attribute
nkhirah. For example, nkhirah is said that it is derived from yankhuru, and thus it is
described as nakhir, like cafin, which is the attribute of yacfanu, particularly when it
becomes weary and broken when touched. Also, it is said to mean hollow bones, or
bones having a hole through which the wind blows, producing the sound of al-nakhr,
and thus al-nkhirah is derived from al-nakhr, similar to the sound occurring while
sleeping or suffocation, whereas nakhirah is said to mean wasted and crumbling when
touched.
6.8.1.2 Al-Zamakhsha 's Exegesis
Nakhirah, which is of the pattern facil, is more rhetorical than nkhirah, which
is of the pattern fcil, as the former implies constancy, whereas the latter, recurrence;
for example, al-Zamakhshar differentiates between iq and ayyiq. He justifies the
shift in the two patterns by explaining the connotations implied by the former, which
250
251
252
and the neighboring words. They "imitate the sounds associated with the objects or
actions they refer to" in nature (The American Heritage Dictionary Online). For
example, the word karaca imitates or signifies the sound of water in one's mouth,
passing through one's throat, while drinking. Similarly, the word daraja, meaning he
rose in grade, degree, rank, condition, or station, implies motion from downward to
upward in accordance with the arrangement of these letters; and its opposite is jarada,
implying the motion from upward to downward (cf. Zarqa, 1993, pp. 63-64).
In this regard, Ibn Sna d. 428/1036 elaborates on the formation of Arabic
words that sound like the meaning they represent, as follows:
The letter al-dl is clearly shown while uttering the words al-dandanah
and al-dabdabah; al-h in al-has_hasah, al-hamhamah, and al-hazhazah;
al-qf in al-qahqahah; al-nn in al-nahnahah and al-naqnaqah; al-ww in
al-wawaah; al- in al-amamah; al-b in al-babaah; al-f in alfarfarah; al-d in al-ararah; al-kh in al-kharkharah; al-ghn in alghargharah; al-jm in al-jacjacah; al- in al-ananah; al-zi in alzamzamah; al-th in al-thartharah; al-t in al-tamtamah; and al-mm in
al-malmalah and the like, all of which acoustically imitate the natural
sounds.7 (Translation is mine) (as cited in Zarqa, 1993, p. 58)
6.8.2.3 The Characteristics of al-kh
Al-kh occurs when the back of the tongue rises towards the soft palate,
leaving a small space for exhaling or breathing, causing a stertorous sound, with the
stillness of the vocal cords. It is one of the sounds termed mahmsah (non-vocal), i.e.,
pronounced by the breath only without the voice. That is why it is one of those termed
alqiyyah (faucial or guttural letters) (Ibn Manr (d. 711/1311), 1980, II, p. 1085).
6.8.2.4 Etymologically-based Distinction
Nakhr and nakhr are infinitive nouns of the verb nakhara, i.e., to breathe
from al-khayshm (air-passages of the nose), as in humans, or from nostrils, as in
animals. The former is commonly used than the latter, and which is said of a man, an
ass, and a horse. Additionally, nakhr, a sound which comes out from the nose or the
253
nostrils, differs from shakhr, a sound which comes out from the mouth, and from
karr, a sound which comes out from the chest.
On the other hand, nakhr, an infinitive noun, is derived from nakhir, which is
said of a bone and wood. Nkhir, a masculine form, signifies old and wasted bones,
and nkhirah, a feminine form, a hollow bone, having a hole passing through it, when
the wind blows (Ibn Manr (d. 711/1311), 1980, VI, p. 4375).
Accordingly, there are two readings of the verse (Q. 79: 11), i.e., ciman
nakhirah and ciman nkhirah. Some commentators, such as al-R z d. 604/1207 ,
prefer the former, as it is agreeable in form with the refrain verse endings of the sura,
both the preceding and the succeeding ones, as in al-rjifah, al-rdifah, wjifah,
khshicah, al-firah, khsirah, widah, and al-shirah (Q. 79: 6-14) (XXXI, pp.
36-37).
6.8.3 Output (Translation) Header
Abdel-Haleem: They say, What? Shall we be brought back to life, after we have
turned into decayed bones?
Ghl: They will say, "Will we surely be turned back to our former state? Even when
we are decayed bones?"
h : They say: "Shall we indeed be returned to (our) former state of life? Even after
we are crumbled bones?"
Zidan: They shall say: "Are we being restored to our former state?" When we have
become hollow rotten bones?"
Here, it is obvious that the translators at hand opt for one-to-one strategy, save
for Zidan, who prefers choosing more adjectival modifiers to unfold the ambiguity
and to avoid controversy about the connotation implied by nakhirah. To explain,
Ghl and Abdel-Haleem reproduce the original similarly; they render nakhirah into
"decayed bones", whether coincidentally or otherwise. Furthermore, Abdel-Haleem
254
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
13
255
75%
(A)
Proposed
Translation
(B)
0%
Ghl
(C)
0%
Kh n
(D)
0%
Zidan
(E)
25%
256
257
258
(And they assign daughters for Allah! -Glory be to Him!- and for themselves (sons,
the issue) they desire!) (Q. 16: 57) (Yusuf Ali's translation)
[wa-yajcalna li-llhi ma-yakrahna wa-taifu alsinatuhum al-kadhiba anna lahum
al-usna la-jarama anna lahum al-nara wa-annahum mufran] (Q. 16: 62)
(They attribute to Allah what they hate (for themselves), and their tongues assert the
falsehood that all good things are for themselves: without doubt for them is the Fire,
and they will be the first to be hastened on into it!) (Q. 16: 62) (Yusuf Ali's
translation)
On the semantic level, the meaning of tilka idhan qismatun za is closely
dependent on that of the preceding interrogative verse, i.e., a-lakum al-dhakaru walahu al-untha? To explain, the demonstrative pronoun singles out qismatun za,
which is the unjust share or division the disbelievers claimed (cf. Ibn cshr, 1984,
XXVII, p. 106).
6.9.1.2 Examples Explained
In this regard, Ibn al-Athr d. 637/1239 differentiates between al-macn
(meanings) and al-tawl (interpretation) or al-aml (syllepsis or semantic
approximation). According to him, the former is simple and clear. It is easily
understandable, whereas the latter is hidden and ambiguous, and it, thus, should be
accompanied by contextual clues. To support this explanation, Ibn al-Athr d. 637/
1239 gives an example from the Quran. As for al-macn (meanings), he rounds off,
as follows:
The verse wa-thiybaka fa-ahhir (Q 74: 4), meaning "And cleanse your
garments", is very clear, and not ambiguous. The word thiybaka (garment/clothing)
does not need to be explained in other words, or to be differently interpreted.
According to him, the meaning is simply grasped from the text in accordance with
259
their surface usage, which is a criterion for understanding the intended meaning (Ibn
al-Athr (d. 637/1239), 1959, I, p. 62).
As for al-tawl (interpretation) or al-aml (syllepsis or semantic
approximation) (Baalbaki, 2008, p. 280), he explains how the same verse could be
differently or contradictorily interpreted in comparison with the collocated lexical
items. To explain, the word thiybaka, which simply means your garment is
interpreted as your heart. Here, it is figuratively and symbolically interpreted. But,
Ibn al-Athr comments that al-muawwil (the interpreter) should provide evidence,
and his interpretation should be grounded, as his/her interpretation violates the surface
meaning induced by the given lexical items (Baalbaki, 2008, p. 280).
Accordingly, the contextual relatedness between any two successive verses is
essential in grasping the intended meaning. In this regard, al-Zarkash d. 794/1391
elaborates on the concept of connectedness as follows:
A meaning, linking two verses together, may be general or specific,
intellectual, or sensuous, or unreal, or of any other type of relationship. It
could be termed as al-talzum al-dhihn (a mental concurrence),
indicating a cause-and-effect, or reason-and-consequence relationship, or
two analogues, or two antonyms, or the like. Or, it could be also termed as
al-talzum al-khrij (a propositional concurrence) inherent in a subjectto-predicate relationship.10 (Trans. by El-Awa, with some modifications of
mine, p. 9) (I, p. 131)
6.9.1.3 Identifying the Authoritative Voice11
Here, this verse is preceded by a rhetorical question, inherent in [alakum aldhakaru wa-lahu al-untha?] (Do males, the superior gender in your view, belong to
you, and females, the inferior gender in your view, to Allah?). This rhetorical question
shows how the disbelievers were unfair, and their argument seems illogical, as Allah
(glory be to Him) has neither a child nor a concubine (Q. 72: 3). He is the only
Creator of everything and the All-Omniscient (Q. 6: 101). Thus, it is functioned to
emphasise and negate their allegation and their lies. Also, it is followed by a
260
261
[a-faraaytum
al-Lt
wal-cUzza*13
wa-Mant
al-thlithata
al-ukhra
allat
262
stir up the recipient's attention, being fully aware of the given context and the
intended message (al- iq c d. 885/1480 , XIX, p. 59).
6.9.1.5 Apparently Thematic Disconnectivity15
Unfamiliarity with the norms of any language in general and Arabic in
particular results in misunderstanding and, thus, false assumptions related to form and
content. For instance, in the case of the Quran, it is arguably said that the Quran
lacks coherence, due to "misplacements occurred during the process of editing the
text", as claimed by Richard Bell (1991), or connectivity, and abounds in ambiguity.
ut, in reality, this is not true, as the Quran communicatively addresses all humanity,
in a highly literary style of language, imbued with a deep understating of its sublime
techniques, challenging Quraysh, the people of rhetoric and poetry, to provide similar
eloquent work.
So convincing was the view of al- iq c d. 885/1480 , revolving around the
impossibility of understanding the Quran in isolation of the order of verses, namely
consecutive ones (Sperber & Wilson, (1986/1995), p. 200). In this regard, according
to him, one's inability to 'uncover the implicit implications' and 'the fabulous
meanings' is due to one's failure to realize the connectivity of the verses of the Quran
(El-Awa, 2006, p. 16).
6.9.1.6 Rhythmic Symphony
Qub 2003 expands greatly on the order of the verses, in the whole sura in
particular and the Quran in general. Not only is it eloquently interweaved as a
rhythmic symphony, but it is also imbued with rhymed verse endings, both on the
'inter-verse' level, i.e., 'between the verses of each sura', and on the 'inter-sura' level,
i.e., 'between the preceding and consecutive suras throughout the Quran (El-Awa,
2006, p. 11).
263
264
utterance,
i.e.,
tilka
al-qisma
qismatun
za,
meaning
that
265
someone supposedly said to you: "tk (I'll pay you a visit)", you will reply, saying:
"Idhan ukrimuka (then I'll welcome you)."' Here, in this example, the particle idhan is
elliptically used to refer implicitly to the conditional statement of the utterance, that
is, "Once/if you come, I'll warmly welcome you." Accordingly, al-tanwn (nunation)
is functionally employed in Arabic, as one of its distinguishing linguistic features. It is
used here in the example shown above to compensate for the omission inherent in its
reply (XVIII, p. 298).
Accordingly, this conditional particle is employed in the previous verse to
imply 'If it is so as you claim, thus your division is prejudicially unfair'. Thus, the
aesthetic and stylistic effectiveness inherent in Arabic language in general and in the
Quranic Arabic in particular is unique and matchless as opposed to English.
6.9.2.4 Context-based Relevance
Most commentators of the Quran consensually agree that the word za is of
the measure ficla, like dhikra; it is an infinitive noun, from which the verb aaza,
linguistically meaning he deviated from the right course, or he acted unjustly,
wrongfully, or injuriously (cf. Ibn Manr (d. 711/1311), 1980, XVIII, pp. 2540-2541;
Lane, 1968, V, pp. 1759-1760; al-R z d. 604/1207 , 1981, XVIII, p. 298; al-Qurub
(d. 671/ 1272), 2006, XX, pp. 37-38). Accordingly, za is used instead of izah to
indicate hyperbole. Similarly, it is commonly said, and also known, that awazu is
more symbolic than iz, and za is more symbolic than izah (al-R z d.
604/1207), 1981, XVIII, p. 298).
6.9.2.5 Brevity and Succinctness
The ellipted word nisbah, i.e., attribution of females to Allah, is replaced by
qismah, which is indefinitely used, accompanied by the attributive za to indicate
offense and denial, and to specify the type of al-qismah (division) that is unjust. The
266
verse concisely, but precisely, expresses the disbelievers' fabricated assumption and
illogical attribution of females to Allah in few words. It practically addresses the
reader through giving a picturesque situation in which one of two partners or
shareholders, after obtaining his share, greedily shares the quota of his partner.
Accordingly, the word qismah, accompanied by the negative connotation of za, is
emotionally used to show the reader's disgust with injustice, and to refuse the illogical
fabrication of the disbelievers.
6.9.2.6 Rhetorical & Stylistic Considerations
The word za, which is used instead of za, is of the pattern fucla, i.e., a
superlative noun, like kubra and wa, meaning shaddatu al-ayz (extremely
disrespectful/unfair). According to the rule, za should be pronounced za, but such
a graphological change is justifiable here for some considerations, related to the
context of situation. To explain, when al-y al-skinah, i.e., "the vowel of the medial
radical letter being thus rendered full in sound" (Lane, 1968, IV, p. 1393), is preceded
by al-ammah in order, it is pronounced with al-kasr, and, thus, al-waw in za turns
to be y in za as a result. Having difficulty in pronunciation is due to the rise of the
extremity of the tongue towards the later incisors, resulting in the blockage of air
passage, then falls, accompanied by the vibration of the vocal cords (Zarqa, 1993, p.
83). In addition, the form za is considered improper (Ibn cshr, 1984, XXVII, p.
107).
6.9.2.7 Combination of Letters & Mental Image
Phonologically speaking, sounds are mutually influenced by neighboring
letters in an utterance. So, change in the letter order or in its arrangement, forward or
backward, preceded by improper diacritics, will result in incongruity or disharmony
(Zarqa, 1993, p. 38). The word za consists of 4 letters, i.e., al-d, al-y, al-za and
267
Arab, as follows:
The fifteenth letter of the alphabet; it is one of the letters termed majhrah
(vocal) and shajriyyah, derived from al-shajr, which is the place of the
opening of the mouth; its place of utterance is from the extremity of the
tongue [extended as to reach] to the part next to the [lateral teeth called]
ars. (Lane, 1968, III, p. 839, square brackets in the original)
This letter is also known in Arabic as one of the letters termed al-ajjiyyah
(noisy or chaotic letter), through which a loud coarse sound occurs while
pronunciation. Additionally, al-d is commonly known as the most difficult sound,
which requires proficiency and professionalism (al-M rghan d. 1349/1930 , 1995, p.
161). That is why it is known to be peculiar to Arabic, the language of al-d (Zarqa,
1993, p. 44).
6.9.3 Output (Translation) Header
Abdel-Haleem: That would be a most unjust distribution!
Zidan: This is indeed an unjust division;
h
268
norms of the TL, maximizing the importance of the norms of the SL. Thus, although it
seems to be 'faithful', it is 'more literal', for 'the equivalent effect' is not 'secured'
(Newmark, 1991, p. 11). They are much impressed by the commentary of al-Qurub,
in which he literally explains the meaning of qismatun za, which is qismatun dhata
ulm (lit., a division with injustice). Accordingly, translation loss and distortion
become inevitable due to the lack of lexical substitutes.
In this regard, Khadiga Al-Tayeb (1985) ascribes the potential of distortion
and translation loss to two elements, i.e., linguistic and cultural, as follows:
"Untranslatability is considered either 'linguistic' due to the unavailability of lexical
and syntactical substitutes in the target language or 'cultural' due to the absence in the
target-language culture of a relevant situational feature for the source language text"
(p. 42).
In Arabic, the phrase qismatun iza consists of a nominative feminine
indefinite noun, i.e., qismatun, and a nominative feminine adjective, i.e., za
(http://www.corpus.quran.com). In other words, the adjective, in Arabic, follows the
noun it describes, unlike English, in which an adjective precedes the noun it describes.
Each language has its own distinguishing features and norms. Thus, the rendition of
Kh n and Gh l seem to be inappropriate, as they sacrificed 'meaning' to 'exactitude'
(Michaels, 1997, p. 109).
On the other hand, Zidan and Abdel-Haleem adopt another approach, i.e.,
communicative, which is an 'effect-centered' translation, and by which they sacrifice
'exactitude' to 'meaning'. As for Zidan, he focuses on the norms of the TL. He feels
satisfied to render qismatun za simply into "an unjust division." In doing so, he
adopts a one-to-one strategy. He is committed here to the surface meaning, ignoring
269
Number of
Percentage
Participants
Abdel-Haleem
(A)
20%
Proposed
Translation
(B)
40%
Ghl
(C)
0%
270
Kh n
(D)
20%
Zidan
(E)
20%
271
The suitable strategy to achieve "the principle of equivalent effect" (Rieu &
Phillips, 1954, p. 760) is to adopt an exegetical approach. A translator may render the
Quran in accordance with a certain exegesis to convey the message properly and to
avoid translation loss. Accordingly, adopting a consensual exegetical commentary
during the rendering of the verse, under discussion, sounds acceptable.
To conclude, according to cAiyya, these shifts are not haphazardly used in
any natural language, especially Arabic, but they follow a pattern for some certain
considerations, rhetorically, stylistically and semantically. That is to say they are
functionally used in the context to convey a certain meaning or message to the
recipient. In addition, as shown above, these derivational patterns are usually
accompanied by the addition of a conceptual content.
272
_______________________________________________________________
Endnotes
1 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Fat-iyya Refq.
2 It is one of the participants' justifications; his name is Muammad Ibrahm.
3 The original reads:
"
.
)6 4 " (.
4 The original reads:
" :
:
) (. "
5 The original reads:
: : :
:
: : :
.
. : :
. :
. :
:) ( :
: (
.)243 242
6 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Fat-iyya Refq.
7 The original reads:
)52 ( .
8 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Tehreem Muneeba.
9 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Fat-iyya Refq.
10 The original reads:
-
-
.
)434 4 (
11 But Abdul-Raof refers to this feature as 'antithesis'; for further reading, see: Hussein Abdul-Raof,
'Textual Progression and Presentation Technique in Qur'anic Discourse: An Investigation of Richard
Bell's Claims of 'Disjointedness' with Special Reference to Q. 17-20', Journal of Qur'anic Studies 7
(2005), 37-60, p. 42
12 For further details, read two articles by cAbdel-Ram n A. cAbdel-Ram n, 'The Translation of alItibk (Reciprocal Ellipsis) in the Glorious Qur'an into English', db al-Rafidayn 64 (2012), 503c
526; and Amad F. Rama n
Abdel-Sal m cAdn n, 'Al-Itibk f al-quran al-karm: ruyah
balghiyyah', Journal of Elementary Education College 4: 2 (2006), 42-88
13 The asterisk implies the end of verse.
14 The underlined words signify the reciprocal ellipsis.
15 For further details, see: Textual Relations in the Quran by Salwa M. El-Awa.
16 It is one of the participants' justifications; her name is Fat-iyya Refq.
273
Conclusion
Conclusion
This stylistic study of morpho-semantic shifts in some selected English
translations of the Qur'an has made no attempt to be comprehensive or meant to be so;
for it only points out some of the translation problems related to shift in the Glorious
Qur'an.
In this study, an attempt has been made to analyse some selected morphosemantic shifts in the Qur'an, which abounds in various patterns that are semantically
and stylistically motivated. For instance, there are facala as in nazala; afcala as in
anzala; faccala as in nazzala; tafaccala as in tanazzala; tatafaccalu as in tatanazzalu;
fcil as in ghfir; faccl as in ghaffr; facl as in ghafr, etc. Such shifts are not
expected to represent any problem if the translator has the ability to distinguish
between them and/or to find adequate equivalents in the target language (TL), capable
of conveying the message without distortion.
Key Objectives of the Study
The importance of this study lies in the fact that this shift is one of the most
recurrent and rich rhetorical phenomena in the Quran. However, little concern has
been given to it. In other words, it did not receive a detailed and comprehensive study,
especially in the field of translation, as far as I know, to unveil the aesthetic values
and the inimitable aspects of the Quranic discourse. For this reason, an intensive
study was conducted on this topic, basically
1) to evaluate some selected English translations of the meanings of the Quran;
2) to draw up a suitable strategy to meet the criteria of an accurate translation;
and;
3) to analyze this feature, stylistically and rhetorically.
274
Research Questions
The present study has attempted to answer the following research questions:
Research Question No. 1: Does morphological change account for change in
lexical meaning? If so, what are the rhetorical purposes of such a change?
This study postulates that change in morphological patterns does not take
place haphazardly due to some certain rhetorical considerations, driven from the
context, as a reliable criterion for determining the intended meaning. In other words,
their meanings are context-bound, as shown earlier. For example, the pattern facl may
be used to mean either fcil or mafcl, or both of them, depending upon the context,
which determines the intended meaning. This kind of shift takes place for the purpose
of hyperbole, as in: [qla fa-ukhruj minha fa-innaka rajm] (Q. 15: 34)
Here, the word rajm, which is in the pattern of facl, is functionally used
instead of marjm, which is in the pattern of mafcl, as the former indicates a great
degree of hyperbole than the latter. Secondly, it means that rajm is an indispensable
attribute of al-shaytn (the devil), who is cursed forever until the Day of Judgment.
Thirdly, the word rajm is easy to pronounce than marjm. Fourthly, rajm is a fourletter word whereas marjm is a five-letter word.
Thus, morpho-semantic shift is a linguistic device, employed extensively in
the Quran, as a distinguishing feature, rhetorically and stylistically-motivated. It is
peculiar to Arabic in general and the Quran in particular; it is functionally used to
1) avoid redundancy;
2) stir one's enthusiasm towards understanding the intended message.
3) preserve fawil al-yat (the ayah-final endings) in some cases, as in (Q 53:
22) & (Q 76: 3)
275
276
za simply into "an unjust division." In doing so, he adopts a one-to-one strategy. He
is committed here to the surface meaning, ignoring the multiple explanations,
especially rhetorically, stylistically, or phonologically, adopted by commentators.
Research Question No. 3: What are the blunders related to morpho-semantic
shif
a s a o s of he Qu a shou d avoid?
As for morpho-semantic shifts, Quran translators may encounter three kinds
of problems, as follows:
1- Multi-functional Patterns
Some morphological patterns have various meanings or functions. In Arabic,
one morphological pattern may indicate various semantic values. For example,
according to Jurj cAiyya n.d., p. 18 , the pattern afcala may appear to have several
functions or purposes, such as al-tacddiyah (transitivity), makn (movement towards a
place or destination) and 'declarative' or 'estimative' states, as shown earlier in chapter
one.
2- Mono-functional Patterns
There are various morphological patterns, such as faclah / ficlah and mifcal /
mifcl, which indicate one semantic value. For example, the pattern faclah is termed
ism al-marrah (the noun of instance or occurrence), which indicates the single
occurrence of the action or state of the verb, as in arbah (the act of hitting), jalsah
(the act of sitting), and sharbah (the act of drinking), meaning 'once' or 'one time'
(Thackston, 1994/2000, pp. 30-31; Ibn al-N im d. 686/1287 , 2000, p. 313 .
3- Context-bound Morphological Shifts
Some morphological patterns are changed into other forms within the context
for some certain rhetorical considerations. In other words, their meanings are contextbound, as will be shown later in chapter 6. For example, the pattern facl may be used
277
to mean either fcil or mafcl or both of them, depending upon the context, which
determines the intended meaning.
Thus, such shifts are not expected to represent any problem if the translator has the
ability to:
1- distinguish between them;
2- find adequate equivalents in the target language (TL), capable of conveying the
message without distortion;
3- be fully aware of the similarity-based derivation and context-bound signification,
which are considered pivotal criteria for analyzing such a rhetorical phenomenon;
4- focus on the context of situation, which assists in retrieving the intended meaning;
5- know the historical context in which the Qur'anic verse was revealed.
Limitations of the Study
278
279
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292
Appendix
Appendix
1- The Original:
)3 :) ( (
Transliteration:
[nazzala calayka al-kitba bi-al-aq muaddiqan lima bayna yadayhi wa-anzala altawrata wa-al-injla ] Q. 3: 3)
Occasions of Revelation:
The verse here talks about the piecemeal revelation of the Quran as opposed to the
previous scriptures, namely the Torah and the Gospel, which were revealed at once.
Translations:
A: Step by step, He has sent the Scripture down to you [Prophet] with the Truth,
confirming what went before: He sent down the Torah and the Gospel.
B: Step by step, He sent down to you the Qur'an with the Truth, confirming what
went before it and He sent down the Tawr h and the Injl at once.
C: He has been sending down upon you the Book with the Truth, sincerely
(verifying) what was before it4, and He sent down the Tawrh5 and the Injil6.
D: It is He Who has sent down the Book (the Qur'an) to you (Muhammad SAW)
with truth, confirming what came before it. And He sent down the Taurt (Torah)
and the Injeel (Gospel).
E: He sent down to you the Book (Quran) in Truth, confirming what was sent
before it and He sent down the Torah and the Injeel.
1- Regarding the rendering of the two morpho-semantic shifts nazzala, which is
in the pattern of faccala, and anzala, which is in the pattern of afcala, which
translation seems to be the most appropriate one? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
4
5
6
294
2- If you are not satisfied with any of the previous translations of the underlined
words, kindly explain your choice!
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_____________________________________________________________________
295
2- The Original:
)17 :) ( (
Transliteration:
[fa-mahhil al-kfrn amhilhum ruwayda] (Q. 86: 17)
Occasions of Revelation:
The verse is concerned with tolerance and patience towards the disbelievers. It is
directly addressed to Prophet Muammad to preach them gently and do not invoke
curse upon them. That is why it contains two imperatives, i.e., mahhil and amhil.
Translations:
A: [Prophet], let the disbelievers be, let them be for a while.
B: So [Prophet], be unfailingly patient with the disbelievers; respite them for
awhile.
C: So give the disbelievers (more) leisure; give them leisure awhile.
D: So give a respite to the disbelievers. Deal you gently with them for a while.
E: So give respite to the unbelievers, leave them for a while.
1-Regarding the rendering of the two morpho-semantic shifts mahhil and amhil,
which translation seems to be the most appropriate one? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2-If you are not satisfied with any of the previous translations of the underlined
words, kindly explain your choice!
_____________________________________________________________________
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296
3- The Original:
(
)97 :) (
(
:) (
)28
Transliteration:
[inna alladhna tawaffhum al-malikah lim anfusihim ql fima kuntum ql
kunna mustacafina f al-ar ql alam takun ar Allah wsicah fa-tuhajir fha faulika mawhum jahannam wa-st masra] (Q. 4: 97)
[alladhna tatawaffhum al-malikah lim anfusihim fa-alqaw al-salama makunna nacmal min s bala inna Allah calm bima kuntum tacmaln] (Q. 16: 28)
Occasions of Revelation:
The first verse (Q. 4: 97) is revealed about some hypocrites, who left Prophet
Muammad in Mecca, and accompanied the people of the tribe of Quraysh, though
they were able to immigrate with their Muslim brethren, in the battle of Badr, where
they were killed. They had to abandon the disbelievers and settle down away from
them, especially in case of failure to practice their rituals. They were physically able
to immigrate, but they did not. Thus, they did injustice to themselves. Accordingly,
the verse is sent down to show their mistaken discretion and blameworthy action.
The second verse (Q. 16: 28) describes the state of the unjust disbelievers during the
agonies of death and the advent of angels to take their evil lives. They will be
engrossed in a little make-believe of their unconvincing submission and obedience on
the Day of Judgment, wrongly saying: We did nothing wrong, but Allah knows best
what they have truly done.
Translations:
A:
- When the angels take the souls of those who have wronged themselves,7 they ask
them, What circumstances were you in? They reply, We were oppressed in this
land, and the angels say, ut was Gods earth not spacious enough for you to
migrate to some other place? These people will have Hell as their refuge, an evil
destination. (Q 4: 97)
- Those whose lives the angels take while they are wronging themselves will show
submission: We were doing no evil. Yes you were: God knows fully everything
that you have done, so enter the gates of Hell. There you will remain the home of the
arrogant is evil indeed. Q 16: 28
B:
- Verily! As for those who live under oppression (willingly), the angels
(reprehensively) will ask them, on their deathbed, What circumstances you were
7
297
in? They will reply, "We were oppressed in this land." (Cynically), the angels will
reply: "Was not Allah's earth spacious enough for you to migrate to some other
place?" Hell will be their abode, an evil destination. (Q4: 97)
- Those who associate partners with Allah undergo an extreme death agony by
the angels, whom (the disbelievers) submissively-but-falsely address, saying: "We
were doing no evil." "No! (You were.) Allah knows fully everything that you have
done." (Q 16: 28)
C:
- Surely the ones whom the Angels take up, (while) they are unjust to themselves- (to
them) (the Angels) say, "In what (condition) were you?"8 They say, "We were deemed
weak in the earth." They (the Angels) say, "Was not the earth of Allah wide so that
you (could) have emigrated in it?" So, the abode for those (men) is Hell, and what an
odious Destiny! (Q 4: 97)
- (The disbelievers are the ones) whom the Angels take up while they are unjust to
themselves. So they will cast forth full submissiveness. "In no way were we doing
anything odious." Yes indeed, (yet) surely Allah is Ever-Knowing of whatever you
were doing. (Q 16: 28)
D:
- Verily! As for those whom the angels take (in death) while they are wronging
themselves (as they stayed among the disbelievers even though emigration was
obligatory for them), they (angels) say (to them): "In what (condition) were you?"
They reply: "We were weak and oppressed on earth." They (angels) say: "Was not the
earth of Allah spacious enough for you to emigrate therein?" Such men will find their
abode in Hell - What an evil destination! (Q 4: 97)
- Those whose lives the angels take while they are doing wrong to themselves (by
disbelief and by associating partners in worship with Allah and by committing all
kinds of crimes and evil deeds)." Then, they will make (false) submission (saying):
"We used not to do any evil." (The angels will reply): "Yes! Truly, Allah is AllKnower of what you used to do. (Q 16: 28)
E:
- Those who accepted oppression for themselves, surely when the angels seize their
souls saying, Why have you accepted this oppression? They shall say, We were
deemed weak in the land. The angels shall say, Was GODs earth not spacious
enough for you to emigrate from that oppression? So these it is whose abode is Hell,
an evil resort. (Q 4: 97)
- Those who wronged themselves, when the angels will come to seize their souls
they will surrender, saying: We were doing no evil, the angels say: Yes indeed,
GOD is All-knowing of what you were doing. Q. 16: 28)
1-Regarding the rendering of the two morpho-semantic shifts tawaffhum and
tatawaffhum, which translation seems to be the most appropriate one? Why?
298
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2-If you are not satisfied with any of the previous translations of the underlined
words, kindly explain your choice!
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
299
4- The Original:
(
)3 :( )
)4 : ) (
Transliteration:
[inna rabbakum Allah alladh khalaq al-samwt wa-al-ar f sittat ayym thumma
istawa cala al-carsh yudabbir al-amr ma-min shafc illa min bacd idhnih dhlikum
Allah rabbukum fa-cbudh afala tadhakkarn] (Q 10: 3)
[Allah alladh khalaq al-samwt wa-al-ar wa-ma baynahuma f sittat ayym
thumma istawa cala al-carsh malakum min dnih min waliyy wala shafc afala
tatadhakkarn] (Q 32: 4)
Occasions of Revelation:
Although the two contexts apparently seem similar, the context in Srat al-Sajdah is
detailed and comprehensive. To explain, there are much detailed descriptions in it. For
example, the Sra begins with the creation of the heavens and the earth, what is
between them, the establishment of Allah above the Throne and the question of
protection and intercession. Also, the verse that follows describes the mighty and
power of the Creator, Who manages and takes over the affairs of the entire universe.
Finally, it concludes with the period the ascension of these affairs to Him takes.
As for Srat Ynus, the events and descriptions are concise and less detailed. In other
words, the context briefly describes the creation of the heavens and the earth, the
establishment of Allah above the Throne, the management of all things, and, finally,
the impossibility of intercession except after Allahs permission.
Translations9
A:
- Your Lord is God who created the heavens and earth in six Days 10, then established
Himself on the Throne, governing everything; there is no one that can intercede with
Him, unless He has first given permission: this is God your Lord so worship Him.
How can you not take heed? (Q 10: 3)
- It is God who created the heavens and the earth and everything between them in six
Days. Then He established Himself on the Throne. You [people] have no one but Him
to protect you and no one to intercede for you, so why do you not take heed? (Q 32:
4)
C:
- Surely your Lord is Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth in six days;
thereafter He leveled Himself upon the Throne, in a way that suits Him, conducting
the Command. In no way is there any intercessor (ever) excepting ever after His
permission. That is Allah, your Lord; so worship Him. Will you then not be
mindful? (Q 10: 3)
- Allah is (The One) Who created the heavens and the earth, and whatever is between
them in six days; thereafter He leveled Himself upon the Throne, in a way that suits
9
10
300
Him. In no way do you have, apart from Him, any patron nor any intercessor. Will
you then not remind yourselves? (Q 32: 4)
C:
- Surely, your Lord is Allah Who created the heavens and the earth in six Days and
then Istawa (rose over) the Throne (really in a manner that suits His Majesty),
disposing the affair of all things. No intercessor (can plead with Him) except after His
Leave. That is Allah, your Lord; so worship Him (Alone). Then, will you not
remember? (Q 10: 3)
- Allah it is He Who has created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between
them in six Days. Then He Istawa (rose over) the Throne (in a manner that suits His
Majesty). You (mankind) have none, besides Him, as a Wali (protector or helper etc.)
or an intercessor. Will you not then remember (or be admonished)? (Q 32: 4)
D:
- Indeed your Lord is GOD, Who created the heavens and the earth in six periods of
time, and is firmly established on the Throne, directing the affairs. No intercessor,
except by His leave. This is GOD your Lord, therefore worship Him, will you be
admonished? (Q 10: 3)
- GOD is the One Who created the heavens and the earth and all that is between them,
in six periods of time, and is established on the Throne. You have no guardian or
intercessor other than Him, will you not be admonished? (Q 32: 4)
1-Regarding the rendering of the two morpho-semantic shifts afala tadhakkarn
and afala tatadhakkarn, which translation seems to be the most appropriate
one? Why?
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2-If you are not satisfied with any of the previous translations of the underlined
words, kindly explain your choice!
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301
5- The Original:
)42 ) ( (
)94 ) (
(
Transliteration:
[wa-laqad arsalna ila umamin min qabilika fa-akhdhnahum bi-al-bas wal-al-arr
la-calahum yataarracn] (Q. 6: 42)
[wa-ma arsalna f qaryatin min nabiyn illa akhdhna ahlaha bi-al-bas wal-alarr
la-calahum yaarracn] (Q. 7: 94)
Occasions of Revelation:
Srat al-Anc m is totally different form Srat al-Acr f. To explain, the former narrates
the stories of a group of messengers with their peoples, and thus the intended message
is generalized to state a universalized wisdom, which resulted from the long journey
of messengers to their peoples at the revelation era and afterwards.
On the contrary, Srat al-Acr f is much concerned with the state of dacwah (preaching
the principles and teachings of Islam commissioned by Prophet Muammad, and his
polemic with the opponents. Accordingly, the discourse is informative to: 1) relieve
his preaching-induced sufferings; 2) fortify his heart and strengthen his soul; 3) and,
finally, intimidate the infidels of Quraysh and admonish them on the other hand.
Translations
A:
- We sent messengers before you [Prophet] to many communities and afflicted their
people with suffering and hardships, so that they could learn humility. (Q 6: 42)
- Whenever We sent a prophet to a town, We afflicted its [disbelieving]11 people with
suffering and hardships, so that they might humble themselves [before God] (Q 7:
94)
B:
- We have already sent Messengers to nations before you, and We tested them with
good and bad so they might be willingly submissive. (Q 6: 42)
- And whenever We sent a Prophet to any town, We first afflicted its people with
adversity and calamity, so that they might forcibly humble themselves. (Q 7: 94)
C:
- And indeed We have already sent to nations even before you; so We took them (to
task) with misery and tribulation, that possibly they would supplicate to (Us). (Q 6:
42)
- And in no way have We sent any Prophet into a town except that We took its
population with misery and tribulation that possibly they would earnestly
supplicate (Us). (Q 7: 94)
11
302
D:
- Verily, We sent (Messengers) to many nations before you (O Muhammad SAW).
And We seized them with extreme poverty (or loss in wealth) and loss in health with
calamities so that they might humble themselves (believe with humility). (Q 6: 42)
- And We sent no Prophet unto any town (and they denied him), but We seized its
people with suffering from extreme poverty (or loss in wealth) and loss of health and
calamities, so that they might humiliate themselves (and repent to Allah). (Q 7: 94)
E:
- We have already sent Messengers to nations before you, and We tested them with
good and bad so they might be submissive. (Q 6: 42)
- And whenever We sent a Prophet to any town, We first afflicted its people with
adversity and calamity, that they might humble themselves. (Q 7: 94)
1-Regarding the rendering of the two morpho-semantic shifts yataarracn and
yaarracn, which translation seems to be the most appropriate one? Why?
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2-If you are not satisfied with any of the previous translations of the underlined
words, kindly explain your choice!
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303
6- The Original:
(
)222 :) (
Transliteration:
[wa-yasalnak can al-mad qul huwa adha fa-ctazil al-nis f al-mad wa-la
taqrabhunna atta yahurna fa-idha taahharna fa-thunna min hayth amarakum
Allah inna Allah yuibb al-tawwabn wa-yuibb al-mutaahhirn] (Q. 2: 222)
Occasions of Revelation:
The people of the pre-Islamic era, specially the Jews12 and Magus13, used to abandon
their menstruating women during meals, i.e., eating, drinking or sitting together or
dwelling at the same place. Consequently, the early Muslims misunderstood the verse
at the time of revelation. They caused their wives to go outdoors during menses in
bitter winters. Having known that, the Prophet (pbuh) simply explained the intended
message. He advised them to avoid having sexual intercourse with their wives during
menses, and not to force them to stay outdoors as the non-Arabs used to do.
Accordingly, this verse moderately commands the Muslims neither to have anal sex
with their wives during menses, nor to abandon them physically, but to avoid only
sexual intercourse during their periods.14
Translations:
A: They ask you [Prophet] about menstruation. Say, Menstruation is a painful
condition, so keep away from women during it. Do not approach them until they are
cleansed; when they are cleansed, you may approach them as God has ordained.15
God loves those who turn to Him, and He loves those who keep themselves clean.
B: They ask you about menstruation. Say, 'it's harmful'. So, avoid women sexually
until the blood ceases. And do not approach them properly as stated by Allah unless
ghusl, [i.e., washing the whole body in a prescribed manner] is performed
afterwards. Surely, Allah loves the oft-repentant and loves the physically pure.
12
Al- aghaw d. 516/1122 , Maclim al-tanzl, p. 126. In this regards, Ibn cshr, in his book entitled
Al-Tarr, vol. 2, p. 364, quotes several verses from the Book of Leviticus, Ch. 15, as follows: "19 And
if a woman have an issue, and her issue in her flesh be blood, she shall be put apart seven days: and
whosoever toucheth her shall be unclean until the even. 20 And everything that she lieth upon in her
separation shall be unclean: everything also that she sitteth upon shall be unclean. 21 And whosoever
toucheth her bed shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the even. 22
And whosoever toucheth anything that she sat upon shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water,
and be unclean until the even. 23 And if it be on her bed, or on anything whereon she sitteth, when he
toucheth it, he shall be unclean until the even. 24 And if any man lieth with her at all, and her flowers
be upon him, he shall be unclean seven days; and all the bed whereon he lieth shall be unclean."
http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Leviticus-15-23/
13
Al-Zamakhshar d. 538/1144 , al-Kashshf, vol. 1, p. 432.
14
Al-abar d. 310/923 , Jmic al-bayn, vol. 3, p. 721.
15
The Arabic expressions used here are clear euphemisms for do not have sexual intercourse with
them.
304
C: And they ask you concerning menstruation. Say, "It is hurt; so keep apart from
women during menstruation, and do not draw near them till they are pure. So, when
they have purified themselves, then come up to them16 from where Allah has
commanded you." Surely Allah loves the ones constantly repenting, and He loves the
ones constantly purifying themselves.
E: And they (the believers) question you concerning menstruation, say: "It is a harm",
so keep away from women during their courses, and do not approach them until
they are clean, but when they have cleansed themselves, then approach them as GOD
has commanded you. Surely GOD loves those who repent constantly, and He loves
those who keep themselves pure and clean.
1-Regarding the rendering of the two morpho-semantic shifts yahurna and
taahharna, which translation seems to be the most appropriate one? Why?
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2-If you are not satisfied with any of the previous translations of the underlined
words, kindly explain your choice!
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16
7- The Original:
)97/ ) (
(
Transliteration:
[fa-ma isac an yaharhu wa-ma istac lahu naqba] (Q 18: 97)
Occasions of Revelation:
The verse describes the hopeless trials of Gog and Magog to surmount the barrier,
built by Dh al-Qarnayn (lit. the possessor of the two horns, and recently identified as
Alexander the Great) to prevent them from attacking his people. Obviously, the two
verbs occur in a negative context, indicating the inability of someone to fulfill
something due to the lack of the conditions of al-isticah (ability), i.e., 1) a specific
structure for the doer; 2) conceptualization of the action; 3) material susceptible to
influence; and 4) an instrument if the action is automatic.17 In addition, the first form,
i.e., fa-ma isc, indicates someones early awareness of the lack of such conditions,
and, thus, his attempt diminishes or collapses. As for the second form, i.e., wa-ma
istac, it indicates someone's ultimately misguided awareness of the availability of
such conditions, and, thus, his attempts are first resumed and his efforts are to be
continued, resulting in inevitable failure at the end before admitting his inability.18
Translations
A: Their enemies could not scale the barrier, nor could they pierce it. (Q18: 97)
B: So, they did not give in to trial by surmounting (the barrier), nor did they give
up piercing it. (Q18: 97)
C: So, in no way were they able to surmount it, and in no way were they able to
bore it. (Q18: 97)
D: So they [Ya'juj and Ma'juj (Gog and Magog)] could not scale it or dig through it.
(Q18: 97)
E: So they were unable to scale it or to cut through it. (Q18: 97)
1-Regarding the rendering of the two morpho-semantic shifts isac and istac,
which translation seems to be the most appropriate one? Why?
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17
18
306
2-If you are not satisfied with any of the previous translations of the underlined
words, kindly explain your choice!
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307
8- The Original:
)3-1 :) ( * * (
Transliteration:
[wayl lil-muaffifn* alladhna idha iktl cala al-ns yastawfn* wa-idha klhum
aw wazanhum yukhsirn] (Q. 83: 1-3)
Occasions of Revelation:
The Qur'anic context refers here to a certain type of merchants or vendors whom the
Qur'an condemns; it's a category of Quraysh chiefs, who had an upper hand and
authority, being able to force people to do whatever they want. They practice al-kayl
(weighing) with coercion cala al-ns (over people), due to their high rank or authority,
enabling them to have full weight or measure. It is not meant here that they get their
due share or weight fairly, as the sra starts with intimidation and warning, i.e., wayl
lil-muaffifn, and declaring war against them. Thus, the intended message is that they
get their excessive and unworthy share by force and coercion.
Translations:
A: Woe to those who give short measure, who demand of other people full measure
for themselves, but give less than they should when it is they who weigh or measure
for others! (Q 83: 1-3)
B: Woe to the defrauders:
Who take full measure when buying;
And give less than due when selling. (Q 83: 1-3)
C: Woe to the stinters, who, when they measure against mankind,19 take full
(measure), and when they measure for them or weigh for them,20 they cause them
loss. (Q 83: 1-3)
D: Woe to Al-Mutaffifn (those who give less in measure and weight). Those who,
when they have to receive by measure from men, demand full measure, and when
they have to give by measure or weight to (other) men, give less than due. (Q 83:
1-3)
E: Woe to those who give insufficient measure; who when others measure for them
they take full measure; But when they measure out, or weigh out for others, they
give less than due. (Q 83: 1-3)
19
20
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309
9- The Original:
(
)142 :) (
Transliteration:
[inna al-munfiqn yukhdicn Allah wa-huwa khdichum wa-idha qm ila al-salh
qm kusla yurn al-ns wa-la yadhkurn Allah illa qalila ] (Q. 4: 142)
Occasions of Revelation:
The verse refers concisely, but precisely, to the long and various histories of
hypocrites' cunning schemes against the believers, who abide by the rulings of Allah
and the teachings of His messenger. To explain, the hypocrites deceptively conceived
that their evil plot against the believers had a favorable outcome. In doing so, they
enjoyed life to the full, and indulged in unrestrained pleasures and desires, mistakenly
believing that they could scheme against Allah (see: Q. 57: 13-15).
Translations:
A: The hypocrites try to deceive God, but it is He Who causes them to be
deceived. When they stand up to pray, they do so sluggishly, showing off in front of
people, and remember God only a little.
B- Verily, the hypocrites try to deceive Allah, but in vain; they perform prayers
inactively; they pretend to be worshippers before people; they rarely glorify Allah.
C: Surely the hypocrites try to deceive Allah, and He is deceiving them; and when
they rise up for prayer, they rise up lazily, showing off to (other) men, and they do not
remember Allah except a little.
D: Verily, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allh, but it is He Who deceives them.21
And when they stand up for As-Salt (the prayer), they stand with laziness and to be
seen of men, and they do not remember Allh but little.
E: Surely the hypocrites seek to deceive God, but God is leaving them to deceive
themselves, and if they stand up pray, they stand up lazily to be seen of the people,
and do not remember God except a little.
21
310
311
312
22
23
313
2-If you are not satisfied with any of the previous translations of the underlined
words, kindly explain your choice!
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314
24
They claimed to have males and claimed Allah has females; Cf. Ibn cshr, Al-Tarr, vol. 27, p.
106.
25
Because the pagan Arabs regarded daughters as a humiliation, the Qur'an argues with them according
to their own logic that it was particularly illogical of them to attribute daughters to God. See also 16:
57-62; 43: 16-20.
315
2-If you are not satisfied with any of the previous translations of the underlined
words, kindly explain your choice!
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316
:
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