INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON
REAL TIME CONCEPTS OF SOFTWARE AND
NETWORKING DOMAIN
Partial Fulfillment of

B. Tech Computer Science & Engineering

Submitted by
S ABINAYA

Reg. No: 1031240070

III Year, CSE Department
Undergone training at
HCL Career Development Centre,
Chennai
Submitted to

Mrs.Niveditha B.E,M.E,MIET
Asst. Prof. CSE

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

SRM University
CERTIFICATE
1

This is to certify that S.Abinaya, Register number 1031240070,B.Tech (CSE),

III year Student of SRM University, Vadapalani, Chennai has successfully completed her
Industrial Training Program from 14 December 2013 to 28 December 2013 (15 days) as
partial fulfillment of B.Tech Course.

Course Coordinator

Head of the Department

Mrs.Niveditha B.E,M.E,MIET

Mrs.B.Padmavathi B.E,M.E, (PHD)

Asst. Prof., CSE

HOD, CSE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2

I want to thank HCL Career Development Centre, Chennai for providing me with an
opportunity to do an inplant training in their organization. I wish to thank all my guides over
there for helping me complete the training by providing me with valuable inputs.
I would like to thank Mrs.B.Padmavathi HOD, CSE, SRM University, Vadapalani, for
the constant encouragement and support she gave to the students to take up innovative
projects and training courses.
I wish to extend my gratitude to Mrs.Niveditha, Asst. Professor,CSE, for her constant
advice on the various course-related issues.

INDEX
3

S.
No.

Topic

Page

Certificate

Inplant Training Certification Letter

Acknowledgements

About the company

Abstract

WiFi,OSI Model

2G,3G,4G

15

RJ45

20

Skinput technology

22

10

Embedded Systems

23

11

Micro controllers

27

12

Serial communications

28

13

References

30

ABOUT THE COMPANY

HCL Learning Ltd. is a 100% owned subsidiary of HCL InfosPystems Ltd. HCL
Learning covers the entire spectrum of education and training requirements across schools,
colleges, individuals and enterprises. HCL Learning addresses the education and training
needs through 2 business verticals:
K-12
Higher Education & Enterprise Learning
HCL Career Development Centre (CDC) is the training arm of HCL Learning Ltd. It offers a
complete spectrum of quality training programs on software, hardware, networking, industrial
/project training and various other new-age courses as per the trends & demands of the
industry.
It offers training for individuals,engineering colleges and polytechnichnics.It also offers
corporate trainings and government trainings.
At CDC we believe that the students should be given a hand on experience and thus all our
courses are a blend of Theoretical and practical implementation .HCL CDC also offers global
certifications in association with leading organizations worldwide.
Course curriculum has been designed in a manner to increase the employability factor of the
students. Under the aegis of HCL and strong associations within the industry CDC is able to
provide better placement opportunities to the students.

ABSTRACT
Networking encompasses a variety of tasks related to the communication of information on
networks; it has a substantial economic and societal impact on a broad range of areas
including transportation systems, wired and wireless communications and a range of Internet
applications. As transportation and communication networks become increasingly more
complex, the ever increasing demand for congestion control, higher traffic capacity, quality of
service, robustness and reduced energy consumption requires new tools and methods to meet
these conflicting requirements. The new methodology should serve for gaining better
understanding of the properties of networking systems at the macroscopic level, as well as for
the development of new principled optimization and management algorithms at the
microscopic level.We have new introductions like 3G,4G,wi-fi technology etc.. Also here our
report includes about new sensor technology and about OSI layers.
The report also explains about Embedded systems and micro controller serial
communication.Embedded systems are often distributed and deployed in various
environments. Wireless sensor nodes deposited in various places provide light, temperature,
humidity, and other measurements. Wireless nodes attached to circuits or appliances sense the
current or control the usage. Wireless sensor networks are application-specific. Because of
this they have to involve both software and hardware. They also use protocols, which relate to
both the application and wireless network. The applications using wireless sensor networks
are the consumer devices supporting multimedia applications, for example, personal digital
assistants, network computers, and mobile communication devices. Emerging embedded
systems run multiple applications such as Web-browsers, audio and video communication
applications. We describe design issues in wireless networks to support sensors and
embedded systems communication and information processing. Also here we can see about
various types of connectors.This review aims at presenting an overview of tools and methods
that have been developed today.

WiFi
HISTORY OF WIFI
Wi-Fi, also spelled Wifi or WiFi, is a local area wireless technology that allows an electronic
device to exchange data or connect to the internet using 2.4 GHz UHF and 5 GHz SHF radio
waves. Full form of WiFi is Wireless Fidelity.
The name is a trademark name, and is a play on the audiophile term Hi-Fi. The Wi-Fi
Alliance defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are based
on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standard.
However, since most modern WLANs are based on these standards, the term "Wi-Fi" is used
in general English as a synonym for "WLAN". Only Wi-Fi products that complete Wi-Fi
Alliance interoperability certification testing successfully may use the "Wi-Fi CERTIFIED"
trademark.
Many devices can use Wi-Fi, e.g., personal computers, video-game consoles, smartphones,
some digital cameras, tablet computers and digital audio players.
Hotspot coverage can comprise an area as small as a single room with walls that block radio
waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access
points.
Wi-Fi can be less secure than wired connections because an intruder does not need a physical
connection. Web pages that use SSL are secure but unencrypted internet access can easily be
detected by intruders. Because of this, Wi-Fi has adopted various encryption technologies.
An optional feature added in 2007, called Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS), had a serious flaw
that allowed an attacker to recover the router's password. The Wi-Fi Alliance has since
updated its test plan and certification program to ensure all newly certified devices resist
attacks.

Uses
Having the ability to connect to the internet anywhere we go is undoubtedly awesome, but it
isn't the only gift Wi-Fi technology has given us. Here are our 10 favorite uses for Wi-Fi that
go beyond accessing the web.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Sync Your Music Library, Photo Library, or Other Files with Your Smartphone
Tell Your Phone When Its Home (or Not)
Wirelessly Transfer Photos from Your Digital Camera
Stream Audio to Any Speakers in the House
Share Files with Nearby Computers

Advantages
7

Wi-Fi allows cheaper deployment of local area networks (LANs). Also spaces where cables
cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.
Manufacturers are building wireless network adapters into most laptops. The price of chipsets
or Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even
more devices.
Different competitive brands of access points and client network-interfaces can inter-operate
at a basic level of service. Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi Alliance are
backwards compatible. Unlike mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere
in the world.
Wi-Fi Protected Access encryption (WPA2) is considered secure, provided a strong
passphrase is used. New protocols for quality-of-service (WMM) make Wi-Fi more suitable
for latency-sensitive applications (such as voice and video). Power saving mechanisms
(WMM Power Save) extend battery life.

Limitations
Spectrum assignments and operational limitations are not consistent worldwide: Australia and
Europe allow for an additional two channels beyond those permitted in the US for the
2.4 GHz band (113 vs. 111), while Japan has one more on top of that (114).
A Wi-Fi signal occupies five channels in the 2.4 GHz band. Any two channel numbers that
differ by five or more, such as 2 and 7, do not overlap. The oft-repeated adage that channels
1, 6, and 11 are the only non-overlapping channels is, therefore, not accurate. Channels 1, 6,
and 11 are the only group of three non-overlapping channels in North America and the United
Kingdom. In Europe and Japan using Channels 1, 5, 9, and 13 for 802.11g and 802.11n is
recommended.Equivalentisotropically radiated power (EIRP) in the EU is limited to 20 dBm
(100 mW).
The current 'fastest' norm, 802.11n, uses double the radio spectrum/bandwidth (40 MHz)
compared to 802.11a or 802.11g (20 MHz). This means there can be only one 802.11n
network on the 2.4 GHz band at a given location, without interference to/from other WLAN
traffic. 802.11n can also be set to use 20 MHz bandwidth only to prevent interference in
dense community.

Many newer consumer devices support the latest 802.11ac standard, which uses the 5 GHz
band and is capable of multi-station WLAN throughput of at least 1 gigabit per second.
According to a study, devices with the 802.11ac specification are expected to be common by
2015 with an estimated one billion spread around the world.

Data security risks

The most common wireless encryption-standard, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), has been
shown to be easily breakable even when correctly configured. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA
and WPA2) encryption, which became available in devices in 2003, aimed to solve this
problem. Wi-Fi access points typically default to an encryption-free (open) mode. Novice
users benefit from a zero-configuration device that works out-of-the-box, but this default
does not enable any wireless security, providing open wireless access to a LAN. To turn
security on requires the user to configure the device, usually via a software graphical user
interface (GUI). On unencrypted Wi-Fi networks connecting devices can monitor and record
data (including personal information). Such networks can only be secured by using other
means of protection, such as a VPN or secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Transport
Layer Security (HTTPS).

Network Security
The main issue with wireless network security is its simplified access to the network
compared to traditional wired networks such as Ethernet. With wired networking, one must
either gain access to a building (physically connecting into the internal network), or break
through an external firewall. To enable Wi-Fi, one merely needs to be within the range of the
Wi-Fi network. Most business networks protect sensitive data and systems by attempting to
disallow external access. Enabling wireless connectivity reduces security if the network uses
inadequate or no encryption.
An attacker who has gained access to a Wi-Fi network router can initiate a DNS spoofing
attack against any other user of the network by forging a response before the queried DNS
server has a chance to reply.

Securing methods
A common measure to deter unauthorized users involves hiding the access point's name by
disabling the SSID broadcast. While effective against the casual user, it is ineffective as a
9

security method because the SSID is broadcast in the clear in response to a client SSID query.
Another method is to only allow computers with known MAC addresses to join the network,
but determined eavesdroppers may be able to join the network by spoofing an authorized
address.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption was designed to protect against casual snooping
but it is no longer considered secure. Tools such as AirSnort or Aircrack-ng can quickly
recover WEP encryption keys. Because of WEP's weakness the Wi-Fi Alliance approved WiFi Protected Access (WPA) which uses TKIP. WPA was specifically designed to work with
older equipment usually through a firmware upgrade. Though more secure than WEP, WPA
has known vulnerabilities.
The more secure WPA2 using Advanced Encryption Standard was introduced in 2004 and is
supported by most new Wi-Fi devices. WPA2 is fully compatible with WPA.
A flaw in a feature added to Wi-Fi in 2007, called Wi-Fi Protected Setup, allows WPA and
WPA2 security to be bypassed and effectively broken in many situations. The only remedy as
of late 2011 is to turn off Wi-Fi Protected Setup,[which is not always possible.

Piggybacking
Piggybacking refers to access to a wireless Internet connection by bringing one's own
computer within the range of another's wireless connection, and using that service without the
subscriber's explicit permission or knowledge.
During the early popular adoption of 802.11, providing open access points for anyone within
range to use was encouraged to cultivate wireless community networks, particularly since
people on average use only a fraction of their downstream bandwidth at any given time.
Recreational logging and mapping of other people's access points has become known as
wardriving. Indeed, many access points are intentionally installed without security turned on
so that they can be used as a free service. Providing access to one's Internet connection in this
fashion may breach the Terms of Service or contract with the ISP. These activities do not
result in sanctions in most jurisdictions; however, legislation and case law differ considerably
across the world. A proposal to leave graffiti describing available services was called
warchalking A Florida court case determined that owner laziness was not to be a valid excuse.
10

Piggybacking often occurs unintentionally, since most access points are configured without
encryption by default and operating systems can be configured to connect automatically to
any available wireless network. A user who happens to start up a laptop in the vicinity of an
access point may find the computer has joined the network without any visible indication.
Moreover, a user intending to join one network may instead end up on another one if the
latter has a stronger signal. In combination with automatic discovery of other network
resources (see DHCP and Zeroconf) this could possibly lead wireless users to send sensitive
data to the wrong middle-man when seeking a destination (see Man-in-the-middle attack).

OSI MODEL
Introduction
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI) is a conceptual model that characterizes
and standardizes the internal functions of a communication system by partitioning it into
abstraction layers. The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification
ISO/IEC 7498-1.
The model groups communication functions into seven logical layers. A layer serves the layer
above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free
communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it
calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of that path.
Two instances at one layer are connected by a horizontal connection on that layer.

Description of OSI layers

At each level (N), two entities (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means
of a layer-N protocol. A service data unit (SDU) is the payload of a PDU, transmitted
unchanged to a peer.

11

The SDU is a unit of data that is passed down from one OSI layer to the next-lower layer, and
which the lower layer encapsulates into a PDU. Layer N-1 adds a header or a footer, or both,
to the SDU, composing a PDU of layer N-1. The added framing make it possible to get the
data from a source to a destination. The PDU at a layer N thus becomes the SDU of layer NSome orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve every layer.Security
services are not related to a specific layer: they can be related by several layers, as defined by
ITU-T X.800 Recommendations.
These services are aimed to improve the CIA triad (confidentiality, integrity, and availability)
of transmitted data. In practice, the availability of communication service is determined by
the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate
choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.

OSI Model
Data unit

Layer

Function

7.
Network process to application
Application

Data
Host
layers

Segments

Data representation, encryption and decryption,

6.
convert machine dependent data to machine
Presentation
independent data

5. Session

Interhost communication, managing sessions between

applications

4. Transport

Reliable delivery of packets between points on a

network.

Media
Addressing, routing and (not necessarily reliable)
Packet/Datagram 3. Network
layers
delivery of datagrams between points on a network.
Bit/Frame

2. Data link A reliable direct point-to-point data connection.

Bit

1. Physical A (not necessarily reliable) direct point-to-point data

12

connection.

Layer 1: physical layer

The physical layer has the following major functions:

it defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines
the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (e.g., a copper
or fiber optical cable). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance,
cable specifications, signal timing, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host bus
adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more.

it defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two directly
connected nodes over a communications medium.

it may define the protocol for flow control.

it defines transmission mode i.e. simplex,half,full duplex

it defines topology

it defines a protocol for the provision of a (not necessarily reliable) connection

between two directly connected nodes, and the modulation or conversion between the
representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals
transmitted over the physical communications channel. This channel can involve
physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or a wireless radio link.

Layer 2: data link layer

13

The data link layer provides a reliable link between two directly connected nodes, by
detecting and possibly correcting errors that may occur in the physical layer. The data link
layer is divided into two sublayers:

Media Access Control (MAC) layer - responsible for controlling how computers in
the network gain access to data and permission to transmit it.

Logical Link Control (LLC) layer - control error checking and packet
synchronization.

Layer 3: network layer

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable
length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected to the same
network. A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every
node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other
nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the
destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver ("route") the message to the
destination node. In addition to message routing, the network may (or may not) implement
message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments, delivering each fragment
by a separate route and reassembling the fragments, report delivery errors, etc.

Layer 4: transport layer

The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variablelength data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more networks, while
maintaining the quality of service functions.
An example of a transport-layer protocol in the standard Internet stack is Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), usually built on top of the Internet Protocol (IP).

Layer 5: session layer

The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes,
manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides

14

for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing,

adjournment, termination, and restart procedures.

Layer 6: presentation layer

The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the
application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service
provides a big mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data
units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the protocol stack.

Layer 7: application layer

The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer
interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such
application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model.

2G
2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology. Second generation
2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard
inFinland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991. Three primary benefits of 2G
networks over their predecessors were that phone conversations were digitally encrypted; 2G
systems were significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater mobile
phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS text
messages. 2G technologies enabled the various mobile phone networks to provide the
services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS (multi media messages). All text
messages sent over 2G are digitally encrypted, allowing for the transfer of data in such a way
that only the intended receiver can receive and read it.
After 2G was launched, the previous mobile telephone systems were retrospectively
dubbed 1G. While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, radio signals on 2G networks
aredigital. Both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the
handsets) to the rest of the telephone system.

15

2G has been superseded by newer technologies such as 2.5G, 2.75G, 3G, and 4G; however,
2G networks are still used in many parts of the world.

Capacity
Using digital signals between the handsets and the towers increases system capacity in two
key ways:

Digital voice data can be compressed and multiplexed much more effectively than
analog voice encodings through the use of various codecs, allowing more calls to be
transmitted in same amount of radio bandwidth.

The digital systems were designed to emit less radio power from the handsets. This
meant that cells had to be smaller, so more cells had to be placed in the same amount of
space. This was possible because cell towers and related equipment had become less
expensive.

2G Data Transmission Capacity:

With GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), you have a theoretical transfer speed of
max. 50 kbit/s (40 kbit/s in practice).

With EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution), you have a theoretical
transfer speed of max. 250 kbit/s (150 kbit/s in practice).

Disadvantages

In less populous areas, the weaker digital signal transmitted by a cellular phone may
not be sufficient to reach a cell tower. This tends to be a particular problem on 2G
systems deployed on higher frequencies, but is mostly not a problem on 2G systems
deployed on lower frequencies. National regulations differ greatly among countries which
dictate where 2G can be deployed.

Analog has a smooth decay curve, but digital has a jagged steppy one. This can be
both an advantage and a disadvantage. Under good conditions, digital will sound better.
Under slightly worse conditions, analog will experience static, while digital has

16

occasional dropouts. As conditions worsen, though, digital will start to completely fail, by
dropping calls or being unintelligible, while analog slowly gets worse, generally holding
a call longer and allowing at least some of the audio transmitted to be understood.

Advantage

While digital calls tend to be free of static and background noise, the lossy
compression they use reduces their quality, meaning that the range of sound that they
convey is reduced. Talking on a digital cell phone, a caller hears less of the tonality of
someone's voice.

2G Shut down
Various carriers such as AT&T have made announcements that 2G GSM technology in the
United States is in the process of being shut down so that carriers can reclaim those radio
bands and re-purpose them for future technology needs. The shut down will be complete by
the end of 2016. All 2G GSM devices will lose service at some point between now and the
end of 2016.
This shut down is having a notable impact on the electronic security industry where many 2G
GSM radios are in use for alarm signal communication to Central Station dispatch centers.
2G GSM radios must be replaced by newer generation radios to avoid service outages.

3G
3G, short form of third Generation, is the third generation of mobile telecommunications
technology. This is based on a set of standards used for mobile devices and mobile
telecommunications use services and networks that comply with the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000

(IMT-2000) specifications

by

the International

Telecommunication Union. 3G finds application in wireless voice telephony, mobile

Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile TV.
3G telecommunication networks support services that provide an information transfer rate of
at least 200 kbit/s. Later 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also providemobile
broadband access of several Mbit/s to smartphones and mobile modems in laptop computers.

17

This ensures it can be applied to wireless voice telephony, mobile Internetaccess, fixed
wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile TV technologies.
A new generation of cellular standards has appeared approximately every tenth year
since 1G systems were introduced in 1981/1982. Each generation is characterized by new
frequency bands, higher data rates and nonbackward-compatible transmission technology.
The first 3G networks were introduced in 1998 and fourth generation "4G" networks in 2008.

Features
Data rates
ITU has not provided a clear definition of the data rate that users can expect from 3G
equipment or providers. Thus users sold 3G service may not be able to point to a standard and
say that the rates it specifies are not being met. While stating in commentary that "it is
expected that IMT-2000 will provide higher transmission rates: a minimum data rate of
2 Mbit/s for stationary or walking users, and 384 kbit/s in a moving vehicle," the ITU does
not actually clearly specify minimum required rates, nor required average rates, nor what
modesof the interfaces qualify as 3G, so variousdata rates are sold as '3G' in the market.
Compare with 3.5G and 4G.
In India, 3G is defined by telecom service providers as minimum 2 Mbit/s to maximum 28
Mbit/s.

Security
3G networks offer greater security than their 2G predecessors. By allowing the UE (User
Equipment) to authenticate the network it is attaching to, the user can be sure the network is
the intended one and not an impersonator. 3G networks use the KASUMI block
cipher instead of the older A5/1 stream cipher. However, a number of serious weaknesses in
the KASUMI cipher have been identified.
Inaddition to the 3G network infrastructure security, end-to-end security is offered when
application frameworks such as IMS are accessed, although this is not strictly a 3G property.

18

Applications of 3G
The bandwidth and location information available to 3G devices gives rise to applications not
previously available to mobile phone users. Some of the applications are:

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Location-based services

Mobile TV

Telemedicine

4G
4G,

short

for fourth

generation,

is

the

fourth

generation

of mobile

telecommunications technology, succeeding 3G and preceding 5G. A 4G system, in addition

to the usual voice and other services of 3G, provides mobile broadband Internet access, for
example to laptops with wireless modems, to smartphones, and to other mobile devices.
Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming
services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud computing.
Two 4G candidate systems are commercially deployed: the Mobile WiMAX standard (first
used in South Korea in 2007), and the first-release Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard (in
Oslo, Norway and Stockholm, Sweden since 2009). It has however been debated if these
first-release versions should be considered to be 4G or not, as discussed in the technical
definition section below.
In the United States, Sprint (previously Clearwire) has deployed Mobile WiMAX networks
since 2008, while MetroPCS became the first operator to offer LTE service in 2010. USB
wireless modems were among the first devices able to access these networks, with WiMAX
smartphones becoming available during 2010, and LTE smartphones arriving in 2011. The
19

consumer should note that 3G and 4G equipment made for other continents are not always
compatible, because of different frequency bands. Mobile WiMAX is currently (April 2012)
not available for the European market.

Advantages of 4G

The most obvious advantage of the 4G mobile network is its amazing speed.
Increased bandwidth leads to much faster data transfer speed, which is especially
advantageous for mobile devices. Users of the 4G network get the advantage of
superior, uninterrupted connectivity, especially for advanced tasks such as video chats
and conferences. Considering the younger generation of mobile device users, they can
stream music, videos and movies at a much faster rate than ever before and can also
easily share information online.

4G networks offer much more coverage than other systems such as WiFi, which
forces users to depend upon hotspots in each area you visit. Since 4G offers a
coverage of 30 miles and more, as also overlapping network ranges, users would be
assured of complete connectivity at all times.

RJ45
A registered jack (RJ) is a standardized physical network interfaceboth jack construction
and wiring patternfor connecting telecommunications or data equipment to a service
provided by a local exchange carrier or long distance carrier. The standard designs for these
connectors and their wiring are named RJ11, RJ14, RJ21,RJ35, RJ45, RJ48, etc. Many of
these interface standards are commonly used in North America, though some interfaces are
used world-wide. It is common to find a dash (hyphen) between the RJ and the number, but
the actual standard has no dash or hyphen.
The connectors used for registered jack installations are primarily the modular connector and
the 50-pin miniature ribbonconnector types. For example, RJ11 uses a six-position twoconductor connector (6P2C), RJ14 uses a six-position four-conductor (6P4C) modular plug
and jack, while RJ21 uses a 25-pair (50-pin) miniature ribbon connector.

Registered jacket types

20

Common types

6P4C crimp-on style connector commonly used for RJ11 and RJ14.The most commonly
recognized registered jack is the RJ11. This is a modular connector wired for one
analog telephone line, using the center two contacts of six available positions,
and is found in most homes and offices in most countries for single-line
telephones. RJ14 is similar to RJ11 but is wired for two lines and RJ25 has three
lines. RJ61 is a similar registered jack for four lines. Telephone line cords with
modular plugs are intended most often for RJ11 and RJ14.

The RJ45(S) jack is rarely used, but the designation RJ45 commonly refers to any 8P8C
modular connector.

List of official registered jacks

Code

RJ2MB

Connector
50-pin micro
ribbon

RJ11(C/W) 6P2C

RJ12(C/W
)
RJ13(C/W
)

Usage

212 telephone lines with make-busy arrangement

For one telephone line (6P4C if power on second

pair)

6P6C

For one telephone line ahead of the key system

6P4C

For one telephone line behind the key system

21

RJ14(C/W
)
RJ15C
RJ18(C/W
)

RJ21X

RJ25(C/W
)

6P4C

For two telephone lines (6P6C if power on third

pair)

3-pin weatherproof For one telephone line

6P6C

50-pin micro
ribbon

6P6C

For

one

telephone

line

with

make-busy

arrangement

For up to 25 lines

For three telephone lines

SKINPUT TECHNOLOGY
Skinput is an input technology that uses bio-acoustic sensing to localize finger taps on the
skin. When augmented with a pico-projector, the device can provide a direct
manipulation, graphical user interface on the body. The technology was developed by Chris
Harrison, Desney Tan, and Dan Morris, at Microsoft Research's Computational User
Experiences Group. Skinput represents one way to decouple input from electronic devices
with the aim of allowing devices to become smaller without simultaneously shrinking the
surface area on which input can be performed. While other systems, like SixthSense have
attempted this with computer vision, Skinput employs acoustics, which take advantage of the
human body's natural sound conductive properties (e.g., bone conduction). This allows the
body to be annexed as an input surface without the need for the skin to be invasively
instrumented with sensors, tracking markers, or other items.

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Microsoft has not commented on the future of the projects, other than it is under active
development. It has been reported this may not appear in commercial devices for at least 2
years.

OPERATION
Ten channels of acoustic data generated by three finger taps on the forearm, followed by three
taps on the wrist. The exponential average of the channels is shown in red. Segmented input
windows are highlighted in green. Note how different sensing elements are actuated by the
two locations.
Skinput has been publicly demonstrated as an armband, which sits on the biceps. This
prototype contains ten small cantilevered Piezo elements configured to be highly resonant,
sensitive to frequencies between 25 and 78 Hz. This configuration acts like a mechanical Fast
Fourier transform and provides extreme out-of-band noise suppression, allowing the system
to function even while the user is in motion. From the upper arm, the sensors can localize
finger taps provided to any part of the arm, all the way down to the finger tips, with
accuracies in excess of 90% (as high as 96% for five input locations). Classification is driven
by a support vector machine using a series of time-independent acoustic features that act like
a fingerprint. Like speech recognition systems, the Skinput recognition engine must be
trained on the "sound" of each input location before use. After training, locations can be
bound to interactive functions, such as pause/play song, increase/decrease music
volume, speed dial, and menu navigation.
With the addition of a pico-projector to the armband, Skinput allows users to interact with a
graphical user interface displayed directly on the skin. This enables several interaction
modalities, including button-based hierarchical navigation, list-based sliding navigation
(similar to an iPod/SmartPhone/MID), text/number entry (e.g., telephone number keypad),
and gaming (e.g., Tetris, Frogger).

EMBEDDED SYSTEM
An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger
mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as

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part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems
control many devices in common use today.
Properties typical of embedded computers when compared with general-purpose ones are e.g.
low power consumption, small size, rugged operating ranges and low per-unit cost. This
comes at the price of limited processing resources, which make them significantly more
difficult to program and to interface with.
Modern embedded systems are often based on microcontrollers (i.e. CPUs with integrated
memory or peripheral interfaces) but ordinary microprocessors (using external chips for
memory and peripheral interface circuits) are also still common, especially in more complex
systems. In either case, the processor(s) used may be types ranging from rather general
purpose to very specialised in certain class of computations, or even custom designed for the
application at hand. A common standard class of dedicated processors is the digital signal
processor (DSP).

Comparison between microprocessor and microcontrollers:

Microprocessor is an IC which has only the CPU inside them i.e. only the processing powers
such as Intels Pentium 1,2,3,4, core 2 duo, i3, i5 etc. These microprocessors dont have
RAM, ROM, and other peripheral on the chip. A system designer has to add them externally
to make them functional. Application of microprocessor includes Desktop PCs, Laptops,
notepads etc.
But this is not the case with Microcontrollers. Microcontroller has a CPU, in addition with a
fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other peripherals all embedded on a single chip. At times it
is also termed as a mini computer or a computer on a single chip. Today different
manufacturers produce microcontrollers with a wide range of features available in different
versions. Some manufacturers are ATMEL, Microchip, TI, Freescale, Philips, Motorola etc.
Microcontrollers are designed to perform specific tasks. Specific means applications where
the relationship of input and output is defined. Depending on the input, some processing
needs to be done and output is delivered. For example, keyboards, mouse, washing machine,
digicam, pendrive, remote, microwave, cars, bikes, telephone, mobiles, watches, etc. Since
the applications are very specific, they need small resources like RAM, ROM, I/O ports etc
and hence can be embedded on a single chip. This in turn reduces the size and the cost.
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Microprocessor find applications where tasks are unspecific like developing software, games,
websites, photo editing, creating documents etc. In such cases the relationship between input
and output is not defined. They need high amount of resources like RAM, ROM, I/O ports
etc.
The clock speed of the Microprocessor is quite high as compared to the microcontroller.
Whereas the microcontrollers operate from a few MHz to 30 to 50 MHz, todays
microprocessor operate above 1GHz as they perform complex tasks.

Fields and Domains of Embedded Systems:

Microprocessor
Microcontroller
Power Electronics
Electrical System
Digital Electronics
Antenna and wave propagation-Wireless communication
Transmission lines and waveguides-Wired communication
Wireless sensor

Types of Microcontrollers:
The major types of microcontrollers are:
o ATMEL
o PIC
o ARM

ATMEL
Atmel Corporation is an American-based designer and manufacturer of semiconductors,
founded

in

1984.

The

company

focuses

on

embedded

systems

built

around microcontrollers.
It is a 4K ROM .ATMEL offers serial and parallel EEPROM, as well as one-time
programmable (OTP) EPROM. In addition, it offers secure memory with its
CryptoMemory product line of EEPROMS in capacities from 1 to 256 kbits. And it uses
only digital values.

PIC

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PIC- Pheripheral Interface Controller. PIC microcontrollers is a family of modified

Harvard architechture microcontrollers made by Microchip Technology, derived from the
PIC1650. It uses 8K ROM.. Its capacity is 256 bits. It uses both analog and digital values.

ARM
Arm is a family of instruction set architectures for computer processors.. It is a 32 bit
controller.

Pin description of ATMEL(AT89C51):

VCC
Positive (+ve) Dc Supply voltage. Which is normally between 3V to 5V Dc.

GND
0v

Ground.

This

pin

is

connected

to

-ve

dc

supply

voltage.

PORTS
Ports are generally used by computers to communicate to the outside world.
Microcontrollers use port to read input from another device or to send output to another
device. AT89C51 has four ports for communication. Port 0, Port 1, Port 2, Port 3. These
ports are 8-bits bi-directional i/o ports. They can be used for both inout and output ports.
As an output port, they can sink eight TTL inputs. Ports can be used as an input when
they are made to read data from another device(which can be a component or a sensor).
Or as an output when they are used to send a signal to another device.

RST
Reset input. This pin is used to reset the microcontroller. If a high remains on this pin for
more than two machine cycle while the oscillator is running, the microcontroller is
reseted.

ALE/PROG
Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address durong access
to external memory. This pin also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash
programming. This pin used to program the microcontroller.
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PSEN
Program Store Enable is the strobe to external program memory. When the AT89C51 is
executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine
cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.

PinofAT89C51

Pin diagram of AT89C51 microcontroller

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28

XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to theinternal clock operating circuit.
This pin is connected to the external crystal oscillator together with XTAL2.

XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

EA/VPP
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND inorder to enable the devicetofetch
code from external programmemory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions.This pin also receives the
12-volt programming enable voltage(VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that
require 12-volt VPP.

SERIAL COMMUNICATION
Serial communication is used for all long-haul communication and most computer
networks, where the cost of cable and synchronization difficulties make parallel
communication impractical. Serial computer buses are becoming more common even at
shorter distances, as improved signal integrityand transmission speeds in newer serial
technologies have begun to outweigh the parallel bus's advantage of simplicity (no need
for serializer and deserializer, or SerDes) and to outstrip its disadvantages (clock skew,
interconnect density).
The term "serial" most often refers to the RS232 port on the back of the original IBM PC,
often called "the" serial port, and "the" serial cable designed to plug into it, and the many
devices designed to be compatible with it.

Types of connectors:
o 9 pin connectors
o 25 pin connectors
In computing, a serial port is a serial communication physical interface through which
information transfers in or out one bit at a time (in contrast to a parallel port). Throughout
most of the history ofpersonal computers, data was transferred through serial ports to devices
such as modems, terminalsand various peripherals.

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Pair of female Mini DIN-8connectors used for RS-422serial ports on a Macintosh

LC computer
While such interfaces as Ethernet, FireWire, and USB all send data as a serial stream, the
term "serial port" usually identifies hardware more or less compliant to the RS-232 standard,
intended to interface with a modem or with a similar communication device.
Modern computers without serial ports may require serial-to-USB converters to allow
compatibility with RS 232 serial devices. Serial ports are still used in applications such as
industrial automation systems, scientific instruments, point of sale systems and some
industrial and consumer products. Servercomputers may use a serial port as a control console
for diagnostics. Network equipment (such as routers and switches) often use serial console
for configuration. Serial ports are still used in these areas as they are simple, cheap and their
console functions are highly standardized and widespread. A serial port requires very little
supporting software from the host system.
The individual signals on a serial port are unidirectional and when connecting two devices the
outputs of one device must be connected to the inputs of the other. Devices are divided into
two categories "data terminal equipment" (DTE) and "data circuit-terminating equipment"
(DCE). A line that is an output on a DTE device is an input on a DCE device and vice-versa
so a DCE device can be connected to a DTE device with a straight wired cable.
Conventionally, computers and terminals are DTE while modems and peripherals are DCE.
If it is necessary to connect two DTE devices (or two DCE devices but that is more unusual)
a cross-over null modem, in the form of either an adapter or a cable, must be used.

Applications of serial ports:

Dial-up modems

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Bar code scanners and other point of sale devices

LED and LCD text displays,Printers,Computer terminal, teletype,Older digital cameras

Satellite phones, low-speed satellite modems and other satellite based transceiver

REFERENCES
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2G
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RJ45
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinput
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinput
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system
6. www.dauniv.ac.in/downloads/EmbysyRevEd
7. www.engineersgarage.com
8. www.wikipidea.en/wifi/history
9. www.osimodel.org
10. http://www.bing.com/search?
q=data+security+assessment&form=IE10TR&src=IE10TR&pc=HPNTDFJS

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