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Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems
Third Edition

Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.

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Chapter 6

FM Circuits

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Topics Covered in Chapter 6

6-1: Frequency Modulators

6-2: Phase Modulators

6-3: Frequency Demodulators

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6-1: Frequency Modulators

There are many circuits used to produce FM and PM

signals. There are two types of frequency modulator

circuits: direct circuits and phase modulation circuits.
A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier
frequency in accordance with the modulating signal.
The carrier is generated by LC or crystal oscillator
circuits.

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6-1: Frequency Modulators

In LC oscillators, the carrier frequency can be

changed by varying either the inductance or

capacitance.
The idea is to find a circuit or component that converts
a modulating voltage to a corresponding change in
capacitance or inductance.
In crystal oscillators, the frequency is fixed by the
crystal.
A varactor is a variable capacitance diode used to
change oscillator frequencies.
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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Varactor Operation
A junction diode is created when P- and N-type
semiconductors are formed during the manufacturing

process.
A depletion region, where there are no free carriers,
holes, or electrons, is formed in the process.
This region acts like a thin insulator that prevents
current from flowing through the device.
A forward bias will cause the diode to conduct.
A reverse bias will prevent current flow.
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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Varactor Operation
A reverse-biased diode acts like a small capacitor.
The P- and N-type materials act as the two plates of the

capacitor.
The depletion region acts as the dielectric material.
The width of the depletion layer determines the width of
the dielectric and, therefore the amount of capacitance.
All diodes exhibit variable capacitance.
Varactors are designed to optimize this characteristic.

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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Figure 6-2: Schematic symbols of a varactor diode.

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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Figure 6-4: A direct-frequency-modulated carrier oscillator using a varactor diode.

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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Varactor Modulator
In Figure 6-4, the capacitance of varactor diode D1 and
L1 form the parallel tuned circuit of the oscillator.
The value of C1 is made very large so its reactance is
very low.
C1 connects the tuned circuit to the oscillator and blocks
the dc bias on the base of Q1 from being shorted to
ground through L1.
The values of L1 and D1 fix the center carrier frequency.
The modulating signal varies the effective voltage

applied to D1 and its capacitance varies.

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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Varactor Modulator
Most LC oscillators are not stable enough to provide a
carrier signal.
The frequency of LC oscillators will vary with
temperature changes, variations in circuit voltage, and

other factors.
As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used to set
carrier frequency.

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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator
Crystal oscillators provide highly accurate carrier
frequencies and their stability is superior to LC

oscillators.
The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be varied by
changing the value of capacitance in series or parallel
with the crystal.
By making the series capacitance a varactor diode,
frequency modulation can be achieved.
The modulating signal is applied to the varactor diode
which changes the oscillator frequency.
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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Figure 6-5: Frequency modulation of a crystal oscillator with a VVC.

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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator
Varactors are made with a wide range of capacitance
values, most units having a nominal capacitance in the

1- to 200-pF range.
A frequency multiplier circuit is one whose output
frequency is some integer multiple of the input
frequency.
A frequency multiplier that multiplies a frequency by two
is called a doubler.
A frequency multiplier that multiplies a frequency by
three is called a tripler.
Frequency multipliers can also be cascaded.
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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Figure 6-6: How frequency multipliers increase carrier frequency and deviation.
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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Voltage-Controlled Oscillators
Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an
external input voltage are generally referred to as

voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs).

Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators are generally
referred to as VXOs.
VCOs are primarily used in FM.
VCOs are also used in voltage-to-frequency conversion
applications.

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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Reactance Modulator
A reactance modulator is a circuit that uses a
transistor amplifier that acts like either a variable

capacitor or an inductor.
When the circuit is connected across the tuned circuit of
an oscillator, the oscillator frequency can be varied by
applying the modulating signal to the amplifier.
Reactance modulators can produce frequency deviation
over a wide range.
Reactance modulators are highly linear, so distortion is
minimal.
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6-1: Frequency Modulators

Figure 6-10: A reactance modulator.

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Direct FM Transmitter
Produce an output waveform in which the frequency

deviation is directly proportional to the modulating

signal

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Crosby Direct FM Transmitter

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Frequency modulator can be reactance modulator or

VCO
Three aspect of frequency conversion
a. when the frequency of the frequency-modulated
carrier is multiplied, its frequency and phase deviation
are multiplied
b. the rate at which the carrier is deviated is
unaffected by the multiplication process
c. when an angle-modulated carrier is heterodyned
with another frequency in a nonlinear mixer, the carrier
can either up- or down-converted
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Automatic Frequency Control

(AFC)

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Compares the frequency of a noncrystal carrier

oscillator to a crystal reference oscillator and then

produces a correction voltage proportional to the
difference between the two frequencies
Correction voltage is fed to the carrier oscillator to
automatically compensate for any drift that may
occurred

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Sample Problem
Use the transmitter block diagram values to answer

the following questions. For a total frequency

multiplication of 20 and a transmitted carrier frequency
ft=88.8 MHz determine:
a. Master oscillator center frequency
b. Frequency deviation of 75 kHz at the antenna
c. Deviation ratio at the output of the modulator for a
maximum modulating signal of 15 kHz

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Sample Problem
Using the transmitter block diagram values, determine
the reduction in frequency drift at the antenna
transmitter without AFC compared to a transmitter with
AFC. Use VCO stability = +200 ppm, ko=10kHz/V and
kd=2V/kHz

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6-2: Phase Modulators

Most modern FM transmitters use some form of

phase modulation (PM) to produce indirect FM.

In PM the carrier oscillator can be optimized for
frequency accuracy and stability.
Crystal oscillators or crystal-controlled frequency
synthesizers can be used to set the carrier frequency
accurately and maintain stability.
The output of the carrier oscillator is fed to a phase
modulator where the phase shift is made to vary in
accordance with the modulating signal.

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6-2: Phase Modulators

Simple phase shifters do not produce a linear

response over a large range of phase shift.

To compensate for this, restrict the total allowable
phase shift to maximize linearity.
Multipliers must also be used to achieve the desired
deviation.

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6-2: Phase Modulators

Figure 6-11: RC phase-shifter basics.

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6-2: Phase Modulators

Varactor Phase Modulators
A simple phase-shift circuit can be used as a phase modulator if the
resistance or capacitance can be made to vary with the modulating signal.
A varactor can be used to vary capacitance and achieve phase shift
modulation.
If the modulating signal becomes more positive, it adds to the varactor
reveres bias from R1 and R2, causing the capacitance to decrease and the
reactance to increase wherein the circuit produces less phase shift and
deviation
A more negative signal, from A subtract from the reverse bias on the varactor
diode, increasing the capacitance and decreasing the reactance, thus the
increase phase shit and deviation are produced.
Inverting amplifier is used to correct the inverse relationship with the
modulating signal polarity and the direction of frequency deviation

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6-2: Phase Modulators

Figure 6-12: A varactor phase modulator.

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6-2: Phase Modulators

Transistor Phase Modulator
A transistor can be used as a variable resistor to create
a phase modulator.
A standard common emitter class A amplifier biased
into the linear region is used in PM.
The transistor from collector to ground acts like a
resistor.
The transistors resistance forms part of the phase
shifting circuit.

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6-2: Phase Modulators

Figure 6-13: A transistor phase shifter.

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Sample Problem
Calculate the Total phase shit of the transistor phase

modulator operating at the carrier frequency of 1.4

MHz with IC =1.22mA Vc=6.28V if there is no
modulation. With a positive modulating signal Ic rises
by 0.5mA and becomes 1.72 mA while collector
voltage drops to 3.9V. Likewise, if the modulating
signal becomes more negative, Ic drops to 0.72 mA
and the collector vo

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6-2: Phase Modulators

Tuned-Circuit Phase Modulators
Most phase modulators are capable of producing a
small amount of phase shift. The limited phase shift,

therefore, produces a limited frequency shift.

Phase and frequency shift can be increased by using a
parallel tuned circuit.
At resonance, a parallel resonant circuit acts like a large
resistor.
Off resonance, the circuit acts inductively or capacitively
and produces a phase shift.

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6-2: Phase Modulators

Tuned-Circuit Phase Modulators

Phase modulators are easy to implement, but they have two main
disadvantages.
1. The amount of phase shift they produce and the resulting frequency
deviation are relatively low.
2. All the phase-shift circuits produce amplitude variations as well as
phase changes.
3. When modulating signal goes negative, it subtract to the reverse bias of
D1, increasing the capacitance and lower the reactance making the
circuit capacitive producing a leading phase shift and the output lags the
input
4. A positive going modulating voltage decreases the capacitance the
tuned circuit becomes inductive producing lagging phase shift so the
output leads the input

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Sample Problem
A transistor must operate at a frequency of 168.96

MHz with a deviation of + 5kHz. It uses 3 frequency

multipliers, a doubler, a tripler and a quadrupler.
Phase modulation is used. Calculate:
a. Frequency of the carrier oscillator
b. Phase shift required to produce the necessary
deviation at 2.8 kHz modulation frequency.

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Sample Problem
Using the values in the previous example using RC

phase shifter with C=capacitor and R=1k. Assume

that the total phase shift range is centered on 45deg,
Calculate the 2 capacitive values required to achieve
the total deviation.

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Any circuit that will convert a frequency variation in the

carrier back into a proportional voltage variation can

be used to demodulate or detect FM signals.
Circuits used to recover the original modulating signal
from an FM transmission are called:
Demodulators
Detectors
Discriminators

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Slope Detector
The slope detector makes use of a tuned circuit and a
diode detector to convert frequency variations into

voltage variations.
The main difficulty with slope detectors lies in tuning
them.

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Figure 6-16: Slope detector operation.

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Pulse-Averaging Discriminators
A pulse-averaging discriminator uses a zero crossing
detector, a one shot multivibrator and a low-pass filter in

order to recover the original modulating signal.

The pulse-averaging discriminator is a very high-quality
frequency demodulator.
Originally this discriminator was limited to expensive
telemetry and industrial control applications.
With availability of low-cost ICs, this discriminator is
used in many electronic products.

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Figure 6-17: Pulse-averaging discriminator.

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Quadrature Detector
The quadrature detector is probably the single most
widely used FM demodulator.
The quadrature detector is primarily used in TV
demodulation.
This detector is used in some FM radio stations.
The quadrature detector uses a phase-shift circuit to

produce a phase shift of 90 degrees at the unmodulated

carrier frequency.

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Figure 6-19: A quadrature FM detector.

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Phase-Locked Loops
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a frequency- or phasesensitive feedback control circuit used in frequency

demodulation, frequency synthesizers, and various

filtering and signal-detection applications. PLLs have
three basic elements. They are:
Phase detector
Low-pass filter
Voltage-controlled oscillator

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Figure 6-21: Block diagram of a PLL.

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Phase-Locked Loops
The primary job of the phase detector is to compare the
two input signals and generate an output signal that,

when filtered, will control the VCO.

If there is a phase or frequency difference between the
FM input and VCO signals, the phase detector output
varies in proportion to the difference.
The filtered output adjusts the VCO frequency in an
attempt to correct for the original frequency or phase
difference.

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6-3: Frequency Demodulators

Phase-Locked Loops
This dc control voltage, called the error signal, is also
the feedback in this circuit.
When no input signal is applied, the phase detector and
low-pass filter outputs are zero.
The VCO then operates at what is called the freerunning frequency, its normal operating frequency as

determined by internal frequency-determining

components.

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