Data Structures

Data Structures and Algorithms in C++, Second Edition by Adam Drozdek, published by Brooks/Cole
Thomson Learning, 2001, ISBN 0-534-37597-9

KRISNA ADIYARTA
PASCA SARJANA (MAGISTER KOMPUTER)
UNIVERSITAS BUDI LUHUR
JAKARTA

Definitions

A data structure is a scheme for organizing data in

the memory of a computer.
The way in which the data is organized affects the
performance of a program for different tasks.
Computer programmers decide which data
structures to use based on the nature of the data
and the processes that need to be performed on
that data.
Some of the more commonly used data structures
include : primitive data, arrays, lists, stacks,

queues, trees, graphs

Program C++
#include <conio.h>
#include <iostream.h>
#include <math.h>
main()
{
int keliling, panjang, lebar;
cout <<"Panjang : "; cin >> panjang;
cout <<"Lebar : "; cin >> lebar;
keliling = (2 * panjang) + ( 2 * lebar)
cout <<"\nKeliling : " << keliling;
cout <<"\n";
getch();
}

Primitive (Atomic) Structures

Primitive (or Basic) Data Types

User-Defined Ordinal Types
Character String Types
Pointer Types

Primitive Data Types

Number
Integer
Floating-Point
Boolean
Character
ASCII, ISO-8859-x, JIS, UNICODE

User-Defined Ordinal Type

Range of possible values mapped to positive

integers
Examples
Enumeration types (C, C++, Pascal, Ada)
Subrange types (Pascal, Modula-2, Ada)

Character String Type

Design issues:
Should strings be a special kind of character
array? Or a primitive type?
Static or dynamic length?

Pointer Type

Range of values of memory address or null

Provide explicit support for indirect referencing
Available in: C, C++, Pascal, Ada
int *pi = new int;
float *pf=new float;
*pi =1024;
*pf =3.14;

Record Structure

Possibly heterogeneous aggregation of named data

elements
struct {
char name[10];
int age;
int salary;
} person;
strcpy(person.name, james);
person.age=10;
person.salary=3000;

Person

Name

Age

Salary

Array Structure

A collection of pairs <index,value>

where index is an ordered set of integers
and are values of some data type that is
constant for the array.
not all languages require index to be
continuous or contiguous or start at 0 or
1.
In C arrays are zero based and are
contiguous from 0 to size-1 and can
contain any simple or aggregate data
type

Array Structure

Homogenous aggregation of data elements

Constant-time access to elements
Design issues:
Subscript types
Bounds checking?
Subscript dimension, subscript order
Size static or dynamic? User-definable?

Single Linked List

A singly linked list is a concrete data structure

consisting of a series of nodes
Each node stores
next
Data item
Link to the next node
Data item

HEAD
A

NODE

CURRENT
B

Insertion
A

X
A

B
3

X
A

Deletion
A

D
2

C
A

Double Linked List

A doubly linked list provides a natural

implementation of the List
Special trailer and header nodes
Nodes implement Position and store:
element
prev
link to the previous node
link to the next node

next

elem
header

nodes/positions

node
trailer

Insertion
A

p
B

p
B

q
X
q
X

Deletion
A

p
D
A

Stack

Stores a set of elements in a particular order

Stack principle: LAST IN FIRST OUT
It means: the last element inserted is the first one
to be removed
Basic Algorithm : Push & Pop

B
top A

C
top B
A

D
top C
B
A

top

E
D
C
B
A

top
D
C
B
A

Queue

Stores a set of elements in a particular order

Queue principle: FIRST IN FIRST OUT
It means: the first element inserted is the first
one to be removed
Basic Algorithm : Enqueue & Dequeue

rear
front

B
A

C
rear B
front A

D
rear C
B
front A

rear
D
C
front B

rear
front

Tree

A tree is a finite nonempty set

of elements.
It is an abstract model of a
hierarchical structure.
consists of nodes with a
parent-child relation.
Applications:

Organization charts
File systems
Programming environments
US

Europe

ComputersRUs

Sales

Manufacturing

International

Asia

Laptops

Canada

Desktops

R&D

Tree Terminology

Root: node without parent

Siblings: nodes share the same parent
Internal node: node with at least one child
External node (leaf ): node without children
Ancestors of a node: parent, grandparent, grand-grandparent, etc.
Descendant of a node: child,
grandchild, grand-grandchild, etc.
Depth of a node: number of ancestors
Height of a tree: maximum depth of any
B
node
Degree of a node: the number of its
children
E
Degree of a tree: the maximum number
of its node.
Subtree: tree consisting of a node and
I
its descendants

subtree
J

Tree Property
Property
Value
Number of nodes
Height
Root Node
Leaves
Interior nodes
Ancestors of H
Descendants of B
Siblings of E
Right subtree of A
Degree of this tree

A
C

B
D

G
H

Intuitive Representation of Tree Node

List Representation
( A ( B ( E ( K, L ), F ), C ( G ), D ( H ( M ), I, J ) ) )
The root comes first, followed by a list of links to subtrees

How many link fields are needed in

such a representation?
Data

Link 1

Link 2

Link n

Tree

Every tree node:

object

useful information
children pointers to its children
Data

Data

Data

Data

Data

Data

Data

A Tree Representation

A node is represented
by an object storing
Element
Parent node
Sequence of
children nodes

B
D

A
C

F
E

Left Child, Right Sibling Representation

Data
Left
Child

Right
Sibling

Tree Traversal

Two main methods:

Preorder
Postorder

Preorder
visit

the root
traverse in preorder the children (subtrees)

Postorder:
traverse

in postorder the children (subtrees)

visit the root

Preorder Traversal

A traversal visits the nodes of a

tree in a systematic manner
In a preorder traversal, a node is
visited before its descendants
Application: print a structured
document
1

Algorithm preOrder(v)
visit(v)
for each child w of v
preorder (w)

Become Rich

1. Motivations

9
2. Methods

1.1 Enjoy
Life

1.2 Help
Poor Friends

6
2.1 Get a
CS PhD

7
2.2 Start a
Web Site

3. Success Stories

8
2.3 Acquired
by Google

Postorder Traversal

In a postorder traversal, a
node is visited after its
descendants
Application: compute space
used by files in a directory and
its subdirectories
9

Algorithm postOrder(v)
for each child w of v
postOrder (w)
visit(v)

cs16/

homeworks/

todo.txt
1K

programs/

h1c.doc
3K

h1nc.doc
2K

4
DDR.java
10K

5
Stocks.java
25K

6
Robot.java
20K

Decision Tree

Binary tree associated with a decision process

internal nodes: questions with yes/no answer

external nodes: decisions

Example: dining decision

Want a fast meal?
No

Yes

How about coffee?

On expense account?

Yes

No

Yes

No

Starbucks

Spikes

Al Forno

Caf Paragon

Binary Tree

A binary tree is a tree with the

following properties:

We call the children of an internal

node left child and right child

Alternative recursive definition: a

binary tree is either

Each internal node has at most two

children (degree of two)
The children of a node are an
ordered pair

Applications:

a tree consisting of a single node,

OR
a tree whose root has an ordered
pair of children, each of which is a
binary tree

arithmetic expressions
decision processes
searching
A

Examples of the Binary Tree

Complete Binary Tree

Skewed Binary Tree

A
B

C
3

D
E

Differences Between A Tree and A Binary Tree

The subtrees of a binary tree are ordered; those

of a tree are not ordered.
A

Are different when viewed as binary trees.

Are the same when viewed as trees.

Data Structure for Binary Trees

A node is represented
by an object storing

Element
Parent node
Left child node
Right child node

B
A

D
C

Arithmetic Expression Tree

Binary tree associated with an arithmetic expression

internal nodes: operators

external nodes: operands

Example: arithmetic expression tree for the

expression (2 (a 1) + (3 b))
+

2
a

3
1

Maximum Number of Nodes in a Binary Tree

The maximum number of nodes on depth i of

a binary tree is 2i, i>=0.

The maximum nubmer of nodes in a binary

tree of height k is 2k+1-1, k>=0.

Prove by induction.
k

i
k +1
2
=
2
1

i =0

Full Binary Tree

A full binary tree of a given height k has 2k+11

nodes.

Height 3 full binary tree.

Labeling Nodes In A Full Binary Tree

Label the nodes 1 through 2k+1 1.
Label by levels from top to bottom.
Within a level, label from left to right.

4
8

5
9

10

11

12

13

7
14

15

Node Number Properties

1

4
8

5
9

10

11

12

13

7
14

15

Parent of node i is node i / 2, unless i = 1.

Node 1 is the root and has no parent.

Node Number Properties

1

4
8

5
9

10

11

12

13

7
14

15

Left child of node i is node 2i, unless 2i > n,

where n is the number of nodes.
If 2i > n, node i has no left child.

Node Number Properties

1

4
8

5
9

10

11

12

13

7
14

15

Right child of node i is node 2i+1, unless 2i+1 >

n, where n is the number of nodes.
If 2i+1 > n, node i has no right child.

Complete Binary Trees

A labeled binary tree containing the labels 1 to n with root 1,

branches leading to nodes labeled 2 and 3, branches from these
leading to 4, 5 and 6, 7, respectively, and so on.
A binary tree with n nodes and level k is complete iff its nodes
correspond to the nodes numbered from 1 to n in the full binary
tree of level k.
1

1
2
4
8

3
5

Complete binary tree

10

11

12 13 14 15

Full binary tree of depth 3

Binary Tree Traversals

Let l, R, and r stand for moving left, visiting

the node, and moving right.

There are six possible combinations of traversal

lRr, lrR, Rlr, Rrl, rRl, rlR

Adopt convention that we traverse left before

right, only 3 traversals remain

lRr, lrR, Rlr

inorder, postorder, preorder

Inorder Traversal

In an inorder traversal a
node is visited after its left
subtree and before its right
subtree

Algorithm inOrder(v)
if isInternal (v)
inOrder (leftChild (v))
visit(v)
if isInternal (v)
inOrder (rightChild (v))

6
2

8
4

1
3

7
5

Graph

A graph, G=(V, E), consists of two sets:

a finite set of vertices(V), and
a finite, possibly empty set of edges(E)
V(G) and E(G) represent the sets of vertices and edges of G,
respectively
Undirected graph
The pairs of vertices representing any edges is unordered
e.g., (v0, v1) and (v1, v0) represent the same edge
Directed graph
Each edge as a directed pair of vertices
e.g. <v0, v1> represents an edge, v0 is the tail and v1 is the
head

Graph
0
1

0
2

3
3
G1
complete graph
V(G1)={0,1,2,3}
V(G2)={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
V(G3)={0,1,2}

4
G2

incomplete graph

2
G3

E(G1)={(0,1),(0,2),(0,3),(1,2),(1,3),(2,3)}
E(G2)={(0,1),(0,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,5),(2,6)}
E(G3)={<0,1>,<1,0>,<1,2>}

complete undirected graph: n(n-1)/2 edges

complete directed graph: n(n-1) edges

Complete Graph

A complete graph is a graph that has the

maximum number of edges
for

undirected graph with n vertices, the

maximum number of edges is n(n-1)/2
for directed graph with n vertices, the
maximum
number of edges is n(n-1)
example: G1 is a complete graph

Adjacent and Incident

If (v0, v1) is an edge in an undirected graph,

v0

and v1 are adjacent

The edge (v0, v1) is incident on vertices v0 and v1

If <v0, v1> is an edge in a directed graph

v0

is adjacent to v1, and v1 is adjacent from v0

The edge <v0, v1> is incident on v0 and v1

Subgraph and Path

A subgraph of G is a graph G such that V(G)

is a subset of V(G) and E(G) is a subset of E(G)
A path from vertex vp to vertex vq in a graph G,
is a sequence of vertices, vp, vi1, vi2, ..., vin, vq,
such that (vp, vi1), (vi1, vi2), ..., (vin, vq) are
edges
in an undirected graph
The length of a path is the number of edges on it

Subgraph and Path

0
1

0
1

1
2

2
3

0
1

2
3

G1
(i)

(ii)
(iii)
(a) Some of the subgraph of G1

(iv)

Simple Path and Style

A simple path is a path in which all vertices,

except possibly the first and the last, are distinct
A cycle is a simple path in which the first and
the last vertices are the same
In an undirected graph G, two vertices, v0 and v1,
are connected if there is a path in G from v0 to v1
An undirected graph is connected if, for every
pair of distinct vertices vi, vj, there is a path
from vi to vj

Simple Path and Style

connected

0
1

0
2

3
3
G1

G2
tree (acyclic graph)

Connected Component

A connected component of an undirected graph

is a maximal connected subgraph.
A tree is a graph that is connected and acyclic.
A directed graph is strongly connected if there
is a directed path from vi to vj and also
from vj to vi.
A strongly connected component is a maximal
subgraph that is strongly connected.

Degree

The degree of a vertex is the number of edges

incident to that vertex
For directed graph,
the in-degree of a vertex v is the number of
edges
that have v as the head
the out-degree of a vertex v is the number of
edges
that have v as the tail
if di is the degree of a vertex i in a graph G with
n vertices and e edges, the number of edges is

e = (

n 1

di) / 2

Degree
undirected graph
degree
3

0
3 1

2 3
3
G1

directed graph
in-degree
out-degree

in:1, out: 1

in: 1, out: 2

in: 1, out: 0

G2

Adjacency Matrix

Let G=(V,E) be a graph with n vertices.

The adjacency matrix of G is a two-dimensional
n by n array, say adj_mat
If the edge (vi, vj) is in E(G), adj_mat[i][j]=1
If there is no such edge in E(G), adj_mat[i][j]=0
The adjacency matrix for an undirected graph is
symmetric; the adjacency matrix for a digraph
need not be symmetric

Adjacency Matrix
0

0
1

1 1 1
0 1 1
1 0 1

1 1 0

G
1

undirected: n2/2
directed: n2

G3

2
0

1
0

1
0
0

3
0
1

1
0

G2
symmetric

0
1

0
0

0
0

1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0

7
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0

Adjacency lists

N linked list
0
0

1
1

2
G1

2
3
G2

Graph Operations

Traversal
Given G=(V,E) and vertex v, find all wV,
such that w connects v.
Depth

First Search (DFS)

preorder tree traversal
Breadth First Search (BFS)
level order tree traversal

Spanning Trees

Graph Operations

depth first search: v0, v1, v3, v7, v4, v5, v2, v6
breadth first search: v0, v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, v6, v7

Weighted Graph

In Many applications,each edge of a graph has an

associated numerical value, called a weight
Usually, the edge weights are non negative
integers
Weight graphs may either directed or undirected

Spanning Trees

A spanning tree is a minimal subgraph G, such

that V(G)=V(G) and G is connected
Weight and MST
Either dfs or bfs can be used to create a
spanning tree
When

dfs is used, the resulting spanning tree is

known as a depth first spanning tree
When bfs is used, the resulting spanning tree is
known as a breadth first spanning tree

Minimum-Cost Spanning Trees

A minimum-cost spanning tree is a spanning
tree of least cost
Design strategy greedy method

Kruskals

Edge by edge

Prims

algorithm

algorithm

Span out from one vertex

Sollins

algorithm

Hint: Construct from connected components

Leave as a homework

0
2
1
1
3
3

10
12
14
16
18
22

25

28

0 28 1

25

14

16

24
18 12

4
22

2
0

10

4 24 6
4

Examples for Kruskals Algorithm

10

5
4

Examples for Kruskals Algorithm

0 10 5
2 12 3
1 14 6

3 18 6
3 22 4
4 24 6
4 25 5
0 28 1

1 16 2

10

10

14

14

2
12

4
3

2
12

4
3

10

2
12

4
3

Examples for Kruskals Algorithm

0 10 5
2 12 3
1 14 6

1 16 2

10

3 18 6
3 22 4
4 24 6
4 25 5
0 28 1

14

16

22

14

16

25

12

10

12

4
22

3
cycle

cost = 10 +25+22+12+16+14

28

10

5
25

14

16

24
18 12

4
22

10

0
1

10

Examples for Prims

Algorithm

25

4
3

10

5
25

4
3

22

Examples for Sollins Algorithm

28

vertex
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

10

14

16

24

25

18 12

4
22

edge
0 -- 10 --> 5, 0 -- 28 --> 1
1 -- 14 --> 6, 1-- 16 --> 2, 1 -- 28 --> 0
2 -- 12 --> 3, 2 -- 16 --> 1
3 -- 12 --> 2, 3 -- 18 --> 6, 3 -- 22 --> 4
4 -- 22 --> 3, 4 -- 24 --> 6, 5 -- 25 --> 5
5 -- 10 --> 0, 5 -- 25 --> 4
6 -- 14 --> 1, 6 -- 18 --> 3, 6 -- 24 --> 4

0
10

10
14

14

16

25

12

4
3

22

12

4
22