Education in India - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

5/1/12
Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Education in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Education in India is provided by the public sector

as well as the private sector, with control and funding
coming from three levels: federal, state, and local.
The Nalanda University was the oldest universitysystem of education in the world.[2] Western
education became ingrained into Indian society with
the establishment of the British Raj.
Education in Republic of India
Education in India falls under the control of both the

Union Government and the states, with some
responsibilities lying with the Union and the states
having autonomy for others. The various articles of
the Indian Constitution provide for education as a
fundamental right. Most universities in India are
controlled by the Union or the State Government.
India has made progress in terms of increasing
primary education attendance rate and expanding
literacy to approximately two thirds of the
population.[3] India's improved education system is
often cited as one of the main contributors to the
economic rise of India.[4] Much of the progress
especially in Higher education, Scientific research has
been credited to various public institutions. The
private education market in India is merely
5%[citation needed] although in terms of value is
estimated to be worth $40 billion in 2008 and will
increase to $78 billion by 2012[citation needed].
However, India continues to face stern challenges.
Despite growing investment in education, 25% of its
population is still illiterate; only 15% of Indian
students reach high school, and just 7%, of the 15%
who make it to high school, graduate.[5] As of 2008,
India's post-secondary institutions offer only enough
seats for 7% of India's college-age population, 25%
of teaching positions nationwide are vacant, and 57%
of college professors lack either a master's or PhD
degree.[6]
As of 2011, there are 1522 degree-granting
engineering colleges in India with an annual student
intake of 582,000,[7] plus 1,244 polytechnics with an
annual intake of 265,000. However, these institutions
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_India
Indian Department of Education

Ministry of Human Resource
Development
Kapil Sibal
National education budget (20112012)

Budget
52,057 crore (US$10.39 billion)

General details
Primary languages
Hindi, English, or State language
S ystem type
Federal, state, private
Established
Compulsory Education
April 1, 2010
Literacy (2011[1])
Total
74%
Male
82%
Female
65%
Enrollment ((N/A))
Total
(N/A)
Primary
(N/A)
S econdary
(N/A)
Post secondary
(N/A)
Attainment
S econdary diploma
15%
Post-secondary diploma
7%
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face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised over the quality of education.[8]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Present education in India
2 Overview
2.1 Primary education
2.1.1 Private education
2.1.2 Homeschooling
2.2 Secondary education
2.3 Higher education
2.4 Technical education
2.5 Open and Distance Learning
3 Literacy
4 Attainment
5 Women's education
6 Rural education
7 Issues
7.1 Workforce quality, funding and infrastructure
7.2 Curriculum issues
7.3 Participation
7.4 Controversy
8 Initiatives
8.1 Creative Learning
9 Central government involvement
9.1 Budget
9.2 Public Expenditure on Education in India
9.3 Legislative framework
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links
History
Monastic orders of education under the supervision of a guru was a favored form of education for the nobility in
ancient India. The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the society had to
perform.The priest class, the Brahmins, were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary
branches while the warrior class, the Kshatriya, were trained in the various aspects of warfare. The business class,
the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the working class of the Shudras was generally deprived of educational
advantages. The book of laws, the Manusmriti, and the treatise on statecraft the Arthashastra were among the
influential works of this era which reflect the outlook and understanding of the world at the time.
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Secular Buddhist institutions cropped up along with monasteries. These institutions imparted practical education,
e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning centers became increasingly visible from the period between 200 BCE to
400 CE.The important urban centers of learning were Taxila (in modern day Pakistan) and Nalanda, among
others.These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study
topics such as Buddhist literature, logic, grammar, etc.
By the time of the visit of the Islamic scholar Alberuni (9731048 CE), India already had a sophisticated system of
mathematics.
With the arrival of the British Raj in India the modern European education came to India. British Raj was reluctant
to introduce mass education system as it was not their interest. The colonial educational policy was deliberately one
of reducing indigenous culture and religion, an approach which became known as Macaulayism.[9] With this the
whole educational as well as government system went through changes. Educated people failed to get a job
because the language in which they got their education had become redundant.[10] Adapted from a speech given to
the Vivekananda Study Circle, IIT-Madras, January 1998. The system soon became solidified in India as a number
of primary, secondary, and tertiary centers for education cropped up during the colonial era.[11] Between 1867 and
1941 the British increased the percentage of the population in Primary and Secondary Education from around 0.6%
of the population in 1867 to over 3.5% of the population in 1941. However this was much lower than the
equivalent figures for Europe where in 1911 between 8 and 18% of the population were in Primary and Secondary
education.[12]
The credit for fostering education to masses following independence in 1947 chiefly goes to first prime minister
Jawaharlal Nehru. India's first education minister Maulana Azad envisaged,strong central government control over
education throughout the country, with a uniform educational system.[13] However, given the cultural and linguistic
diversity of India, it was only the higher education dealing with science and technology that came under the
jurisdiction of the central government.[13] The government also held powers to make national policies for
educational development and could regulate selected aspects of education throughout India.[14]
The central government of India formulated the National Policy on Education (NPE) in 1968 and in 1986 and also
reinforced the Programme of Action (POA) in 1992.,[15] 208 The government initiated several measures the
launching of DPEP (District Primary Education Programme) and SSA (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,ssa.nic.in India's
initiative for Education for All) and setting up of Navodaya Vidyalaya and other selective schools in every district,
advances in female education, inter-disciplinary research and establishment of open universities. India's NPE also
contains the National System of Education, which ensures some uniformity while taking into account regional
education needs. The NPE also stresses on higher spending on education, envisaging a budget of more than 6% of
the Gross Domestic Product.[16] While the need for wider reform in the primary and secondary sectors is
recognized as an issue, the emphasis is also on the development of science and technology education infrastructure.
Present education in India

India's education system is divided into different levels such as pre-primary level, primary level, elementary
education, secondary education, undergraduate level and postgraduate level.[17]
Overview
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum related
matters for school education in India.[18] The NCERT provides support and technical assistance to a number of
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schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of

education policies.[19] In India, the various curriculum bodies
governing school education system are:
The state government boards, in which the majority of
Indian children are enrolled.
The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).
CBSE conducts two examinations, namely, the All India
Secondary School Examination, AISSE (Class/Grade
10) and the All India Senior School Certificate
Examination, AISSCE (Class/Grade 12).
The Council for the Indian School Certificate
Children lining up for school in Kochi.
Examinations (CISCE). CISCE conducts three
examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of
Secondary Education (ICSE - Class/ Grade 10); The Indian School Certificate (ISC - Class/ Grade 12) and
the Certificate in Vocational Education (CVE - Class/Grade 12).
The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS).
International schools affiliated to the International Baccalaureate Programme and/or the Cambridge
International Examinations.
Islamic Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or
affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband.
Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, Auroville, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula.
In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration)[20] and NCTE (National
Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education system and teacher
accreditation.[21]
Primary education
The Indian government lays emphasis to primary education up to the age of fourteen years (referred to as
Elementary Education in India.[22]) The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the
children do not enter unsafe working conditions.[22] However, both free education and the ban on child labour are
difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.[22] 80% of all recognized schools at the
Elementary Stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education in the Country.[23]
However, due to shortage of resources and lack of political will, this
system suffers from massive gaps including high pupil to teacher ratios,
shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of teacher training. Education
has also been made free[22] for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to
class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act 2009.[24]
There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the
government. The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP)
was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in
India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system.[25]
School children, Mumbai

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85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the
states.[25] The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools
delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other
international programmes.[25]
This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 9395% for the last three years in
some states.[25] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this
scheme.[25] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one
of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low.
Private education
According to current estimates, 80% of all schools are government
schools[23] making the government the major provider of education.
However, because of poor quality of public education, 27% of Indian
children are privately educated.[26] According to some research, private
schools often provide superior results at a fraction of the unit cost of
government schools.[27][28][29] However, others have suggested that
private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families, a
selective being only a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored
Court orders for their regulation[citation needed].
School wall of a Private School in

India.
In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extra-curricular
activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama.[26] The pupil teacher ratios are much
better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for government schools and more teachers in private schools are
female[citation needed]. There is some disgreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to
the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (paratechers) is 54.91% in private, compared to
44.88% in government schools and only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive inservice training compared to
43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most schools make profit.[26]
However, the number of private schools in India is still low - the share of private institutions is 7% (with upper
primary being 21% and secondary 32% - source : fortress team research).
Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools are free. A study found that
65% of schoolchildren in Hyderabad's slums attend private schools.[29]
.
Homeschooling
Homeschooling is legal in India, though it is the less explored option. The Indian Government's stance on the issue is
that parents are free to teach their children at home, if they wish to and have the means. HRD Minister Kapil Sibal
has stated that despite the RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her children to school, the
government would not interfere.[30]
Secondary education
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The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awareness, science and technology
education, and introduction of traditional elements such as
Yoga into the Indian secondary school system.[31]
Secondary education covers children 1418 which covers
88.5 million children according to the Census, 2001.
However, enrolment figures show that only 31 million of
these children were attending schools in 200102, which
means that two-third of the population remained out of
school.[32]
Older students
A significant feature of India's secondary school system is
the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of
the society. Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. Another
feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students
attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing.[33] A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to
secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[34]
A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on
primary education.[18] but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[35] Another notable
special programme, the Kendriya Vidyalaya project, was started for the employees of the central government of
India, who are distributed throughout the country. The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965
to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location
to which the employee's family has been transferred.[18]
A multilingual web portal on Primary Education is available with rich multimedia content for children and forums to
discuss on the Educational issues. India Development Gateway [36] is a nationwide initiative that seeks to facilitate
rural empowerment through provision of responsive information, products and services in local languages.
Higher education
Main article: higher education in India
See also: List of Indian institutions of higher education
Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of disrepair...In almost half the districts in the
country, higher education enrollments are abysmally low, almost two-third of our universities and
90 per cent of our colleges are rated as below average on quality parameters... I am concerned
that in many states university appointments, including that of vice-chancellors, have been
politicised and have become subject to caste and communal considerations, there are complaints
of favouritism and corruption.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2007[37]
India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States.[38] The main
governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (India), which enforces its standards,
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advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the
state.[39] Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous
institutions established by the University Grants Commission.[40]
As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100
deemed universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the
State Act, and 33 institutes which are of national importance.[39] Other
institutions include 16000 colleges, including 1800 exclusive women's
colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions.[39] The
emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and
technology.[41] Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a
large number of technology institutes.[42] Distance learning is also a
feature of the Indian higher education system.[42]
Indian Institute of Management,

Ahmedabad.
Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology

(IITs), have been globally acclaimed for their standard of undergraduate
education in engineering .[42] The IITs enroll about 10,000 students
annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth of the private
sector and the public sectors of India.[43] However the IIT's have not had
VESIT, Engineering College under
significant impact on fundamental scientific research and innovation.
Mumbai University
Several other institutes of fundamental research such as the Indian
Association for the Cultivation of Science(IACS), Indian Institute of
Science IISC), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Harishchandra Research Institute (HRI), are
acclaimed for their standard of research in basic sciences and mathematics. However, India has failed to produce
world class universities both in the private sector or the public sector.[44]
Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their pupils, India is also
home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money. Regulatory
authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the menace of private universities which
are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Indian Government has failed to check on these education
shops, which are run by big businessmen & politicians. Many private colleges and universities do not fulfill the
required criterion by the Government and central bodies ( UGC, AICTE, MCI, BCI etc.) and take students for a
ride. For example, many institutions in India continue to run unaccredited courses as there is no legislation strong
enough to ensure legal action against them. Quality assurance mechanism has failed to stop misrepresentations and
malpractices in higher education. At the same time regulatory bodies have been accused of corruption, specifically
in the case of deemed-universities.[45] In this context of lack of solid quality assurance mechanism, institutions need
to step-up and set higher standards of self-regulation.[46]
Government of India is aware of the plight of higher education sector and has been trying to bring reforms,
however, 15 bills are still awaiting discussion and approval in the Parliament.[47] One of the most talked about bill is
Foreign Universities Bill, which is supposed to facilitate entry of foreign universities to establish campuses in India.
The bill is still under discussion and even if it gets passed, its feasibility and effectiveness is questionable as it misses
the context, diversity and segment of international foreign institutions interested in India.[48] One of the approaches
to make internationalization of Indian higher education effective is to develop a coherent and comprehensive policy
which aims at infusing excellence, bringing institutional diversity and aids in capacity building.[49]
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Three Indian universities were listed in the Times Higher Education list of the worlds top 200 universities Indian
Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Management, and Jawaharlal Nehru University in 2005 and 2006.[50]
Six Indian Institutes of Technology and the Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani were listed among the
top 20 science and technology schools in Asia by Asiaweek.[51] The Indian School of Business situated in
Hyderabad was ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings by the Financial Times of London in 2010[52] while
the All India Institute of Medical Sciences has been recognized as a global leader in medical research and
treatment.[53]
Technical education
The number of graduates coming out of technical colleges increased to
over 700,000 in 2011 from 550,000 in FY 2010.[54][55] However, 75%
of technical graduates and more than 85% of general graduates are
unemployable by India's high-growth global industries, including
information technology and call centers.[56]
From the first Five Year Plan onwards India's emphasis was to develop
a pool of scientifically inclined manpower.[57] India's National Policy on
Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body for regulation and
development of higher technical education, which came into being as the
Main (Administrative) Building, IIT
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in 1987 through an
Roorkee
act of the Indian parliament.[58] At the Central(federal) level, the Indian
Institutes of Technology,the Indian Institute of Space Science and
Technology, the National Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Information Technology, Rajiv Gandhi
Institute of Petroleum Technology are deemed of national importance.[58]
The Indian Institutes of Technology are among the nation's premier education facilities.[58] Since 2002, Several
Regional Engineering Colleges(RECs) have been converted into National Institutes of Technology giving them
Institutes of National Importance status.
The Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology : The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MOP&NG),
Government of India set up the institute at Jais, Rae Bareli district, Uttar Pradesh through an Act of Parliament.
RGIPT has been accorded "Institute of National Importance along the lines of the Indian Institute of Technology
(IIT) and Indian Institute of Management (IIM). With the status of a Deemed University, the institute awards
degrees in its own right.
[58] The UGC
has inter-university centres at a number of locations throughout India to promote common research,
e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.[59] Besides there are some British
established colleges such as Harcourt Butler Technological Institute situated in Kanpur and King George Medical
University situated in Lucknow which are important center of higher education.
In addition to above institutes, efforts towards the enhancement of technical education are supplemented by a
number of recognized Professional Engineering Societies such as
1. Institution of Engineers (India)
2. Institution of Chemical Engineering (India)
3. Institution of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineers (India)
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4.
5.
6.
7.
Indian Institute of Metals

Institution of Industrial Engineers (India)
Institute of Town Planners (India)
Indian Institute of Architects
that conduct Engineering/Technical Examinations at different levels(Degree and diploma) for working professionals
desirous of improving their technical qualifications.
Open and Distance Learning

At school level, National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) provides opportunities for continuing education to
those who missed completing school education. 14 lakh students are enrolled at the secondary and higher
secondary level through open and distance learning. One can also get admitted to higher studies through IGNOU
BPP Program.[60] At higher education level, Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) co-ordinates
distance learning. It has a cumulative enrolment of about 15 lakhs, serviced through 53 regional centres and 1,400
study centres with 25,000 counsellors. The Distance Education Council (DEC), an authority of IGNOU is cocoordinating 13 State Open Universities and 119 institutions of correspondence courses in conventional universities.
While distance education institutions have expanded at a very rapid rate, but most of these institutions need an up
gradation in their standards and performance. There is a large proliferation of courses covered by distance mode
without adequate infrastructure, both human and physical. There is a strong need to correct these imbalances.[61]
Literacy
Main article: Literacy in India
According to the Census of 2011, "every person above the age of 7 years who can read and write in any language
is said to be literate". According to this criterion, the 2011 survey holds the National Literacy Rate to be around
74.07%.[62] Government statistics of 2001 also hold that the rate of increase in literacy is more in rural areas than in
urban areas.[62] Female literacy was at a national average of 65% whereas the male literacy was 82%.[62] Within
the Indian states, Kerala has shown the highest literacy rates of 93% whereas Bihar averaged 63.8% literacy.[62]
The 2001 statistics also indicated that the total number of 'absolute non-literates' in the country was 304 million.[62]
Attainment
World Bank statistics found that fewer than 40 percent of adolescents in
India attend secondary schools.[3] The Economist reports that half of
10-year-old rural children could not read at a basic level, over 60% were
unable to do division, and half dropped out by the age 14.[27]
An optimistic estimate is that only one in five job-seekers in India has
ever had any sort of vocational training.[63]
Higher education
As per Report of the Higher education in India, Issues Related to
Expansion, Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance,[64] the access to higher
School children in Tamil Nadu
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education measured in term of gross enrolment ratio increased from 0.7% in 1950/51 to 1.4% in 196061. By
2006/7 the GER increased to about 11 percent. By 2012, (the end of 11th plan objective) is to increase it to 15%.
Women's education
See also: Women in India
Women have a much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls are
enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out.[65] According to a
1998 report by U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barrier to
female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary
facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in curriculum
(majority of the female characters being depicted as weak and
helpless).[66] Conservative cultural attitudes, especially among Muslims,
prevents some girls from attending school.[67]
The number of literate women among the female population of India was
between 26% from the British Raj onwards to the formation of the
Republic of India in 1947.[68] Concerted efforts led to improvement from
15.3% in 1961 to 28.5% in 1981.[68] By 2001 literacy for women had
exceeded 50% of the overall female population, though these statistics
were still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy
within India.[69] Recently the Indian government has launched Saakshar
Bharat Mission for Female Literacy. This mission aims to bring down
female illiteracy by half of its present level.
Girls in Kalleda Rural School, Andhra

Pradesh.
Sita Anantha Raman outlines the progress of women's education in India:

Since 1947 the Indian government has tried to provide incentives for girls school attendance through
programs for midday meals, free books, and uniforms. This welfare thrust raised primary enrollment
between 1951 and 1981. In 1986 the National Policy on Education decided to restructure education in
tune with the social framework of each state, and with larger national goals. It emphasized that education
was necessary for democracy, and central to the improvement of womens condition. The new policy
aimed at social change through revised texts, curricula, increased funding for schools, expansion in the
numbers of schools, and policy improvements. Emphasis was placed on expanding girls occupational
centers and primary education; secondary and higher education; and rural and urban institutions. The
report tried to connect problems like low school attendance with poverty, and the dependence on girls for
housework and sibling day care. The National Literacy Mission also worked through female tutors in
villages. Although the minimum marriage age is now eighteen for girls, many continue to be married much
earlier. Therefore, at the secondary level, female dropout rates are high.[70]
Sita Anantha Raman also maintains that while the educated Indian women workforce maintains professionalism, the
men outnumber them in most fields and, in some cases, receive higher income for the same positions.[70]
The education of women in India plays a significant role in improving livings standards in the country. A higher
women literacy rate improves the quality of life both at home and outside of home, by encouraging and promoting
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education of children, especially female children, and in reducing the infant mortality rate. Several studies have
shown that a lower level of women literacy rates results in higher levels of fertility and infant mortality, poorer
nutrition, lower earning potential and the lack of an ability to make decisions within a household.[71] Womens
lower educational levels is also shown to adversely affect the health and living conditions of children. A survey that
was conducted in India showed results which support the fact that infant mortality rate was inversely related to
female literacy rate and educational level.[72] The survey also suggests a correlation between education and
economic growth.
In India, it was found that there is a large disparity between female literacy rates in different states.[73] For example,
while Kerala actually has a female literacy rate of about 86 percent, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have female literacy
rates around 55-60 percent. These values are further correlated with health levels of the Indians, where it was
found that Kerala was the state with the lowest infant mortality rate while Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are the states
with the lowest life expectancies in India. Furthermore, the disparity of female literacy rates across rural and urban
areas is also significant in India.[74] Out of the 24 states in India, 6 of them have female literacy rates of below 60
percent. The rural state Rajasthan has a female literacy rate of less than 12 percent.[75]
Rural education
Following independence, India viewed education as an effective tool for
bringing social change through community development.[76] The
administrative control was effectively initiated in the 1950s, when, in
1952, the government grouped villages under a Community Development
Blockan authority under national programme which could control
education in up to 100 villages.[76] A Block Development Officer
oversaw a geographical area of 150 square miles (390 km2) which could
contain a population of as many as 70000 people.[76]
Setty and Ross elaborate on the role of such programmes, themselves
divided further into individual-based, community based, or the
Individual-cum-community-based, in which microscopic levels of
development are overseen at village level by an appointed worker:
A primary school in a village in

Rohith's Backyard.
The community development programmes comprise agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation, rural
industries, rural engineering (consisting of minor irrigation, roads, buildings), health and sanitation including
family welfare, family planning, women welfare, child care and nutrition, education including adult
education, social education and literacy, youth welfare and community organisation. In each of these areas
of development there are several programmes, schemes and activities which are additive, expanding and
tapering off covering the total community, some segments, or specific target populations such as small and
marginal farmers, artisans, women and in general people below the poverty line.[76]
Despite some setbacks the rural education programmes continued throughout the 1950s, with support from private
institutions.[77] A sizable network of rural education had been established by the time the Gandhigram Rural
Institute was established and 5, 200 Community Development Blocks were established in India.[78] Nursery
schools, elementary schools, secondary school, and schools for adult education for women were set up.[78]
The government continued to view rural education as an agenda that could be relatively free from bureaucratic
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backlog and general stagnation.[78] However, in some cases lack of

financing balanced the gains made by rural education institutes of
India.[79] Some ideas failed to find acceptability among India's poor
and investments made by the government sometimes yielded little
results.[79] Today, government rural schools remain poorly funded
and understaffed. Several foundations, such as the Rural
Development Foundation (Hyderabad), actively build high-quality
rural schools, but the number of students served is small.
Parayar School Children
Issues
Workforce quality, funding and infrastructure
One study found out that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of
public sector medical workers were absent during the survey. Among
teachers who were paid to teach, absence rates ranged from 15% in
Maharashtra to 30% in Bihar. Only 1 in nearly 3000 public school head
teachers had ever dismissed a teacher for repeated absence.[80] A study
on teachers by Kremer etc. found that 'only about half were teaching,
during unannounced visits to a nationally representative sample of
government primary schools in India.'.[80]
A study of 188 government-run primary schools found that 59% of the
Indian School-Girls
schools had no drinking water and 89% had no toilets.[81] 200304 data
by National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration revealed
that only 3.5% of primary schools in Bihar and Chhattisgarh had toilets for girls. In Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh, rates were 1216%.[82] In fact, the number of
secondary schools is almost half the number of upper primary schools available in the country.
Curriculum issues
Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning rather than problem solving.
BusinessWeek criticizes the Indian curriculum, saying it revolves around rote learning[83] and ExpressIndia
suggests that students are focused on cramming.[84]
Participation
At the lower secondary level (grades nine and 10), enrolment rate is 52%, while at the senior secondary level
(grades 11 and 12), it is 28%. While the enrollment rate in pre-school is merely 18%, there is a 48% drop-out rate
in elementary education.(source : Fortress Team Research)
Controversy
In January 2010, the Government of India decided to withdraw Deemed university status from as many as 44
institutions were not being kept in mind by the management of these institutions and that "they were being run as
family fiefdoms".[85]
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The University Grant Commission found 39 fake institutions operating in India.[86]

Only 10% of manufacturers in India offer in-service training to their employees, compared with over 90% in
China.[87]
Initiatives
Following India's independence a number of rules were formulated for
the backward Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes of India, and
in 1960 a list identifying 405 Scheduled Castes and 225 Scheduled
Tribes was published by the central government.[88] An amendment was
made to the list in 1975, which identified 841 Scheduled Castes and 510
Scheduled Tribes.[88] The total percentage of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes combined was found to be 22.5 percent with the
Scheduled Castes accounting for 17 percent and the Scheduled Tribes
accounting for the remaining 7.5 percent.[88] Following the report many
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes increasingly referred to
themselves as Dalit, a Marathi language terminology used by B. R.
Ambedkar which literally means "oppressed".[88]
The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are provided for in many of
India's educational programmes.[89] Special reservations are also
provided for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India, e.g. a
reservation of 15% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Castes and
another reservation of 7.5% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled
Tribes.[89] Similar reservations are held by the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes in many schemes and educational facilities in India.[89]
The remote and far-flung regions of North East India are provided for
under the Non Lapsible Central pool of Resources (NLCPR) since
19981999.[90] The NLCPR aims to provide funds for infrastructure
development in these remote areas.[90]
Non-formal education center in

Udaipur, Rajasthan. Educational
program by Seva Mandir, an NGO
working for the development of the
rural and tribal population in Udaipur
and Rajsamand districts of southern
Rajasthan
Women from remote, underdeveloped areas or from weaker social

groups in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala,
Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, fall under the Mahila
Samakhya Scheme, initiated in 1989.[91] Apart from provisions for
education this programme also aims to raise awareness by holding
meetings and seminars at rural levels.[91] The government allowed
340 million (US$6.8 million) during 200708 to carry out this scheme
over 83 districts including more than 21, 000 villages.[91]
The madrasah of Jamia Masjid
mosque in Srirangapatna.
Currently there are 68 Bal Bhavans and 10 Bal Kendra affiliated to the
National Bal Bhavan.[92] The scheme involves educational and social
activities and recognising children with a marked talent for a particular educational stream.[92] A number of
programmes and activities are held under this scheme, which also involves cultural exchanges and participation in
several international forums.[92]
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India's minorities, especially the ones considered 'educationally

backward' by the government, are provided for in the 1992 amendment
of the Indian National Policy on Education (NPE).[93] The government
initiated the Scheme of Area Intensive Programme for Educationally
Backward Minorities and Scheme of Financial Assistance or
Modernisation of Madarsa Education as part of its revised Programme of
Action (1992).[93] Both these schemes were started nationwide by
1994.[93] In 2004 the Indian parliament allowed an act which enabled
minority education establishments to seek university affiliations if they
Elementary School in Chittoor. This
passed the required norms.[93] Surprisingly,in the field of Sindhi language,
school is part of the 'Paathshaala'
(a 8th schedule language,which is prevalently spoken by the sindhis of
project. The school currently
India who have no state of their own)government has not made any
educates 70 students.
significant contribution.Sindhis are linguistic minority and most of the
states have no sindhi schools or schools with sindhi language as an
optional paper.Sindhis with around ten million population has less than 100 teachers in this language.Sindhi,basically
draws its origin from Indus Valley civilsation, while the language has Indo-aryan origin it is prevalently spoken in
Pakistan and patronised by Pakistan Govt. Most of the sindhi Associations fear that due to apathy of Indian Govt.
Sindhi language and culture will only be a story for next generation in near future. Rajesh Thadani,President of Bihar
Sindhi Association,which was constituted by the first Governor of Bihar,Jairamdas Doulatram,has started
awareness compaign in this direction.this compaign has gathered a momemntum and it has started recognition
worldwide.
Creative Learning
See also: Association for Promotion of Creative Learning
The Association for Promotion of Creative Learning has been running a school for children since 1997 in Patna,
where the organisation has developed a unique teaching learning methodology based on the Theory of Multiple
Intelligences by Howard Gardner called Creative Learning. The organisation stresses on seven core competencies
which are essential in any natural process of learning - Power of Observation, Concentration, Memory, Thinking,
Imagination, Power of Expression/Communication and Emotional Control.
Central government involvement

Budget
As a part of the tenth Five year Plan (20022007), the central government of India outlined an expenditure of
65.6% of its total education budget of 438.25 billion (US$8.74 billion) i.e. 287.5 billion (US$5.74 billion) on
elementary education; 9.9% i.e. 43.25 billion (US$862.84 million) on secondary education; 2.9% i.e.
12.5 billion (US$249.38 million) on adult education; 9.5% i.e. 41.765 billion (US$833.21 million) on higher
education; 10.7% i.e. 47 billion (US$937.65 million) on technical education; and the remaining 1.4% i.e.
6.235 billion (US$124.39 million) on miscellaneous education schemes.[94]
According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), India has the
lowest public expenditure on higher education per student in the world.[95]
See also: Education in India Five Year Plan Expenditure
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Public Expenditure on Education in India

During the Financial Year 2011-12, the Central Government of India has allocated Rs 38,957 crores for the
Department of School Education and Literacy which is the main department dealing with primary education in India.
Within this allocation, major share of Rs 21,000 crores, is for the flagship program 'Sarva Siksha Abhiyan'.
However, budgetary allocation of Rs 21,000 crores is considered very low in view of the officially appointed Anil
Bordia Committee recommendation of Rs 35,659 for the year 2011-12. This higher allocation was required to
implement the recent legislation 'Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. In recent times,
several major announcements were made for developing the poor state of affairs in education sector in India, the
most notable ones being the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance
(UPA) government. The announcements are; (a) To progressively increase expenditure on education to around 6
percent of GDP. (b) To support this increase in expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education,
there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central government taxes. (c) To ensure that no one is
denied of education due to economic backwardness and poverty. (d) To make right to education a fundamental
right for all children in the age group 614 years. (e) To universalize education through its flagship programmes such
as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal.
However, even after five years of implementation of NCMP, not much progress has been seen on this front.
Although the country targeted towards devoting 6% share of the GDP towards the educational sector, the
performance has definitely fallen short of expectations. Expenditure on education has steadily risen from 0.64% of
GDP in 1951-52 to 2.31% in 1970-71 and thereafter reached the peak of 4.26% in 2000-01. However, it
declined to 3.49% in 2004-05. There is a definite need to step up again. As a proportion of total government
expenditure, it has declined from around 11.1 per cent in 20002001 to around 9.98 per cent during UPA rule,
even though ideally it should be around 20% of the total budget. A policy brief issued by [Network for Social
Accountability (NSA)][96] titled [NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union Budget: UPA Rule
and the Education Sector][97] provides significant revelation to this fact. Due to a declining priority of education in
the public policy paradigm in India, there has been an exponential growth in the private expenditure on education
also. [As per the available information, the private out of pocket expenditure by the working class population for
the education of their children in India has increased by around 1150 percent or around 12.5 times over the last
decade].[98]
Legislative framework
Article 45, of the Constitution of India originally stated:
The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this
Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years.[13]
This article was a directive principle of state policy within India, effectively meaning that it was within a set of rules
that were meant to be followed in spirit and the government could not be held to court if the actual letter was not
followed.[99] However, the enforcement of this directive principle became a matter of debate since this principle
held obvious emotive and practical value, and was legally the only directive principle within the Indian constitution to
have a time limit.[99]
Following initiatives by the Supreme Court of India during the 1990s the Ninety-third amendment bill suggested
three separate amendments to the Indian constitution:[100]
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The constitution of India was amended to include a new article, 21A, which read:
The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen
years in a such manner as the State may, by law, determine.[101]
Article 45 was proposed to be substituted by the article which read:
Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years: The State
shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete
the age of sixteen years.[101]
Another article, 51A, was to additionally have the clause:
...a parent or guardian [shall] provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may
be, [a] ward between the age of six to fourteen years.[101]
The bill was passed unanimously in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian parliament, on November 28,
2001.[102] It was later passed by the upper housethe Rajya Sabhaon May 14, 2002.[102] After being signed
by the President of India the Indian constitution was amended formally for the eighty sixth time and the bill came
into effect.[102] Since then those between the age of 614 have a fundamental right to education.[103]
Article 46 of the Constitution of India holds that:
The State shall promote, with special care, the education and economic interests of the weaker
sections of the people, and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall
protect them from social injustice and all forms of social exploitation'.[62]
Other provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be found in Articles 330, 332, 335, 338
342.[62] Both the 5th and the 6th Schedules of the Constitution also make special provisions for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.[62]
See also
National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education
National Translation Mission
Two Million Minutes (documentary film)
Notes
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2. ^ "Really Old School (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/09/opinion/09garten.html?scp=1&sq=Nalanda&st=cse) ,"
Garten, Jeffrey E. New York Times, 9 December 2006.
3. ^ a b "Education in India"
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http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_22/b3885015.htm.
^ "Rote system of learning still rules the roost" (http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/rote-system-oflearning-still-rules-the-roost/375996/) . ExpressIndia. 2008. http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/rote-systemof-learning-still-rules-the-roost/375996/.
^ "44 institutions to lose deemed university status Economy and Politics"
(http://www.livemint.com/2010/01/18232326/44-institutions-to-lose-deemed.html) . livemint.com. 2010-01-18.
http://www.livemint.com/2010/01/18232326/44-institutions-to-lose-deemed.html. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
^ "22 universities across India fake: UGC" (http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/22-universities-across-Indiafake-UGC/425697/) . ExpressIndia. http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/22-universities-across-India-fakeUGC/425697/.
^ "Country Strategy for India (CAS) 20092012" (http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf) . World Bank.
http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf.
^ a b c d Elder, 227
^ a b India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 236237
^ a b c d India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 239
^ India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 223
^ "Higher education spending: India at the bottom of BRIC" (http://www.rediff.com/money/2007/feb/05edu.htm) .
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^ "Network for Social Accountability" (http://www.nsa.org.in) . NSA. 2009-12-28. http://www.nsa.org.in.
^ "345 NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union Budget-UPA Rule and the Education Sector by
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http://www.nsa.org.in/Policybrief/2009/345NSARUBEDU1.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
^ "309: How the Working Class has Performed in the Turbulent Years of Liberalisation-A Priliminary Study of
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(http://www.nsa.org.in/Policybrief/309NSAResearchTeam1.htm) . Nsa.org.in.
http://www.nsa.org.in/Policybrief/309NSAResearchTeam1.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
^ a b Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 14950
^ Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 152154
^ a b c Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 154
^ a b c Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 156
^ Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 149
References
20/21
5/1/12
Blackwell, Fritz (2004), India: A Global Studies Handbook, United States of America: ABC-CLIO, Inc.,
ISBN 1-57607-348-3.
Elder, Joseph W. (2006), "Caste System", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 223
229, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31350-2.
"Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in India edited by R.K. Suri and Kalapana
Rajaram (2008), New Delhi: Spectrum, ISBN 81-7930-294-6.
India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), New Delhi: Additional Director General (ADG),
Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, ISBN 978-81-2301557-6.
Prabhu, Joseph (2006), "Educational Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern", Encyclopedia
of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 2328, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
Raman, S.A. (2006). "Women's Education", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 4), edited by Stanley Wolpert,
235239, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31353-7.
Setty, E.D. and Ross, E.L. (1987), "A Case Study in Applied Education in Rural India", Community
Development Journal, 22 (2): 120129, Oxford University Press.
Sripati, V. and Thiruvengadam, A.K. (2004), "India: Constitutional Amendment Making The Right to
Education a Fundamental Right", International Journal of Constitutional Law, 2 (1): 148158, Oxford
University Press.
Vrat, Prem (2006), "Indian Institutes of Technology", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley
Wolpert, 229231, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
External links
Government official education website. (http://www.education.nic.in/)
India Education (http://www.education-hub.org/)
E-Learning Division of the Department of IT, Ministry of Communications & IT, Govt. of India
(http://www.mit.gov.in/default.aspx?id=26)
India International Education Fair Website. (http://www.eduworldwideindia.com/)
Higher Education in India. (http://www.highereducationinindia.com/)
Question Bank to prepare for Engineering Entrance Examinations in India
(http://www.questionbank.co.in/preparation/engineering-entrance-exams/)
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Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Education in India is provided by the public sector

Education in Republic of India

Education in India falls under the control of both the

Indian Department of Education

National education budget (20112012)

52,057 crore (US$10.39 billion)

Hindi, English, or State language

Federal, state, private

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Present education in India

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of

School children, Mumbai

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

School wall of a Private School in

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Indian Institute of Management,

Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Indian Institute of Metals

Open and Distance Learning

School children in Tamil Nadu

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Girls in Kalleda Rural School, Andhra

Sita Anantha Raman outlines the progress of women's education in India:

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A primary school in a village in

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

backlog and general stagnation.[78] However, in some cases lack of

Parayar School Children

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The University Grant Commission found 39 fake institutions operating in India.[86]

Non-formal education center in

Women from remote, underdeveloped areas or from weaker social

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

India's minorities, especially the ones considered 'educationally

Central government involvement

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Public Expenditure on Education in India

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Article 45 was proposed to be substituted by the article which read:

Another article, 51A, was to additionally have the clause:

3. ^ a b "Education in India" Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

European Economic Association''"

Education in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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