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88 Chapter 9
a. Given the symmetric shape of normal distribution around its mean, maximum conformance of the
output within the given specifications will be achieved by centering the process at the midpoint of
the specifications, i.e., at = 32.5 gms. Now if we desire 98% of the output to conform to the
specifications, from the Normal tables, the specification limits should be z = 2.33 standard
deviations on either side of the mean, i.e., (35 - 30)/ = 2.33, or = 5/2.33 = 1.073 gms. The
corresponding process capability ratio is C p = (35 - 30)/6 = 0.78.
b. With n = 12, and = 1.073 as above, we can now determine the ideal control limits on subgroup
averages of 12 bottles as:
Average control chart: 3 / n = 32.5 (3)(1.073)/= (31.57, 33.34)
Problem 9.2
a. In order to produce 98% of the boxes above 15.5 oz., the process mean must be z = 2.055 standard
deviations above 15.5, i.e., = 15.5 + (2.055)(0.5) = 16.53 oz.
b. If = 16.53, then the proportion of overweight boxes will be
P(X > 16) = P[Z > (16-16.53)/0.5] = P(Z > -1.06) = 0.8554.
c. With = 16.53, = 0.5, and n = 9, the control limits on the average weight in a sample of 9 boxes
are: + 3 / 9 = (16.03, 17.03). The observed average of 15.9 is below the lower control limit of
16.03, which signals that the mean has shifted below 16.53 due to an assignable cause. They
should stop the process and adjust the mean upward. That the average weight is above the
minimum individual weight of 15.5 oz is irrelevant. The specifications are on weights of individual
boxes, not on average weights.
Problem 9.3
From the 26 observations given, we can calculate the average number of errors per thousand transactions
m = 3.3077, which is much better than the industry average = 15. We can then determine the control
limits on the number of errors, assuming Poisson distribution, as m 3 m = (0, 8.75). Observe that
three observations out of the 26 given exceed the UCL = 8.75. Hence, the process is not in control, even
though on average it is better than the BAI standard! The process is not stable, and our estimate of m is
not reliable. We first need to stabilize the process by removing assignable causes.
Problem 9.4
a. If the process mean = 515, standard deviation = 5 gms, and sample size n = 25, Control limits
are LCL = 25 = 512 gms and UCL = 25 = 518 gms
b. Proportion of underweight output is
Prob(W < 500) = Prob [Z < (500 515) / 5] = Prob (Z < 3) = 0.0013 or 0.13%.
c. If Prob (violation) = 0.13% and the mean is = 503 gms, then must be decreased so that 3 =
(500 - 503)/ or = 1.
Chapter 9
89
Problem 9.5
Given: process mean = 6 cm, standard deviation = 0.01 cm, and sample size n = 10,
Control limits are LCL = 10 = 5.9905 cm and UCL = 10 = 6.0095 cm
Note: customer specifications are irrelevant.
Problem 9.6
If the specifications do not change, improvement in the sigma capability means the standard deviation
decreases. In that case, the control band should become narrower.
Problem 9.7
Currently, process mean = 2.2 hours, and standard deviation = 0.8 hours, so probability of processing
within 4 hours is
P(T < 4) = Prob[Z < (4 2.2)/0.8 ] =Prob(Z < 2.25) = 0.9878 < 0.992, the banks requirement
With improved process mean = 2 hours, and standard deviation = 1.2 hours,
P(T < 4) = Prob[Z < (4 2)/1.2 ] =Prob(Z < 1.67) = 0.9616, which is worse than before.
To meet the banks requirement, the mean should be lowered to 2 hours without raising variability. In that
case
P(T < 4) = Prob[Z < (4 2)/0.8 ] =Prob(Z < 2.5) = 0.9938 > 0.992, the banks requirement
Problem 9.8
If D is the diameter of basketballs produced, we need Prob(29.3 < D < 29.7) = 0.98.
Now we know that Prob (- 2.326 < Z < 2.326) = 0.98, so z = (29.7 29.5) / = 2.326 or we need =
0.086 inches.
Hence, Cp = (USL LSL)/6 = (29.7 - 29.3)/6 = 0.7752.
Problem 9.9
a. False. Control limits only assure process stability. They have nothing to do with meeting
customer specifications.
b. True. As sample size increases, standard deviation of sample averages decreases, and the control
bands becomes narrower.
c. True. If control limits are 3 standard deviations from the mean, the probability of sample average
falling outside control limits is 0.27%, regardless of the value of the standard deviation.
d. If the process improves sigma capability, its standard deviation goes down, and the width of the
control band decreases.
90 Chapter 9
You are a manager with nine employees reporting directly to you. (You have full span of
control.) All nine employees have essentially the same responsibilities. They all have numerous
opportunities to make mistakes (of various types) in their jobs, but only a small chance of making
any one particular mistake at any one time. In the past year you have recorded the following
number of mistakes for each employee. Assume that all mistakes are equally critical, so that you
cannot distinguish between employees based on the type of mistake they make.
Employee
No. of Mistakes
1
10
2
15
3
11
4
5
5
17
6
22
7
11
8
12
9
10
It is time for evaluations and merit raise recommendations. Suggest an approach (you do not have
to show any computations) to decide who to reward and who to penalize? Assume that the total
number of transactions performed by each employee are the same during the year.
Answer: You should construct appropriate control limits based on the data available. For
example, with this data, assuming Poisson distribution of errors, mean = variance = 12.55. So
control limits are: 12.55 + 3 Sqrt (12.55) = (1.92, 23.18) Employees with error rates above the
upper control limit or below the lower control limit would be asked for abnormal causes of
variation. Effort should be made to eliminate assignable errors above the UCL and replicate
assignable errors below the LCL. All employees with error rates within control limits should be
treated equally. In this case, all employees seem to display normal variability, so take no action.
In the long run, you should try to reduce the mean of 12.55 through better training, and mistakeproofing the process.
9.4.2
A customer wants delivery to be ensured between 10 am and 2 pm. Your truck leaves the factory at 4 am
and the time taken to reach the customer is normally distributed with an average of 8 hrs and a standard
deviation of 1 hr.
(a) What is the process capability ratio of the process?
0.67
0.50
1.00
2.00
None of the above
(b) What specific action(s) (in terms of mean and standard deviation targets to be achieved)
would you take to improve the ability of the delivery process to be a 6- process (like
Motorola)?
Target mean =
Chapter 9
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An assembly process has twenty successive stages, each with 3- capability. The company has
come up with a new design that will require only ten assembly stages. The capability at each
stage still remains 3-. The overall assembly process capability with the new design will be
Answer: Higher. Reducing the number of stages reduces the overall variability and improves
process capability.
9.4.4
A machine produces drive shafts. Manufacturing currently takes samples of 10 shafts every half
an hour to check if the process is in control. Control limits have been set at 3 standard
deviations of the sample means and are set at 10 30.001 cm. A suggestion calls for control
limits to be tightened to 2 standard deviations, i.e., 10 20.001 cm. As a result the proportion
of shafts produced that are defective (outside specification limits) will
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Increase
Decrease
Remain unchanged
K-Log produces cereals that are sold in boxes labeled to contain 390 grams. If the cereal content
is below 390 grams, K-Log may invite FDA scrutiny. Filling much more than 390 grams costs the
company since it essentially means giving away more of the product. Accordingly, K-Log has set
specification limits between 390 and 410 grams for the weight of cereal boxes. Currently the
boxes are filled automatically by a filling machine and they have an average weight of 405 g with
a standard deviation of 4 g. What process targets (in terms of mean and standard deviation of the
filling process) are needed for the filling machine to have a six- capability?
92 Chapter 9
Answer: We need to center the process at the middle of the specs, i.e., at 400 gms. To yield six
sigma quality the standard deviation must be (400-390)/6 = 1.67 gms