The Brain and Nervous System

The nervous system is broken down into two major systems: Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous
System. Well discuss the Central Nervous System first.
The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The Cerebral Cortex, which is
involved in a variety of higher cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions is more developed in humans
than any other animal. It is what we see when we picture a human brain, the gray matter with a multitude of
folds covering the cerebrum. The brain is divided into two symmetrical hemispheres: left (language, the
rational half of the brain, associated with analytical thinking and logical abilities) and right (more involved with
musical and artistic abilities). The brain is also divided into four lobes:
o Frontal (motor cortex) motor behavior, expressive language, higher level cognitive processes, and
orientation to person, place, time, and situation
o Parietal (somatosensory Cortex) involved in the processing of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
o Occipital (visual cortex) interpretation of visual information
o Temporal (auditory cortex) receptive language (understanding language), as well as memory and emotion
Typically the brain and spinal cord act together, but there are some actions, such as those associated with pain,
where the spinal cord acts even before the information enters the brain for processing. The spinal cord consists
of the Brainstem which is involved in life sustaining functions. Damage to the brainstem is very often fatal.
Other parts of the brainstem include the Medulla Oblongata, which controls heartbeat, breathing, blood
pressure, digestion; ReticularActivating System (Reticular Formation), involved in arousal and attention,
sleep and wakefulness, and control of reflexes; Pons regulates states of arousal, including sleep and
dreaming.
Cerebellum balance, smooth movement, and posture
Thalamus "central switching station" relays incoming sensory information (except olfactory) to the brain
Hypothalamus controls the autonomic nervous system, and therefore maintains the bodys homeostasis,
which we will discuss later (controls body temperature, metabolism, and appetite. Translates extreme emotions
into physical responses.
Limbic System emotional expression, particularly the emotional component of behavior, memory, and
motivation
Amygdala attaches emotional significance to information and mediates both defensive and aggressive
behavior
Hippocampus involved more in memory, and the transfer of information from short-term to long-term
memory
The Peripheral Nervous System is divided into two sub-systems. The Somatic Nervous System primary
function is to regulate the actions of the skeletal muscles. Often thought of as mediating voluntary activity. The
other sub-system, called the Autonomic Nervous System, regulates primarily involuntary activity such as
heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion. Although these activities are considered involuntary, they
can be altered either through specific events or through changing our perceptions about a specific experience.

This system is further broken down into two complimentary systems: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Nervous Systems.
The Sympathetic Nervous System controls what has been called the "Fight or Flight" phenomenon because
of its control over the necessary bodily changes needed when we are faced with a situation where we may
need to defend ourselves or escape. Imagine walking down a dark street at night by yourself. Suddenly you
hear what you suspect are footsteps approaching you rapidly. What happens?
Your Sympathetic Nervous System kicks in to prepare your body: your heart rate quickens to get more blood to
the muscles, your breathing becomes faster and deeper to increase your oxygen, blood flow is diverted from
the organs so digestion is reduced and the skin gets cold and clammy and rerouted so to speak to the muscles,
and your pupils dilate for better vision. In an instant, your body is prepared to either defend or escape.
Now imagine that the footsteps belong to a good friend who catches up to you and offers to walk you home.
You feel relief instantly, but your body takes longer to adjust. In order to return everything to normal,
the Parasympathetic Nervous System kicks in. This system is slow acting, unlike its counterpart, and may
take several minutes or even longer to get your body back to where it was before the scare.
These two subsystems are at work constantly shifting your body to more prepared states and more relaxed
states. Every time a potentially threatening experience occurs (e.g., someone slams on their breaks in front of
you, you hear a noise in your house at night, you hear a loud bang, a stranger taps you on the shoulder
unexpectedly), your body reacts. The constant shifting of control between these two systems keeps your body
ready for your current situation.

The peripheral nervous system, or PNS, consists of the nerves

and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord.[1] The main function of
the PNS is to connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the limbs and
organs. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the bone of spine
and skull, or by the blood-brain barrier, leaving it exposed to toxins and
mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is divided into
the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system; some
textbooks also include sensory systems.[2]
The cranial nerves are part of the PNS.[3]
General classification
By direction
There are two types of neurons, carrying nerve impulses in different
directions. These two groups of neurons are:

 The sensory neurons are afferent neurons which relay nerve

impulses toward the central nervous system.
The motor neurons are efferent neurons which relay nerve
impulses away from the central nervous system.
By function
The peripheral nervous system is functionally as well as structurally
divided into thesomatic nervous system and autonomic nervous
system. The somatic nervous system is responsible for coordinating
the body movements, and also for receiving external stimuli. It is the
system that regulates activities that are under conscious control.
The autonomic nervous system is then split into the sympathetic
division,parasympathetic division, and enteric division.
The sympathetic nervous systemresponds to impending danger, and
is responsible for the increase of one's heartbeat and blood
pressure, among other physiological changes, along with the sense
of excitement one feels due to the increase of adrenaline in the
system. ("fight or flight" responses). The parasympathetic nervous
system, on the other hand, is evident when a person is resting and
feels relaxed, and is responsible for such things as the constriction
of the pupil, the slowing of the heart, the dilation of the blood
vessels, and the stimulation of the digestive
and genitourinary systems. ("rest and digest" responses). The role of
the enteric nervous system is to manage every aspect of digestion,
from the esophagus to the stomach, small intestine and colon.
Question: What Is the Somatic Nervous System?
Answer:
The somatic system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for carrying motor and sensory
information both to and from the central nervous system. This system is made up of nerves that connect to the skin,
sensory organs and all skeletal muscles. The system is responsible for nearly all voluntary muscle movements as well as
for processing sensory information that arrives via external stimuli including hearing, touch and sight.

Parts of the Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system derives its name from the Greek word soma, which means "body." The somatic nervous
system contains two major types of neurons: sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) that carry information from the nerves
to the central nervous system, and motor neurons (or efferent neurons) that carry information from the brain and spinal
cord to muscle fibers throughout the body.

The neurons of the somatic nervous system project from the central nervous system directly into the muscles and sensory
organs. The system is a direct path with synapses to connect nearby neurons. The body of the neuron is located in the

CNS, and the axon then projects and terminates in the skin, sense organs or muscles. Electrochemical impulses then travel
along the axon to the brain or spinal cord.

Reflex Arcs and the Somatic Nervous System

In addition to controlling voluntary muscles movements, the somatic nervous system is also associated with involuntary
movements known as reflex arcs. During a reflex arc, muscles move involuntarily without input from the brain. This occurs
when a nerve pathway connects directly to the spinal cord. Some examples of reflex arcs include jerking your hand back
after accidentally touching a hot pan or an involuntary knee jerk when your doctor taps on your knee.

The Nervous System

Ok, so we kind of understand what a neuron is and how it works (at least
pretend you understand, it will make me feel good).
Now neurons don't hang out all alone (like my friend Rob on a Saturday
night), they party hardy together in what scientists call our nervous
system.

There are basically three types of neurons that you should know about
for the AP Exam.
Sensory (sometimes called Afferent) Neurons: Sensory (Afferent)
neurons take information from our senses (touch, vision, hearing
etc...) to our brain. When you have one of those infected zits and
you try to pop it but the pain is just too much to bear; it is sensory
(afferent) neurons that are telling your brain about the pain.

 Motor (sometimes called Efferent) Neurons: Motor (Efferent)

neurons take information from the brain and send in out to the rest
of the body. If you have your heart set on popping that zit, you use
motor (efferent) neurons to move your fingers into the proper
pinching to pop position.
Interneurons: These are the middlemen neurons. You see, sensory
and motor neurons hate talking to each other (they had a bad break
up a few years back) and interneurons help them communicate with
each other (you know that guy who sends messages back and forth
between you and your best friend when you are fighting- that is the
interneuron). Interneurons are located in the brain and spinal cord
while motor and sensory neurons are located throughout the body.
Think of it this way. You are in sitting in math class and that really
annoying guy sneezes on the back of your head. Sensory (afferent)
neurons send the feeling of sticky wetness up your spinal cord to your
brain. The sensory neurons pass the information off to
the interneurons. The interneurons hanging out in the brain decide what
to do. They then tell the motor (efferent) neurons the plan. The motor
(efferent) neurons then travel down your body and help your hand reach
around and smack the guy upside the head.

Organization of the Nervous System

As you can see from the diagram above, the nervous system is broken
down just like my man Stephan Marbury breaks down opposing defenses.
The two major categories of our nervous system are
the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

An easy way to think about the CNS is all nerve encased in bone. In the
case of human that includes just the brain and spinal cord. We will talk
WAY more about the brain in the next chapter.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The PNS consists of all the other nerves in our body or all nerves that
are not encased in bone. The PNS is divided into two categories,
the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems.
The Somatic Nervous System controls all of our voluntary muscle
movements. Everything from choosing to kick a ball to scratching an itch.
Every time you choose to move your body you are using motor neurons in
the somatic nervous system.
The Autonomic Nervous System controls all of the automatic functions
of our body. Our heart rate, lungs, internal organs, etc... Think about it
for a second. Lets day you eat a Hostess Cream filled cupcake. The
cupcake goes into your stomach. Do you think about squirting stomach
acid on the food? No! Do you turn the food into glucose and fat your
body can use? No! Do you turn the leftover food into poop? No! Although
it would be really cool if we could control that. All of these things happen
automatically in our bodies, thus the name autonomic nervous system.
Now to make things even more complicated, the autonomic system is
broken down into two more nervous systems;
the sympathetic andparasympathetic.
Sympathetic Nervous System: Whether it is the morning before
the AP Exam, the night of a big date or you just pissed off a guy
named Bubba, you are going to be nervous. Whenever our body feels
stress, the sympathetic nervous system automatically does some
things to attempt to make things better. It will speed up your
heart rate, dilate your pupils, move alot of blood into your arms and
legs and away from your stomach and genitals. Why does your body
do this? It thinks that when you are stressed, there is a good

chance you might die, so it gets ready to fight or run; you may have
heard this called the fight or flight response. The sympathetic
nervous system was really important when we were stressed
because dinosaurs were chasing us (of course I know that humans
were not around when dinosaurs were, but the thought of a T-Rex
chasing a caveman is just really neat).

But in today's world when being stressed means a test the next day, the
changes in our body do not necessarily help (be thankful that school is
your biggest stressor- it could be alot worse).

Parasympathetic Nervous System: This part of the autonomic

nervous system relaxes us (the opposite of the sympathetic). think
of the parasympathetic nervous system as what happens to you
after a big Thanksgiving dinner. You are tired, your pupils
constrict, the blood hangs out in your stomach and genitals- life is
good.