Basin architecture and petroleum system

of Krishna Godavari Basin, east coast of India

S. K. GUPTA, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Dehradun, India

rishna Godavari Basin is a peri-cratonic passive margin

basin on the east coast of India (Figure 1). The onland part
consists of 28 000 km2 and is mostly alluvium covered.
Krishna and Godavari are the two major river systems which
drain the area and discharge in the Bay of Bengal. The offshore basinal area covers 24 000 km2 to the isobath of 200 m.
However, the basin extends into deeper water and covers a
much larger area. The basins characteristic feature is its enechelon horst and graben system which is filled with a thick
pile of sediments of Permian-to-Recent age and emerging
as one of Indias most promising petroliferous areas. Commercial accumulation of hydrocarbons occurs in sediments
from the Permian to as young as the Pliocene.
Krishna Godavari Basin is orthogonally juxtaposed to
NW-SE trending Pranhita Godavari Gondwana graben in the
north (Figure 2). The NE-SW basin margin is the most extensive fault trend over the area (Figure 3). It takes a bow-like
swing and comes to the coast near Kakinada graben in the
northeast and near Palar-Pennar graben in the southwest.
The onland basinal area is characterized by en-echelon
and arcuate horsts and grabens associated with major cross
trends. In addition to the basin margin fault, three more
regional faults developed further basinward: the onland
Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault, a Miocene structure building
fault in shallow water close to the coast, and a Pliocene
structure building fault in deeper water. The arcuate horsts
and the four regional arcuate faults are more or less parallel. Offshore, the sediments are mostly influenced by growthrelated tectonics.
Stratigraphy. The sedimentary sequence of Krishna
Godavari Basin ranges from Permian-to-Recent. The
Precambrian metamorphic basement consists of gneisses,
quartzites, charnokite, and khondalite. Subsurface knowledge is limited due to alluvium cover. However, isolated outcrops of Permian, Cretaceous, Paleocene, and Mio-Pliocene
rocks are present near the basin edge. Figure 4 shows the
geologic map of Krishna Godavari Basin and Figure 5 the
generalized stratigraphy.
Sedimentation in Gondwana Basin was initiated during
the Early Permian over the crystalline basement and is
known as Draksharama/Kommugudem Formation. Sediments of Triassic age are conspicuous by their absence.
Golapalli sandstone of Early Cretaceous age lies unconformably over Mandapeta sandstone. The top of the
Golapalli sandstone is a basinwide regional unconformity
and is in turn covered by thick Late Cretaceous sediments
and relatively thin Tertiary sediments. The areas of Gudivada
graben and Krishna graben constitute the Jurassic rift basin.
The Jurassic and Early Cretaceous sediments are the main
fill for the Jurassic Basin. The overlying Tertiary and Recent
sediments are relatively thin and generally undifferentiated. Bantumilli graben and Nizampatnam graben were
created during the Cretaceous and therefore named the
Cretaceous Basin. The Cretaceous sedimentation over the
Gondwana, Jurassic, and Cretaceous basins began simultaneously during Aptian/Albian time. These sediments are
called the Golapalli sandstone in Mandapeta graben and
Bhimadolu graben, the Nandigama Formation in Bantumilli
graben, and Gajulapadu shale/Kanukollu sandstone in
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Figure 1. Location of Krishna Godavari Basin.

Figure 2. Tectonic map of Krishna Godavari Basin.

Gudivada graben and Krishna graben. The overlying

Raghavapuram shale and Tirupati sandstone of Late
Cretaceous age, followed by the relatively thin Tertiary sediment, is widely distributed. Therefore it can be surmised
that Krishna Godavari Basin was initially made up of

Figure 3. Time structure map on top of basement depicting tectonic elements of Krishna Godavari Basin.

Gondwana Basin, Jurassic Basin, and Cretaceous Basin, and

they remained a unified basin until the Late Cretaceous. The
Godavari graben area to the south of the Eocene growth fault
(Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault) is the main depocenter for
Tertiary sediments. Further basinward, Tertiary sedimentation was successively influenced by the Miocene growth fault
and the Pliocene growth fault. Each kicked off a series of
subsidiary growth faults which locally guided the sedimentation pattern.
Lithostratigraphy. Kommugudem Formation (Early
Permian is the oldest sediment deposited over the Archean
basement although, at places, argillite (Draksharama
Formation) is present underneath the Kommugudem.
Kommugudem Formation is dominantly a shale sequence
with interbedded coal and sand. The coal beds are generally 16 m in thickness. The environment of deposition is
fluvial-to-lagoonal.
Mandapeta sandstone (Late Permian) is a thick nonmarine feldspathick and micaceous sandstone deposited in a
fluvial environment. The presence of relatively thick intervening shales suggests cyclic flood plain conditions.
Bapatla sandstone (Late Jurassic) is a nonmarine sandstone, clay, and shale section. It rests directly on the Archean
basement. The basal section is claystone with thin sandstone
layers interbedded. The overlying section is dominantly
arenaceous with thin intercalations of shale and claystone.
Gajulapadu shale and overlying Kanukollu sandstone

(Aptian/Albian) rest unconformably over the Bapatla sandstone in the Gudivada graben. The Gajulapadu shale,
deposited in a lacustrine environment, is highly carbonaceous and rich in organic matter. A few interbedded sandstone layers are also present. The overlying Kanukollu
sandstone is predominantly sandy and fairly consistent in
distribution. Deposition took place in a marginal marine
environment.
Nandigama Formation (Aptian/Albian) is primarily
marine shale with thin sandstone beds. The basal part is
coarser clastics with thin sandstone interbedded.
Golapalli sandstone (Aptian/Albian) is red claystone,
overlain by sandstone, which rests unconformably over the
Mandapeta sandstone as fill sediment. The depositional
environment was shallow marine.
Raghavapuram shale (Cenomanian to Early Maastrichtian) can be subdivided into lower and upper units. The
high-resistivity lower unit is rich in organic matter. The
upper unit has thin interbedded layers of lenticular sand
and shale. Sedimentation took place under shallow marine
conditions.
Tirupati sandstone (Early to Late Maastrichtian) unconformably overlies the Raghavapuram shale. It was deposited
during the retreating Cretaceous sea and is predominantly
sandstone with minor claystone. It is progressively shaly basinward and is called the Chintalapalli shale.
Razole Formation (Early Paleocene) consists of widespread volcanic flows over the Tirupati sandstone. There are
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Figure 4. Geologic map of Krishna Godavari Basin.

at least 23 submarine trap flows. The traps at times develop

fractures, and the top surface is altered and weathered into
variegated clay.
Palakollu shale (Middle to Late Paleocene) was deposited
in an outer neretic to bathyal environment south of the
Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault. The thickness of this lithounit
increases basinward.
Pasarlapudi Formation (Early Eocene) overlies the
Palakollu shale and consists of alternating sand and shale
layers with some limestone. Toward the south and east, the
Pasarlapudi sands grade into shale and are called the
Vadaparru shale. The depositional environment was outer
neretic to bathyal.
Bhimanapalli limestone (Middle Eocene) is an algal dolostone with abundant dolomite crystal and red algal fragments. Interbedded sandstones within thick carbonates are
common. The depositional environment is outer neretic to
bathyal.
Matsyapuri sandstone (Oligocene-Miocene) is a thick
sandstone sequence with interbedded claystone, between
the Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault and the Miocene growth
fault close to the coast. Sedimentation occurred in middle
shelf conditions.
Ravva Formation (Miocene) consists of thick and coarse
clastics deposited south of the Miocene growth fault in an
inner-to-middle shelf environment. Sediments were sub832

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jected to push ups and rotation because of the tectonics

of the underlying Vadaparru shale. The sands are separated
by interbedded clay.
Narsapur claystone (Pliocene) is a monotonous claystone section with a minor amount of intervening sand and
silt. This unit thickens basinward where it is called the
Godavari clay. The depositional environment was shallow
inner-to-middle shelf.
Vadaparru shale (Miocene-Late Eocene) is a thick marine
clay section deposited under outer shelf conditions. It also
represents the basinward clay facies of the Pasarlapudi
Formation, Bhimanapalli limestone, and Matsyapuri sandstone.
Godavari Formation (Plio-Pleistocene) sediments are
mainly clay with minor silt layers deposited south of the
Miocene growth fault. However, the depocenter is farther
south of the Pliocene growth fault where thick coarser clastics, brought in by a deepwater river-fan system, accumulated. The depositional environment was inner-to-middle
shelf.
Evolutionary history of Krishna Godavari Basin. The basin
appears to have gone through eight stages prior to assuming its present form.
Rift Stage I: Prior to drifting, Gondwanaland comprised
the continents of Africa, South America, Antarctica, Aus-

Figure 5. Generalized stratigraphy.

Figure 6. Conceptual model of Cretaceous deposition during Early Drift

Stage I.

tralia, and the Indian subcontinent. The Upper Carboniferous-to-Jurassic sediments deposited selectively in linear
troughs traversing the unified continents. The Pranhita
Godavari graben on the east coast of India belongs to such
rifted troughs with possible rift continuity to eastern Antarctia. During this period, Kommugudem Formation (Early
Permian) and the Mandapeta sandstone (Late Permian)
were deposited. The absence of Triassic sediment is probably related to the breaking up and fragmentation of Gondwanaland during the Jurassic when the Permian and the
Triassic sediments were subjected to thermal upwelling. As
a consequence, the uplifted mass of Triassic sediments over
the emerging east coast of India were subjected to deep erosion in Gondwana graben. The Bhimadolu, Mandapeta, and
Kakinada grabens form part of Gondwana Basin. During
the fragmentation of India, a major NE-SW Jurassic rift
basin was created which accommodated thick Late Jurassic
sediments. The newly emerged Jurassic rift basin cuts across
the Krishna Godavari Gondwana graben orthogonally and
is named the Trans Godavari graben. A series of concentric
and parallel to subparallel weak planes also emerged. The

Figure 7. Conceptual model showing breakup of Trans Godavari horst

and Trans Godavari graben into smaller en-echelon horst and graben
systems during Early Drift Stage II.

Figure 8. Tertiary depositional model showing influence of growth tectonics over the sedimentation during Late Drift Stage IV.

Jurassic Basin deposited thick fluvial and lacustrine sediments (Bapatla sandstone) during the synrift stage. The
Jurassic Basin is represented by Krishna graben and
Gudivada graben. The main source of sediment was from
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Figure 9. Prospect map of Krishna Godavari Basin.

the surrounding granitic country rock.

Rift Stage II: Intense tectonic activity took place at the
end of the Jurassic. During this period, the Trans Godavari
graben acquired half-graben configuration as a result of
considerable accentuation of the fault on the grabens western margin. This fault ultimately transformed into a basin
margin fault for the Krishna Godavari Basin. Simultaneously,
the eastern margin of Trans Godavari graben was subjected
to reactivation of the faults and emergence of a long and
linear horst, named the Trans Godavari Horst. This megahorst was due to basement uplift and collapse of the flanks.
At this time, Bantumilli graben also emerged as an associated low southeast of the Trans Godavari Horst.
Early Drift Stage I: India and Antarctica started moving
apart during the Neocomian, creating the ocean floor for the
emerging Bay of Bengal. The period witnessed the initial
deposition of shale (Gajulapadu shale) in lacustrine environment in the southern part of the landlocked Trans Godavari graben (represented today by Krishna and Gudivada
graben). At a later stage because of rising sea level, the Kanukollu sandstone (Aptian/Albian) was deposited under
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Figure 10. Geographic distribution of petroleum systems in Krishna

Godavari Basin.

ment. During the same period, the

Bantumilli graben, exposed on the
south to the open sea, deposited
marine shale (Nandigama Formation). All these lithounits, although
time equivalent (Aptian/Albian), had
different depositional settings. During
the period, the Trans Godavari graben
filled up and achieved peniplaination.
The sediment supply was mostly
from the newly emerged horst and the
exposed areas north of the basin margin (Figure 6).
Early Drift Stage II: The Trans
Godavari horst and graben system
emerged transverse to the NW-SE
Paleozoic Gondwana trends. As a result, the newly emerged megahorst
and graben were under great stress.
Subsequent to the sediment fill a critical tolerance level was exceeded
(Early Eocene), and the stress was
released through the breaking up of
the Trans Godavari horst and graben
at different places and then dislocating them in the direction of older
Figure 11. Geologic section depicting source, reservoirs, and traps in the Palakollu-Pasarlapudi
system.
Paleozoic trends oriented NW-SE.
Five such cross trends are identified
over the basin. This geologic phenomenon therefore resulted in the
formation of series of smaller en-echelon horst and graben systems from
the single megahorst and graben
(Figure 7).
Late Drift Stage I: The top of the
Early Cretaceous sediment was subjected to wide erosion and peneplanation when most horsts ceased to be
a positive area. During the period, a
strong southeasterly basinal tilt
occurred with the basin margin fault
Figure 12. Seismogeologic section of Gudivada Graben showing source, reservoirs, and structure.
acting as the hinge. This was followed
by Cretaceous sea transgression, and
flooding of the entire basinal areas.
Now, for the first time, almost the
entire area underwent deposition as
a single basinal unit. It is at this stage
that the present form of Krishna
Godavari Basin took shape. During
the regional transgression, Late Cretaceous marine sediments (Raghavapuram shale) were deposited over the
Early Cretaceous sediment fill with a
well marked regional unconformity
(Raghavapuram regional unconformity). The basinal tilt toward the
southeast increased considerably during the Maastrichtian. As a conseFigure 13. Seismogeologic section of Bhimadolu graben showing rotated fault blocks with source
quence, coarser clastics (Tirupati
and reservoirs.
sandstone) were deposited in the
northern part of the basin.
marginal marine environment. The northeastern part of the
Late Drift Stage II: During the Paleocene, the subduction
Trans Godavari graben is represented at present by the of the Indian Plate below the Tibet Plate intensified. This
Bhimadolu, Mandapeta, and Kakinada grabens. These triggered volcanic eruptions (Razole Formation) over most
grabens were deposited as thick coarser clastics (Golapalli of Krishna Godavari Basin. The postvolcanic period witsandstone) due to its proximity to the basin margin. nessed regression/emergence of the Krishna and the
Sedimentation took place under a marginal marine environ- Godavari rivers. The continued tilting caused a fresh supJULY 2006

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The Vadaparru-Ravva/Godavari
clay system, the youngest Tertiary petroleum system in Krishna Godavari
Basin, includes a large offshore area
and a narrow coastal strip of Godavari
graben. Ravva, GS-15, GS-23, and GS29 are Miocene clastic reservoirs. G1, G-4, and Dhirubhai are structural
and stratistructural traps of Pliocene
clastic reservoirs. For both Miocene
and Pliocene reservoirs, Vadaparru
acted as the main source rock. The
Miocene reservoirs of Ravva Formation are fine- to medium-grained
sands with interbedded clay. The PlioPleistocene reservoirs were deposited
under a deepwater channel and fan
Figure 14. Seismogeologic section of Mandapeta graben depicting structural entrapment of gas.
complex. The sands are fine- to medium-grained and at times extensive
ply of clastics, accompanied by rapid loading. The contin- and substantially thick. The regional cap to the Miocene reseruation of this process produced a major Eocene growth fault voirs is the widespread Pliocene clay sequence (Godavari
which is arcuate in nature, more or less parallel to the basin clay), and the cap for the Pliocene reservoirs is the overlying
margin, and is called the Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault. This Pleistocene clay. The Miocene and Pliocene growth faults
also marked the birth of Godavari graben, which formed caused large anticlinal structures by triggering shale tectonthe depocenter for Tertiary sediments. The Palakollu shale ics in the underlying Vadaparru shale. Rotated fault blocks,
and Pasarlapudi Formation were deposited during this geomorphic highs, and unconformity-related trapping conperiod.
ditions are common. In addition, the numerous channel and
Late Drift Stage III: Sea level lowered during the Oligocene fan geobodies generated stratigraphic or stratistructural traps.
period and deposition of sediments near the coastal areas,
Palakollu-Pasarlapudi system includes the Pasarlapudi
which were at places subjected to erosion, was minor. The Formation of Late Paleocene-to-Early Eocene age, a most
area of sediment source in the north was continuously accen- important producer in Krishna Godavari Basin. The importuated due to basin tilt. As a result, the Godavari River tant finds are Pasarlapudi, Tatipaka, Rangapuram, and
started prograding basinward and built the Miocene delta. Ellamanchilli gas fields and Mori oil field. Widespread
Rapid loading of sediments resulted in a well developed Palakollu shales are the main source rock and the overlygrowth fault, arcuate in shape, more or less parallel to the ing Pasarlapudi sandstone forms the reservoir. Bhimanapalli
Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault, and called the Miocene growth limestone overlying the Pasarlapudi reservoirs provides an
fault. During the period, Miocene sediments were deposited effective regional cap (Figure 11). At times intervening shales
under the growth fault regime and were influenced by shale also act as local seals for the reservoirs. The shale tectonics
tectonics.
over the area caused a series of parallel-to-subparallel NELate Drift Stage IV: During the Pliocene, another spurt of SW arcuate faults. These faults provide an excellent updip
clastic input triggered formation of the Pliocene growth fault. seal for the reservoirs. The anticlinal structures, formed as
The underlying Vadaparru shale was subjected to wide shale a result of bulging of the underlying shales, are the best traps
tectonism. As a consequence, large anticlinal structures and for the hydrocarbons.
numerous fault closures formed. It is interesting that all three
Raghavapuram-Tirupati is the dominant system in the
major growth faults described above are parallel to the Late west of the Krishna Godavari Basin. Exploratory drilling
Jurassic basin margin fault. Further basinward, the Pliocene over Gudivada graben and Bantumilli graben confirmed oil,
limit is marked by the pronounced Pliocene/Pleistocene toe gas, and condensate from the Kaikalur, Lingala, Bantumilli,
thrust. The subthrust and the area beyond it are dominated Nandigama, Mahadevapatnam, Gokarnapuram prospects.
by the Bengal fan system (Figure 8).
The Raghavapuram shale is the main source rock. Alternating sand and silt within Raghavapuram shale forms the
Petroleum systems. The presence of hydrocarbons in reservoir. The sands within Raghavapuram shales are sealed
Krishna Godavari Basin was established in 1979. The initial by overlying and underlying shales. Tirupati sandstone
commercial discovery was made in 1980 by offshore prospect reservoirs are capped by the overlying Razole Formation.
G-1. In 198186, many small gas fields were discovered Traps are mainly over the flanks of the horst. Wedge-outs
onshore. Two major discoveries occurred in 1987, Miocene and fault closures are also common. The sands within the
oil in the offshore Ravva Field and Eocene gas onshore in mounded geobodies are also favorable locales for hydroPasarlapudi Field. This success has continued. Some sub- carbon accumulation.
sequently discovered oil and gas fields are (onshore)
The Gajulapadu-Kanukollu system is restricted to
Mandapeta, Endamuru, Kesanapalli west, and Mori and Gudivada graben. Discovered pools are few and small. The
(offshore) GS-29, GS-15, GS-23, G-4, G-1-12, and Dhirubhai Gajulapadu shale is the source for the overlying Kanukollu
(Figure 9). The sustained exploration effort in Krishna sandstone reservoir. The shales are moderately hard, poorly
Godavari Basin has generated a rich knowledge base with fissile, and compact. The consistently distributed Kanukollu
respect to hydrocarbon generation, migration, and entrap- sandstone is dominantly sandstone with minor shales. Sands
ment. A systematic study that integrated the available infor- are fine- to medium-grained, subangular-to-subrounded,
mation established the presence of five petroleum systems and fairly sorted. The Raghavapuram shale provides an
in Krishna Godavari Basin (Gupta et al., 2000). Figure 10 efficient cap to the underlying Kanukollu sandstone resershows their geographical distribution.
voirs (Figure 12). The reservoir shows updip wedgings
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against the rising flanks of the Kaza and Kaikalur horsts,

creating a stratistructural trap. The basement faults cut
across the reservoir section to create fault closures.
Kommugudem-Mandapeta/Golapalli is the oldest petroleum system of Krishna Godavari Basin. The important
gas fields are Mandapeta, Mandapeta West, and Endamuru.
The thick and widespread Kommugudem coal/shale sequence is a proven source. The overlying Golapalli and
Mandapeta sandstones are the main reservoir sequences. The
sandstones are feldspathic and micaceous with thin intercalations of shale and claystone. The Raghavapuram shale
overlying the Golapalli sandstone reservoir, widespread
and thick, provides a good cap to the reservoir (Figure 13).
The Mandapeta sandstone is overlain by thick red claystone
belonging to the lower part of the Golapalli sandstone.
Entrapment is due to fault closures and anticlinal structures
(Figure 14).
Conclusion. The evolution of Krishna Godavari Basin began
during the Permian when the linear-trending (NE-SW)
Gondwana graben was formed. A major, long and linear
(NE-SW), rifted graben and horst system was created during the Jurassic and named the Trans Godavari graben and
Trans Godavari horst. The end of the Early Cretaceous was
marked by dislocation of this horst and graben along five
major cross trends. A series of smaller en-echelon horst and
graben systems were formed from the existing single
megasystem. The Late Cretaceous witnessed widespread
marine transgression when, for the first time, the entire basinal area was under deposition. The Paleocene was charac-

terized by subaquous lava flow. The postvolcanic period witnessed active Tertiary sedimentation and, during this period,
Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene regional growth faults were
formed with a corresponding depocenter. Further basinward, the limit of Tertiary deposition is marked by a PlioPleistocene toe thrust.
Known hydrocarbon areas are classified into five petroleum systems. The major source rocks are Early Permian,
Cretaceous, Paleocene, and Eocene. Favorably placed clastic reservoirs are from Late Permian, Cretaceous, Eocene,
Miocene, and Plio-Pleistocene. Both structural and stratigraphic traps are common in these systems.
Suggested reading. Genesis of petroleum systems in Krishna
Godavari Basin by Gupta et al. (AAPG 2000 International
Conference). Pre rift, syn rift sedimentation and hydrocarbon
potentials of Krishna Godavari Basin by Gupta et al. (AAPG
1997 International Conference). Geology and hydrocarbon
prospects of Krishna Godavari and Cauvery Basin by Kumar
(in Petroliferous Basins of India, ONGC, 1983). Krishna Godavari
Basin Stratigraphy, Petroleum Geochemistry and Petroleum
Geology by Robertson Research Group (ONGC report, 1987).
Lithostratigraphy of Indian Petroleum Basin Document VIII, Krishna
Godavari Basin (ONGC Publication, 1993). TLE
Acknowledgment: The author is thankful to Oil and Natural Gas
Corporation, India.
Corresponding author: drgupta333@yahoo.com

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