1

Metal

Ceramics

Semiconducto
r

Polymer

E detach from the atoms, leaving positively

charged ion cores. When metal solidifies, ion
cores arrange themselves to make a regular
repeated structure, forming crystal. E are free
to move throughout the crystal
Atoms are able to roll over each other into
new positions without breaking metallic
bond which is not as strong as other primary
bonds
Strong metallic bond
The atoms are held by ionic bond and
covalent bond or mix of them. Ionic bonds
are very strong and require a relatively large
amount of energy to break. However, once
enough energy is applied to break the bonds,
they break completely. Anions are bigger
than cations
Ionic bond and covalent bonds are very
strong
No free electrons move around due to
covalent bonds
Crystalline or glassy or combination of both

Good conductor of
heat and electricity,
good reflector of
light (opaque)
Metals are ductile
(soft and easily
deformable) and
malleable
High melting point,
high boiling point
Ceramics are hard
and brittle

High melting point,

heat resistance
Good electrical and
heat insulator
Transparent to light

Polycrystalline

Opaque

- Small energy gap between valence and

conduction bands energy of photon of

Poor conductor

visible lights can promote valence e- to

conduction e- at room temp
Band gap is on order of infrared or visible
lights
When e- fall from conduction band to
valence band
Long chains of repeating groups of
molecules (mers) bind together through
covalent bond
Valence e- are tied up in chemical bonds
- Chains are loosely bonded through van de
Waals slipping pass each other,
especially at elevated temp

- Electrical
appliances
- Heat sink to protect
overheating
- Construction of
mirror
- Use in building
construction

- Applications in
electro-optical fields
- Electrical
insulation
- Used in high
temperature
components
- Electromagnetic
pump, circuit
substrates

- Basis for diode

- Photoelectric
detector- LED, solidstate laser

Light is emitted
Very srong

Best electrical
insulator
plastic nature of
polymers

- Fiber: textile,
bulletproof
- Rubber
- Plastic

Amorphous: no regular structure

2
Structure,
properties

Metallic glass

Glass

- The atoms are not arranged in any ordered

structure, they have a tightly-packed, but
random arrangement.
experience a glass transition into a

- Highly disordered amorphous structure

brittle and viscous

supercooled liquid state upon heating

not have the crystalline defects
high strength, low stiffness
- Different sizes of atoms difficult to

- Poor conductor of electricity

- No grain boundaries chemical
resistance
- Allow photons to pass through without
interacting with any electrons
transparent to visible lights

move over each other higher viscosity

than other metal, resistance to corosion and
wear
- Free e not transparent
Preparation

Cool a metallic liquid so quickly by splat

cooling or melt spinning that the internal
atomic configurations froze before the atoms
had a chance to arrange themselves into a
lattice pattern

Application

- Electronics: transformer cores

- Nanotechnology: nano-mold, data storage

Heat the mixture of sand and modifiers

until it melts, and then cool it quickly so
that it solidifies to produce a glass. If the
cooling is rapid enough, the particles in
the liquid state can't return to the original
crystalline arrangement of the starting
materials. Instead, they arrange randomly
in no ordered structure.
- Household appliances, office
equipments
- Furnitures, roof and walls of greenhouse
- Radiation-protection glass

3
Superalloys are alloys that has excellent mechanical strength and resistance to high temperatures,
good surface stability, and corrosion and oxidation resistance. They typically have a facecentered cubic crystal structure with a base alloying element of nickel, cobalt, or nickel-iron.
Most superalloys are based on nickel, cobalt, or iron, but other metals are used as well. Most of
the internal parts of gas turbine jet engines are made of superalloys based on either nickel (used
in blades and disks) or cobalt (used in vanes, combustion chamber liners, and afterburners).
Alloys based on titanium also have applications in the aerospace industry. Titaniums high
strength, corrosion resistance, and lightweight properties are required for applications where

weight must be minimized. Because aluminumlithium alloys are lighter, stiffer, and more
resistant to fatigue at high temperatures than aluminum itself, they are used in engine parts and in
the metal skin that cover wings and bodies.

Fiberglass is a polymer-matrix composite that consists of glass fibers embedded in a polymer

that are then arranged in layers impregnated with epoxy, resulting in a strong, hard, lightweight
material that is resistant to chemical erosion. A fiberglass is stable and inactive both in unusual
and aggressive environment. Stronger, stiffer polymer-matrix composites contain fibers of
carbon (graphite), boron, or polyamides such as Kevlar. Compared with metals, these materials
are lighter and thus reduce operating costs. Fibreglass does not conduct electricity and the
composites are thus ideally suited to applications where metallic materials would require much
cost. The specific weight of fibreglass composites makes it easy to move and install the product,
as well as reducing the weight carried by supporting structures.
4
- Crystalline state is a periodically repeated sets of atoms arranged in a particular way in three
dimensions on a lattice.
- Amorphous state is a state in which the atoms are arranged in a disordered way due to deviation
of average distance and bond angle.
Crystalline material
Amorphous material
A long range order in the solid, symmetrical,
have characteristic geometrical shape
Have a sharp melting point

A short range order in the solid,

unsymmetrical, not have definite geometrical
shape
Not have a sharp melting point

Can be cleaved along particular direction of

definite planes
Anisotropic (physical properties are different
in different directions)
More rigid

Undergo irregular breakage

Show two breaks in cooling curve

Show smooth cooling curve

Isotropic
Less rigid

5
- Intermolecular forces control how well molecules stick together. This affects many of the
measurable physical properties of substances:
Melting and Boiling Points
+ If molecules stick together more, they'll be tougher to break apart
+ Stronger intermolecular forces higher melting and boiling points
Viscosity
+ Viscosity is a measure of resitance to flow of a liquid.
+ Stronger intermolecular forces higher viscosity.
Surface Tension
+ Surface tension is a measure of the toughness of the surface of a liquid
+ Stronger intermolecular forces higher surface tension.
Vapour Pressure
+ This is a small amount of gas that is found above all liquids.
+ Stronger intermolecular forces Lower vapour pressure.
The physical properties of biological substances depend on the intermolecular forces present.
The sequence of strength from strongest to weakest force is ions > hydrogen bonding > dipoledipole > London forces. As the strength of forces decreases, so do the melting points, boiling
points, and solubility in water. Besides that, the vapor pressure and the solubility in nonpolar
solvents also increases.
- Ionic bonds:
+ not conduct electricity at all as a solid, because the ions are tightly locked in place.
+ high melting and boiling points. It takes a lot of energy to pull a cation from an anion
+ conduct electricity when dissolved in water
- Covalentbond:
+ have low melting and boiling points, lower amount of energy is added to separate molecules
+ More flammable than ionic
+ not conduct electricity very well when dissolved in water.
6. Metallic bondings are held together by very strong intermolecular force. Water molecules are
polar. Because water molecules have ends that are charged, the molecules can attract other
charged particles, attack, and rip partner molecules off of one another. However, polar water
bonds do not have the strength to remove these strong intermolecular attractions.

7
Hydrid
e

Ionic

Property

Application

Properties of H- ion
- crystallographic radius intermediate to that
of F and Cl
- a strong base react instantly and

- Produce hydrogen gas

- Reducing agent in metallurgical
process.
- Dehydrating agent for organic
solvents (CaH2: desiccant)

quantitatively with the hydrogen ion (H+)

from H2O
- saline hydrides react vigorously with water,
giving off large volumes of gaseous
hydrogen useful as light, portable
sources of hydrogen
Metallic

Covalent

Carbide

Acetylide
CaC2

- Alloylike hydrides: have some

characteristics of metals: luster and strong
electrical conductivity due to to the relative
freedom of electron movement in the
hydride.
- Variable physical properties: some being
more brittle; others being harder than the
metals from which they are made.
- Are regarded as intermediate in nature
between salts and alloys
- Chemical reactivity similar to the finely
divided metal itself: being stable in air at
ambient temp., but reactive when heated in
air or with acidic compounds.
- Compounds of hydrogen and nonmetals
- Intra-molecular interaction: Covalent
bonds
- Inter-molecular interactions: van der Waals

- Reducing agents (metallurgy).

- UH3 is the most important
hydride of the actinoid metals

- Carbide lamps: in which water drips on the

carbide => C2H2 formed is ignited.

- Producing acetylene and

Ca(OH)2

- CaC2: used in the desulfurisation of iron

- CaC2: as a fuel in steelmaking to extend the
scrap ratio to liquid iron
- Powerful deoxidizer.

Silicon
carbide
(SiC)

TiC

Tungsten
carbide
(WC)

Nitride

GaN

CaC2 + 2 H2O C2H2 +

Ca(OH)2
- Raw material for production of
polyvinal chloride
- Artificial ripening of fruit
- Production of calcium
cyanamide fertilizer

CaC2 + N2 CaCN2 + C (at

high T)
- Pure SiC: colorless. Impurities (Fe): brown
- Abrasive and cutting
to black color. SiO on surface: rainbow-like
tools
luster of the crystals.
- Grains of SiC: can be
- Sublimation temperature: approximately
bonded together by
2700 C
sintering to form very
- Does not melt at any known pressure.
hard ceramics are
- Highly inert chemically
widely used in
- Crystal structure
applications requiring
- High electric field breakdown strength; high
high endurance
maximum current density more
- Heating elements
promising than Si for high-powered devices.
- Nuclear field particles
- Very low coefficient of thermal expansion
- Electronic applications
- Experiences no phase transitions that would
cause discontinuities in thermal expansion.
- Ceramic material, similar to WC
- Tool bits
- Extremely hard (Mohs 9-9.5)
- Preparation of cermet
- Mohs scale: talc: 1; diamond: 10(highest)
- Surface coating on
watches
- High-tech ceramic:
titanium carbide in nickelcobalt matrix cermet
- m.p.: 2,870 C (5,200 F),
- Cutting tools
- extremely hard (~9 on Mohs scale)
- Armor-piercing shield
- WC decomposes to W and C at high
- Sporting goods
temperatures (at m.p., high energy plasma)
- Surgical tools
- Oxidized at 500600 C
- Resistant to acids but reacts with HF/HNO3
mixtures, T > room tempt
- Reacts with F2 at room temperature, and Cl2
at 400 C
- Not react with to dry H2 up to its m.p.
- WC dissolves readily in diluted H2O2
- Can be operated at high temperatures
- New Kind of Nanotube

- Wide band gap energy

- Laser diodes: Highresolution Printings

- Microwave radiofrequency power
amplifiers
- Solar Cells

Example questions
1.
- Metals are ductile since the atoms in the metal crystals are able to roll over each other into new
positions without breaking metallic bonds.
- Ceramics are brittle because there are ionic bonds and covalent bonds in the crystal and the
anions are bigger than cations. Ionic bonds are very strong and require a large amount of energy
to break, once there is enough energy, ionic bonds break completely. The size of anions and
cations make it difficult to roll over each other.
2.
- In metal crystal, e move freely metals conduct electricity well
- In ceramics crystal, e are held tightly because of covalent bonds between atoms ceramics
conduct electricity badly
5, 6, 7
- Metals are not transparent since free e move throughout the crystal. When a light photon strikes
the metal surface, the e reflect the light photons.
- Ceramics are not transparent because they are polycrystalline. Light will be scattered at grain
boundaries in polycrystalline materials if the index of refraction is anisotropic, and when those
grains adjacent to the boundary have different crystallographic orientations.
- Glass are transparent because the index of refraction of the glass is very nearly uniform on
distances as large as the wavelength of light. That means that the light waves transmit smoothly,
not bouncing off different directions.
- Metallic glass are not transparent since free e moving around reflect light photons and light is
scattered.
8.

- Glass are brittle because glass doesn't contain planes of atoms that can slip past each other,
there is no way to relieve stress. Excessive stress therefore forms a crack that breaks bonds
between particles on the surface of the crack.
- Metallic glass are not brittle because
9. Compared to metals, metallic glass:
- has no crystalline defects higher strength, lower stiffness
- different sizes of atoms higher viscosity
- no grain boundaries more resistance to corrosion and wear
10. Create metallic glass: Cool a metallic liquid so quickly by splat cooling or melt spinning that
the internal atomic configurations froze before the atoms had a chance to arrange themselves into
a lattice pattern
11.
- Only ionic compounds form crystal:
- All polymers are good insulators because they dont have detached electrons like in metals: true
12. Intermolecular force influence melting/boiling/sublimation point, solubility, and vapor
pressure of a substance
13. used as reducing agent/hydrogen gas source: H2S
14. used to produce acetylene: CaC2
15. used to for heat shield: TiC
16. used to make blue laser diodes: GaN
17. used to make cutting tools/ tips/poles that strike on hard surface: WC
18.
- SEM: scanning electron microscope
- TEM: transmission electron microscope
- AFM: atomic force microscopy
- STM: scanning tunneling microscopy
19.

Extremely expensive
20. Scanning probe microscopy
atomic force microscopy

Low cost

scanning tunneling microscopy

Capture images by moving a nanometer sized

tip across the surface of the image
Gives 3D surface profile of nano-object

Capture images using quantum tunneling

Higher resolution

Lower resolution

Give 2D image of atoms

Use a conductive AFM cantilever with a

sharp tip at its end
Depends on movement due to
electromagnetic forces between atoms
Only measure the small force between the tip
and the surface
Interaction between tip and surface is van de
Waals force
The tip touches the surface gently

Use a sharpened conducting tip

Apply to conductor and insulator

Apply normally to conductor

Operate well in liquid and gas environment

Only operate in high vacuum

Depends on electrical current between tip and

surface
Measure the tunneling current
Interaction between tip and surface is
tunneling current
The tip is kept at a short distance from surface

21. Have images at scales below 1 nm, use transmission electron microscopy
22. Analyze the pore size and surface area of zeolites, use scanning probe microscopy
23.
- Silica: SiO2
- Alumina: Al2O3
24. Main ingredient in most clay: kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4
25. Piezoelectricity: piezoelectric crystals are electrically neutral: the atoms inside have electrical
charges perfectly balanced. However, if we deform the structure, pushing some of the atoms
closer together or further apart, upsetting the balance of positive and negative, and causing net
electrical charges to appear. This effect carries through the whole structure so net positive and
negative charges appear on opposite, outer faces of the crystal.
26. PbO is added to glass to alter index of refaction
27. B2O3 is added to glass to make Pyrex glass
28.
- Glass-ceramics are a ceramic material produced by conversion of glass into a polycrystalline
structure through heat treatment
- Advantage:
Efficiency of processing in the glassy state
Close dimensional control over final product shape
Good mechanical and physical properties
High strength (stronger than glass)
Absence of porosity; low thermal expansion
High resistance to thermal shock
- Application:

 Cooking ware
Heat exchangers
Missile radomes
29. Clay and zeolite
Clay

Zeolite

Alumino-silicate
Layered silicates: Kaolinite clay alternates
(Si2O5)2- layer with Al2(OH)42+ layer

subject to shrinking and swelling as water is

absorbed and removed between the layers
clay can be shaped while wet and soft, and
then fired to obtain the final hard product

Rigid, 3-dimensional crystalline structure

consisting of a network of interconnected
tunnels and cages: 3 components:
- Framework: Al, Si, O; Si and Al atoms are
tetrahedrally coordinated with each other
through shared O atoms.
- Cations (K+, Ca2+, ) in pores
-adsorbed molec ules (water)
Water moves freely in and out of pores, but
the zeolites framework remains rigid.
Ability to exchange ions due to positive ions
present in the channels.

30. Application of zeolite:

- Natural zeolite: Good natural filter medium for the filtration of water.
- Catalyst:
Organic reactions : cracking, isomerisation and hydrocarbon synthesis.
Acid-base and metal induced reactions.
Shape-selective catalysts: either by transition state selectivity or by exclusion of
competing reactants on the basis of molecular diameter.
Oxidation catalysts: take place within the pores of the zeolite, which allows a
greater degree of product control.
Petrochemical refineries. The main industrial application areas: petroleum
refining, Synthetic fuels production, petrochemical production.
- Adsorption: applications in drying, purification, and separation
Remove water to very low partial pressures very effective desiccants, with
a capacity of up to more than 25% of their weight in water.
Remove volatile organic chemicals from air streams, separate isomers and
mixtures of gases.
Gas separation: The porous structure can be used to "sieve" molecules having
certain dimensions and allow them to enter the pores.
Reactors: Applications that can take place within the pore
Polymerization of semi conducting materials and conducting polymers to produce
materials having unusual physical and electrical attributes.

- Ion exchange:
Used water softening devices
Used in detergents and soaps: exchanging the K+ in the zeolite for the Ca2+ and
Mg2+ present in the water.
Remove radioactive ions from contaminated water.
Removal of NH3/NH4+ in aquaculture, swimming pools: remove NH4+ ions by ionexchange for Na+, and adsorption at higher concentration
Removal of heavy metals: Fe2+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Cd2+, Pb2+, Cu2+: similar to removal of
NH4+
Carrier material in biological waste treatment
Adsorb a number of organic substances: largest affinity for polar organic
components
Solid and suspended particles are trapped between the grains, the porous structure
also causes colloid particles from both organic and mineral origin to be removed
from the water.