Darcys law

Groundwater Hydraulics

Outline

Properties Aquifer Storage

Darcys Law
Hydraulic Conductivity
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
Refraction of Streamlines
Generalized Darcys Law

Aquifer Storage
Storativity (S) - ability of
an aquifer to store water
Change in volume of
stored water due to
change in piezometric
head.
Volume of water released
(taken up) from aquifer
per unit decline (rise) in
piezometric head.

Unit area

Unit decline
in head

Released
water

Aquifer Storage
Fluid Compressibility (b)
Aquifer Compressibility (a)
Confined Aquifer
Water produced by 2
mechanisms
1. Aquifer compaction due to
increasing effective stress
2. Water expansion due to
decreasing pressure

Unconfined aquifer
Water produced by draining
pores

V ag

S = r g(a + fb )

S = Sy

Unconfined Aquifer Storage

Storativity of an
unconfined aquifer (Sy,
specific yield) depends
on pore space drainage.
Some water will remain
in the pores - specific
retention, Sr
Sy = f Sr

Unit area

Unit decline
in head

Released
water

Porosity, Specific Yield, & Specific Retention

Sr f S y

Confined Aquifer Storage

Storativity of a confined
aquifer (Ss) depends on
both the compressibility
of the water (b) and the
compressibility of the
porous medium itself
(a).

Unit area
Unit decline
in head

Released
water

Example

Storage in a sandstone aqufier

f = 0.1, a = 4x10-7 ft2/lb, b = 2.8x10-8 ft2/lb, g = 62.4 lb/ft3
ga 2.5x10-5 ft-1 and gbf 1.4x10-7 ft-1
Solid
Fluid
2 orders of magnitude more storage in solid
b = 100 ft, A = 10 mi2 = 279,000,000 ft2
S = Ss*b = 2.51x10-3
If head in the aquifer is lowered 3 ft, what volume is released?
V = SAh = 2.1x10-6 ft3

Darcy

http://biosystems.okstate.edu/Darcy/English/index.htm

Darcys Experiments
Discharge is
Proportional to

hL

P1/g

Area
Head difference

Coefficient of
proportionality is

h1

Q
z1

QA

Sand
column
Datum
plane

K = hydraulic conductivity
h1 h2

h2
,A

Length

P2/g

Ar
ea

Inversely proportional to

z2
Q

Q = -KA

h2 - h1
L

Q = -KA

Dh
L

Darcys Data
35

Flow, Q (l/min)

Set 1, Series 1

30

Set 1, Series 2

25

Set 1, Series 3
Set 1, Series 4

20

Set 2

15
10
5
0
0

10
Gradient (m/m)

15

20

Hydraulic Conductivity
Has dimensions of velocity [L/T]
A combined property of the medium and the fluid
Ease with which fluid moves through the medium

= cd2
=
=
=

intrinsic permeability
density
dynamic viscosity
specific weight

Porous medium property

Fluid properties

Hydraulic Conductivity

Groundwater Velocity
q - Specific discharge
Discharge from a unit crosssection area of aquifer
formation normal to the
direction of flow.

v - Average velocity
Average velocity of fluid
flowing per unit crosssectional area where flow is
ONLY in pores.

Q
A

Q
Af

Example
h1 = 12m

K = 1x10-5 m/s
f = 0.3
Find q, Q, and v

h2 = 12m

/
10m

Flow

Porous medium

5m
L = 100m

dh = (h2 - h1) = (10 m 12 m) = -2 m

J = dh/dx = (-2 m)/100 m = -0.02 m/m
q = -KJ = -(1x10-5 m/s) x (-0.02 m/m) = 2x10-7 m/s
Q = qA = (2x10-7 m/s) x 50 m2 = 1x10-5 m3/s
v = q/f = 2x10-7 m/s / 0.3 = 6.6x10-7 m/s

Hydraulic Gradient

Gradient vector points in the direction of greatest rate of increase of h

Specific discharge vector points in the opposite direction of h

Well Pumping in an Aquifer

Hydraulic gradient
y

Circular hydraulic
head contours

K, conductivity,
Is constant

Specific discharge
x

Well, Q
h1

h2

h3
h1 < h2 < h3

Aquifer (plan view)

Validity of Darcys Law

We ignored kinetic energy (low velocity)
We assumed laminar flow
We can calculate a Reynolds Number for the flow
rqd10
NR =
m

q = Specific discharge
d10 = effective grain size diameter

Darcys Law is valid for NR < 1 (maybe up to 10)

Specific Discharge vs Head Gradient

Re = 10
Re = 1

Experiment
shows this
Darcy Law
predicts this

a
tan-1(a)=

q
(1/K)

Estimating Conductivity
Kozeny Carman Equation
Kozeny used bundle of capillary tubes model to derive an
expression for permeability in terms of a constant (c) and
the grain size (d)

2
k cd

2
d
180(1 f ) 2

f3

Kozeny Carman eq.

So how do we get the parameters we need for this

equation?

Measuring Conductivity
Permeameter Lab Measurements
Darcys Law is useless unless we can measure the
parameters
Set up a flow pattern such that
We can derive a solution
We can produce the flow pattern experimentally

Hydraulic Conductivity is measured in the lab with a

permeameter
Steady or unsteady 1-D flow
Small cylindrical sample of medium

Measuring Conductivity
Constant Head Permeameter
Flow is steady
Sample: Right circular cylinder
Length, L
Area, A

Continuous Flow

head difference

Constant head difference (h) is

applied across the sample
producing a flow rate Q
flow
Darcys Law
Q = KA

b
L

Overflow

A
Outflow
Q

Sample

Measuring Conductivity
Falling Head Permeameter
Flow rate in the tube must equal that in the column
2
Qtube = prtube

dh
dt

2
Qcolumn = prcolumn
K

Initial head

h
L

Final head

rtube L dh

= dt
r
column K h
2

flow

Outflow
Q

Sample

Heterogeneity and Anisotropy

Homogeneous
Properties same at every
point
Heterogeneous
Properties different at every
point
Isotropic
Properties same in every
direction

Anisotropic
Properties different in different
directions

Often results from stratification

during sedimentation
Khorizontal Kvertical
www.usgs.gov

Example

a = ???, b = 4.673x10-10 m2/N, g = 9798 N/m3,

S = 6.8x10-4, b = 50 m, f = 0.25,
Saquifer = gabb ???
Swater = gbfb

% storage attributable to water expansion

%storage attributable to aquifer expansion

Layered Porous Media

(Flow Parallel to Layers)
Piezometric surface
h
h1
h2
datum

b1

K1

Q1

b b2

K2

Q2

b3

K3

Q3
W

Layered Porous Media

(Flow Perpendicular to Layers)

Piezometric surface
h1
h2 h
h3

K1
b

K2

K3

Q
Q

L1

L2
L

L3

Example
Flow Q

Find average K

Flow Q

Find average K

Example

Anisotrpoic Porous Media

General relationship between specific
discharge and hydraulic gradient
K is symmetric, i.e., Kij = Kji.

Principal Directions
Often we can align the
coordinate axes in the
principal directions of
layering
Horizontal conductivity
often order of
magnitude larger than
vertical conductivity
K xx = K yy = K Horiz >> K zz = KVert

q x K xx

q y = - 0
qz 0

0
K yy
0

h
x
h
qy = -K yy
y
h
qz = -K zz
z
qx = -K xx

0 x
h
0
y

K zz h
z

Groundwater Flow Direction

Water level
measurements from
three wells can be used
to determine
groundwater flow
Head Gradient, J
direction

Groundwater
Contours

hi

h1(x1,y1)

hi > hj > hk

hj

hk
h3(x3,y3)

z
y

Groundwater
Flow, Q

h2(x2,y2)
x

Groundwater Flow Direction

Head gradient =

Magnitude of head gradient =

Angle of head gradient =

Groundwater Flow Direction

Head Gradient, J

h1(x1,y1)

h3(x3,y3)

z
Equation of a plane in 2D
3 points can be used to
define a plane

Groundwater
Flow, Q

h2(x2,y2)
x

Set of linear equations can be solved for a,

b and c given (xi, hi, i=1, 2, 3)

Groundwater Flow Direction

Negative of head gradient in x direction

Negative of head gradient in y direction

Magnitude of head gradient

Direction of flow

Example
Find:

y
Well 2
(200 m, 340 m)
55.11 m

Magnitude of head gradient

Direction of flow

Well 1
(0 m,0 m)
57.79 m

Well 3
(190 m, -150 m)
52.80 m

Contour Map of Groundwater Levels

Contours of
groundwater level
(equipotential lines)
and Flowlines
(perpendicular to
equipotiential lines)
indicate areas of
recharge and discharge

Refraction of Streamlines
Vertical component of
velocity must be the same
on both sides of interface
qy1 = qy2

K1

q1

q1 cos q1 = q2 sin q 2
Head continuity along
interface

h1 = h2 @ y = 0
So

K1 tan q1
=
K 2 tan q 2

K2
K 2 K1

Upper Formation

q2

Lower Formation

Summary
Properties Aquifer Storage
Darcys Law

Darcys Experiment
Specific Discharge
Average Velocity
Validity of Darcys Law

Hydraulic Conductivity

Permeability
Kozeny-Carman Equation
Constant Head Permeameter
Falling Head Permeameter

Heterogeneity and Anisotropy

Layered Porous Media

Refraction of Streamlines
Generalized Darcys Law

Darcys Law
Examples

Example

a = ???, b = 4.673x10-10 m2/N, g = 9798 N/m3,

S = 6.8x10-4, b = 50 m, f = 0.25,
Saquifer = gabb ???
Swater = gbfb = (9798 N/m3)(4.673x10-10 m2/N)(0.25)(50 m)

= 5.72x10-5
percent of storage coefficient attributable to water expansion
= Swater /S = 5.72x10-5 /6.8x10-4 *100 = 8.4%
percent of storage coefficient attributable to aquifer
expansion
= Saquifer /S = 1 (Swater /S ) = 91.6%

Example
Flow Q

K h,A =

K1z1 + K 2 z2 (2.3 m / d)(15 m) + (12.8 m / d)(15 m)

=
= 7.55 m / d
z1 + z2
(15 m) + (15 m)

Flow Q

K v,A =

Example

z1 + z2
(15 m) + (15 m)
=
= 3.90 m / d
z1 z2
15 m
15 m
+
+
K1 K 2 2.3 m / d 12.8 m / d

Example
Well 2
(200, 340)
55.11 m

Well 1
(0,0)
57.79 m

= -5.3 deg

Well 3
(190, -150)
52.80 m