Lecture 4

Fading (radio) channels (cont.): DC13a

In this lecture
• Digital (binary) signaling on flat fading channels: DC13.3
• Frequency-selective fading: DC13.5
a Proakis, Digital Communications

Adv. Digital Communications 4.1 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Flat Rayleigh Fading
g(t) w(t)

s(t) = Re{sl (t)ej2πfc t } r(t)

• r(t) = Re{g(t)sl (t)ej2πfc t } + w(t),

with g(t) = a(t) exp[jφ(t)] and AWGN w(t) (N0 /2)
• a(t) is Rayleigh distributed,

f (a) = a/σ 2 exp[−a2 /(2σ 2 )]

and γ(t) , a2 (t) is exponentially distributed,

f (γ) = 1/(2σ 2 ) exp[−γ/(2σ 2 )]

with E[γ(t)] = 2σ 2

Adv. Digital Communications 4.2 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Binary Signaling, Coherent Receiver

• Assume fading slow enough (constant over several symbols) for

phase estimation with high accuracy,
– use coherent detection
• Received signal

r(t) = Re{a · sl (t)ej2πfc t } + w(t), 0 ≤ t < T

where a is Rayleigh
• Bit-error probability, conditioned on a,
p
– BPSK: Pb = Q( 2a2 E/N0 )
p
– BFSK: Pb = Q( a2 E/N0 )
where E is the symbol (bit) energy

Adv. Digital Communications 4.3 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Two Signals in Signal Space
• Assume d fixed and known,
s2

s1

• Coherent detection, binary signaling in AWGN (N0 /2) ⇒

d
Pb = Q( √ )
2N0
with ∞
1
Z
2


Q(x) = √ exp −t /2 dt
2π x

Adv. Digital Communications 4.4 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Non-Coherent Detection

• Assume constant fading over ≈ one symbol period, but otherwise

fast enough to prevent phase estimation
• Received signal,

r(t) = Re{aejφ sl (t)ej2πfc t } + w(t), 0 ≤ t < T

a is Rayleigh and φ is uniform

• Non-coherent detection, conditioned on a,
– DBPSK: Pb = 2−1 exp(−a2 · E/N0 )
– BFSK: Pb = 2−1 exp[−a2 · E/(2N0 )]
where E is the symbol (bit) energy

Adv. Digital Communications 4.5 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Bit-Error Probability, Averaged Over
the Fading
• received = a exp(jφ)× transmitted + AWGN
p
– a is Rayleigh, with E[a] = σ π/2, E[a2 ] = 2σ 2 ; a2 is
exponential
– φ is uniform over [0, 2π)
• Defining the average SNR, γ0 = E[a2 ]E/N0 , and Pf = E[Pb (a)],
we get
 
1
p
– coherent BPSK: Pf = 2 1 − γ0 /(1 + γ0 )
 
– coherent BFSK: Pf = 21 1 − γ0 /(2 + γ0 )
p

– DBPSK: Pf = 1/[2(1 + γ0 )]
– non-coherent BFSK: Pf = 1/(2 + γ0 )

Adv. Digital Communications 4.6 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Performance of binary signaling on a
Rayleigh fading channel

PSK
FSK (coherent)
DPSK
−1
10 FSK (noncoherent)

−2
10
BER

−3
10

−4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
SNR [dB]

Adv. Digital Communications 4.7 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Nakagami-m fading

• Nakagami-m
m
 
m m−1 mγ0
p(γ0 ) = γ exp −
Γ(m)γ̄0m 0 γ̄0
with parameters m and variance γ̄0 .
• For m = 1, pdf simplifies to Rayleigh fading.
• For m → ∞, channel converges to AWGN channel.

Adv. Digital Communications 4.8 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Performance of BPSK with Nakagami
fading
0
10
m=0.5
m=1 (Rayleigh)
−1
10 m=1.5
m=2
m=3
−2
m=4
10 m=5
m=10

−3
10
BER

−4
10

−5
10

−6
10

−7
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
SNR [dB]

Adv. Digital Communications 4.9 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Frequency Selective Fading
• In: sl (t) (complex baseband), bandwidth W ; Out: rl (t)
• Channel: c(τ ; t), C(f ; t)
• Frequency selective fading (W > Bm ),
Z ∞
rl (t) = Sl (f )C(f ; t)ej2πf t df 6= C(0; t)sl (t)
−∞

• By the sampling theorem, with Ts = (2W )−1 ,

X
sl (t) = sl (nTs ) sinc ([t − nTs ]/Ts )
n
X
rl (t) = Ts sl (t − nTs ) c(nTs ; t)
n

Comment: W is defined differently from Proakis: Sl (f ) 6= 0 for |f | ≤ W and Sl (f ) = 0

elsewhere ⇒ WP roakis = 2W ; sinc(x) = sin(πx)/(πx)

Adv. Digital Communications 4.10 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Group Task
In Proakis book you can find a derivation like this:
X
sl (t) = sl (nTs ) sinc ([t − nTs ]/Ts )
n
8 ∞
sl (nTs )e−j2πf nTs
P
< Ts
>
|f | ≤ W
Sl (f ) = n=−∞
: 0
>
|f | > W
Z∞
⇒ rl (t) = C(f ; t)Sl (f )ej2πf t df
−∞

∞ Z∞
j2πf (t−nTs )
X
= Ts sl (nTs ) C(f ; t)e df
n=−∞ −∞
∞
X ∞
X
= Ts sl (nTs )c(t − nTs , t) = Ts sl (t − nTs )c(nTs , t)
n=−∞ n=−∞

Explain why this is not 100% correct!

Adv. Digital Communications 4.11 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

PSfrag
Ts Ts Ts
sl (t)
D D D

c1 (t) c2 (t) cL (t)

rl (t)

noise
• cn (t) , Ts c(nTs ; t)
• Resolution in τ ≈ Ts = 1/(2W ),
⇒ L = ⌊Tm /Ts ⌋+1 = ⌊2Tm W ⌋+1 ⇒ cn (t) ≈ 0 for n > L
• WSS-US ⇒ the coefficients cn (t) are independent in n and
complex Gaussian in t

Adv. Digital Communications 4.12 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Discrete-Time Model, ISI
w(t)
nT
In sl (t) rl (t) yn
gT (t) c(τ ; t) gR (t)

X
j2πfc t

s(t) = Re sl (t)e , sl (t) = In gT (t − nT )
n

• Assume c(τ ; t) ≈ c(τ ; 0) = c(τ ) ⇒ cn (t) = cn under time-interval

of interest (say 20 to 200 symbols . . . )

Adv. Digital Communications 4.13 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 In
D D D

x0 x1 x2 xK

P
wn
yn

• Channel output
K
X
yn ≈ xk In−k + wn
k=0
where K and {xk } depend on {hk } and the filters gT (t), gR (t).
• An FIR channel, with Gaussian coefficients {xk } and noise {wn }
• Noise-whitening filter: the receive filter can be chosen such that
{wn } is white (DC9.4-1)

Adv. Digital Communications 4.14 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 The RAKE Demodulator
Assume two equal-energy signals s1 (t) and s2 (t) which are either
antipodal or orthogonal.
sm (t)
D D D

c∗1 (t) c∗2 (t) c∗3 (t) c∗L (t)

PR
r(t)
Um = Re[...]

The decision variables U1 (t) and U2 (t) are computed for L

statistically independent taps cn (t)
" L Z #
X T
Um = Re r(t)c∗k (t)sm (t − k/W )dt .
k=1 0

Adv. Digital Communications 4.15 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben