Lecture 5

a
• Diversity: DC13.4
– The principle: DC13.4.1
– Diversity combining: DC13.4.1
– Bit-error probabilities: DC13.4.2 and 13.4.3
– Space–time transmission: DC15.4.3
a Proakis , Digital Communications

Adv. Digital Communications 5.1 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Diversity

• Transmit the information-carrying signal through several

different “channels” or “branches,”
– independent fading on channels ⇒ high probability that at
least one channel is good
• Several copies transmitted in
– space
– frequency
– time
– electro-magnetic polarization

Adv. Digital Communications 5.2 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Spatial (Antenna) Diversity
1 2 M

transmitter receiver

• Several (receive) antennas

• Model for correlation in space,
 
d
ρ(d) = J02 2π ·
λ
where d is distance and λ wavelength
– ∆d to get uncorrelated branches: ∆d ≈ λ/2,
(in GSM: λ ≈ 30 cm. . . )

Adv. Digital Communications 5.3 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Frequency Diversity
S(f )

f
∆f

• Use M different frequencies (carriers)

• Uncorrelated channels ⇒ ∆f needs to be greater than the
coherence bandwidth Bm . . .

Adv. Digital Communications 5.4 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Time Diversity

... 1 2 1 2 1 2 ...

t
∆t

• Use M different time-instants

• Uncorrelated channels ⇒ ∆t greater than the coherence time Td
• Speed v ⇒ 1/Td ≈ Bd = fc · v/c ⇒ low speed Td high . . .

Adv. Digital Communications 5.5 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Diversity Combining

• Combine the M different received signals:

– Selection combining
∗ Use only the strongest branch
– Maximal ratio combining
∗ Linear combination of signals, optimal weighting
– Equal gain combining
∗ Linear combination of signals, equal weighting
– Switched diversity
∗ Switch (randomly) between branches

Adv. Digital Communications 5.6 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Performance of Diversity Combining

• Assume M independent branches, ri (t), i = 1, . . . , M

• Symbol energy E, slow and flat Rayleigh fading,
– amplitudes ai , AWGN (N0 /2) wi (t)
– SNR γi , a2i E/N0 , in branch i, exponentially distributed
 
1 γi
f (γi ) = exp − ,
γ0 γ0
with γ0 = E[a2i ]E/N0

Adv. Digital Communications 5.7 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Selection Combining

• Use
r(t) = ri∗ (t)
where i∗ = arg maxi {γi },
– resulting SNR = γ = maxi γi
• Probability density of γ,
   M −1
M γ γ
f (γ) = exp − 1 − exp −
γ0 γ0 γ0

• Average SNR,
M
X 1
E[γ] = γ0
k
k=1

Adv. Digital Communications 5.8 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)
PM
• Form r(t) = i=1 gi ri (t),
– where it is assumed that different branches are co-phased
before combined (coherent combining)
• Optimum weights {gi } (max output SNR), for gi = ai
• Pdf of output SNR, γ,
γ M −1
 
1 γ
f (γ) = · · exp −
(M − 1)! γ0M γ0

• Average output SNR, E[γ] = M γ0

Adv. Digital Communications 5.9 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Equal Gain Combining
PM
• Form r(t) = i=1 ri (t) (co-phasing assumed)
• Pdf of output SNR, γ, difficult to derive. . .
• However the average output SNR is obtained as
π
E[γ] ≈ M γ0 ,
4
≈ 0.8 times worse than MRC

Adv. Digital Communications 5.10 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 BPSK with Coherent MRC
q
2
a1 T
cos(2πfc t)

r1 (t) RT
(·)dt
0

q
2
a2 T
cos(2πfc t)

r2 (t) RT
(·)dt
0
r

...
q
2
aM T
cos(2πfc t)

rM (t) RT
(·)dt
0

Adv. Digital Communications 5.11 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 • MRC ⇒ r correct ML decision variable!
• Bit-error probability (’f ’ – fading, ’d’ – diversity),
 
M M −1 i
M − 1 + i
 
1−µ X
 1+µ
Pf d = · 
2 i=0 i 2
p
with µ = γ0 /(1 + γ0 )
• For γ0 → ∞,
 
M M
2M − 1
 
1 1
Pf d ≈  = K(M ) ·
M 4γ0 4γ0

• M th order diversity gain,

ln Pf d
lim = −M
γ0 →∞ ln γ0

Adv. Digital Communications 5.12 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 FSK and DPSK
• BFSK, with coherent MRC:
p
– Change to µ = γ0 /(2 + γ0 ) ⇒

Pf d ≈ K(M ) · (2γ0 )−M

for γ0 → ∞
• DBPSK, with non-coherent equal gain combining:
– Equal gain combining of decision variables from non-coherent
DBPSK demodulators
– Change to µ = γ0 /(1 + γ0 ) ⇒

Pf d ≈ K(M ) · (2γ0 )−M

for γ0 → ∞

Adv. Digital Communications 5.13 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 • BFSK, with non-coherent square-law combining:
– Equal gain combining of squared outputs from non-coherent
demodulators
– Use µ = γ0 /(2 + γ0 ) ⇒

Pf d ≈ K(M ) · (γ0 )−M

for γ0 → ∞

Adv. Digital Communications 5.14 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Multiple Antennas and Space–Time
Coding

• So far, diversity by multiple receivers (in space/time/frequency)

• Transmit antenna diversity, useful in particular in the mobile
telephony downlink,
– SIMO – single transmit and multiple receive antennas
– MISO – multiple transmit and single receive antennas
– MIMO – multiple transmit and receive antennas

Adv. Digital Communications 5.15 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 • Model : NT transmit and NR receive antennas, linear memoryless
modulation (PSK or QAM), frequency-flat and slow Rayleigh
fading,
– discrete-time complex baseband signal on jth receive antenna,
NT
X
rj (n) = aij si (n) + wj (n)
i=1

with
∗ aij = complex Gaussian channel gain from transmit
antenna i to receive antenna j
∗ si (n) = complex information symbol, transmitted on
antenna i at time n
∗ wj (n) = i.i.d complex Gaussian noise, E[wj (n)wj∗ (n)] = N0

Adv. Digital Communications 5.16 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Alamouti’s Scheme

• Works for NT = 2, and any NR (assume = 1)

• Assume a1 = a11 and a2 = a21 known at receiver (perfect CSIR)
but not at transmitter (no CSIT)
• Study n = 1 and n = 2,
– n = 1: transmit s1 (1) = x1 , s2 (1) = x2
– n = 2: transmit s1 (2) = x∗2 , s2 (2) = −x∗1
– the receiver looks at r1 (n) = rn , n = 1, 2, and forms

y1 = a∗1 r1 − a2 r2∗ = (|a1 |2 + |a2 |2 )x1 + a∗1 w1 − a2 w2∗

y2 = a∗2 r1 + a1 r2∗ = (|a1 |2 + |a2 |2 )x2 + a∗2 w1 + a1 w2∗

– maximal ratio combining, with only one receiver !

Adv. Digital Communications 5.17 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 • Alamouti’s scheme,
– can be extended to 4 or 8 transmit antennas for real-valued
symbols (PAM)
– cannot be extended to > 2 antennas for complex symbols
(PSK, QAM)
• Implemented in the UMTS/WCDMA (3G) standard,
– “open loop” (no CSIT) transmit diversity

Adv. Digital Communications 5.18 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Transmit Beamforming

• Works for any NT and NR , assume NT = 2 and NR = 1

• Assume perfect CSIT and CSIR
• For any n, transmit

s1 = a∗1 x, s2 = a∗2 x

gives
rn = (|a1 |2 + |a2 |2 )x + wn
– MRC with one receiver, but perfect CSIT needed
• Implemented in UMTS/WCDMA,
– “closed loop” transmit diversity

Adv. Digital Communications 5.19 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben

 Space–Time Coding

• Alamouti’s scheme is a “space–time block code,”

– many different generalizations have been proposed
• “Space–time coding” – methods involving channel code design
for multiple transmit antennas,
– block codes, convolutional codes, trellis codes,. . .
– DC15.4.3 comments on space–time trellis codes

Adv. Digital Communications 5.20 c M. Skoglund, R. Thobaben