CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A.

Background

Indonesia is an archipelago country containing more than 17,000 islands.

Approximately only 35% of the islands are inhabited. There are five big islands
which are Kalimantan, Sumatra, Papua, Sulawesi and Java, but almost 60% of the
population of 237 million people are concentrated on Java island which accounts
for only 7% of the national land (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2014).

Figure 1. 1 Map of Indonesia

(Dwiatmoko, 2010)
Rail transport in Indonesia is the second oldest in Asia after India. The
first railway construction was built on 17thJune 1864 by Naamlooze Venootschap
Nederlandsch Indische Spoorweg Maatschappij (NV NISM). The first
inauguration was on 10thAugust 1867 connecting Semarang and Tanggoeng along
25 km (PT. KAI (PERSERO), 2010). After the Independence Day of Indonesia,
on 28th September 1945, the Indonesian Railways Institution was established
(DKARI / Djawatan Kereta Api Repoeblik Indonesia). When all railway lines in
Indonesia were nationalized in 1958, DKARI became PNKA (Perusahaan Negara
1

Kereta Api / State Railway Corporation). After 13 years (on 15th September 1971)
PNKA was reorganized into PJKA (Perusahaan Jawatan Kereta Api / Railway
Bureau Corporation) and on 2nd January 1991 PJKA was transformed into
PERUMKA (Perusahaan Umum Kereta Api / Public Railway Corporation). The
last change was on 1st June 1999 it became PT. KAI (PT. Kereta Api Indonesia)
which remains (PT. KAI (PERSERO), 2014).Unfortunately, after the colonial
period, railway transport in the country was not significantly improved. As we can
see countries such as China, Japan, and Korea, now have a very large and
sophisticated railway system, even though railway development on those
countries started later than Indonesia. The total length of railway system in
Indonesia is 4,130.4 km, but only 3,861.5 km is used and 268.9 km are
temporarily closed. In addition the railway system is only available on Java and
Sumatra islands.

Figure 1. 2 Railway Network in Java and Sumatra Island

(PT. KAI (PERSERO), 2012)
Recently, Indonesia has four unconnected railway systems, one in Java
island and three in Sumatra island (Medan / North Sumatra, West Sumatra and
South Sumatra & Lampung) which is shown in Table 1 below. Most of the track
gauge is 1,067 mm, with only small part of the network (such as in Aceh) with
1,435 mm gauge.

Table 1. 1 Existing Railway Network in Indonesia

Operated
(km)

Not Operated
(km)

Total
(km)

2,710

125.2

2,835.2

Sumatra

1,151.5

143.7

1,295.2

Total

3,861.5

268.9

4,130.4

Region
Java

Source :(PT. KAI (PERSERO), 2012)

Improvements are certainly needed to increase market share and the level
of service of rail transport in Indonesia. Java island is the most populous island in
the world. The number of people on this island is around 136 million - roughly
equal to Russia. Almost 60% of the population of Indonesia are concentrated on
this island. In addition, the capital city of Indonesia is located on this island,
making Java island the most developed island in Indonesia. Java consists of four
provinces (Banten, West Java, Central Java and East Java), one special region
(Yogyakarta), and one special capital region (Jakarta). The total area of Java is
127,569 km2 with a population of 136,610,590, making Java the densest area in
Indonesia ( 1,071 people/km2). Table 1.2 below presents the population
distribution in Java.
Table 1. 2 Population Density in Java Island

Province

Population

Area
(km2)

Density
(people/km2)

Jakarta

9,607,787

664

14,470

Banten

10,632,166

8,651

1,229

West Java

43,053,732

34,597

1,245

Central Java

32,382,657

32,549

995

East Java

37,476,757

47,922

782

Yogyakarta

3,457,491

3,186

1,085

TOTAL

136,610,590

127,569

1,071

Source :(Badan Pusat Statistik, 2010), (Statistic Indonesia, 2005), and Author

The population is expected to continually increase by 1.4% each year,

based on the recent population growth rate of Java (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2010).
With constant area, population densities will clearly rise (Table 1.2). The number
of population and the number of travels have a positive relation. In addition the
number of travels have a positive relation to the transport demand for mechanised
modes such as rail.
1. Railway in Java Island
Almost all the major cities in Java are already connected by rail. As
mentioned before, about 69% (2,835.2 km) of railway network in Indonesia is
located in this area. The railway network extends from the West (Banten) to the
East (Banyuwangi, East Java) divided into two major line; north and south line.
The track gauge which is implemented here is 1,067 mm, with a 15- ton
maximum axle load and a design speed of 120 km/hour. More than 50% of the
signalling system which is used in this network is mechanical, rather than
electrical systems. Only 20% (577 km) of the network is electrified, whilst the rest
(2,258 km) are still using diesel locomotives. The electrified network is located in
Jabodetabek (Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tanggerang and Bekasi) for the commuter
line service. The existing railway network in Java contains a lot of curves due to
all the railway networks being over-ground and avoiding hills/mountains
(Appendix 1).
a) North Line
The North line railway network in Java connects four big cities in north
Java such as Jakarta, Cirebon, Semarang, and Surabaya. There are 14 big stations
(Jakarta/Gambir, Jatinegara, Bekasi, Kerawang, Cikampek, Cirebon, Pemalang,
Pekalongan, Semarang Poncol, Semarang Tawang, Semarang Gudang, Cepu,
Bojonegoro, and PasarTuri/Surabaya) and more than 100 small stations along the
route (Jakarta to Surabaya).

b) South Line
The South line railway network in Java connects Jakarta to Surabaya via
Yogyakarta and Solo in the south. There are 19 big stations (Jakarta/PasarSenen,
Jatinegara, Bekasi, Kerawang, Cikampek, Cirebon, Prupuk, Purwokerto, Kroya,
Gombong, Kutoarjo, Yogyakarta, Klaten, Solo, Sragen, Madiun, Nganjuk,
Kertosono, Jomabang, Mojokerto, and Gubeng/Surabaya) and more than 100
small stations along the route (Jakarta to Surabaya).
2. Express Trains
There is no single standard for both definition and usage of the term of
express trains. The definitions vary, depending on the criteria used. The same is
true for the usage of the term, sometimes it is called fast train and sometimes
express train. Express train here means, train which has faster speed than existing
train, but not as fast as high speed train (in case of Indonesia). Express train more
or less have a similar characteristics with high speed train, in order to facilitate the
train travelling at more than 200 km/hour . Like a high speed trains, express trains
also have a small number of stops to maintain the operational speed. In developed
countries such as, United Kingdom (UK), France, Spain and Germany, express
train has the same meaning with high speed train. The International Union of
Railways Organization (UIC), considers the term high speed from all the
standpoints: infrastructure, rolling stock and operation. In addition the European
Union also defines the definition of high speed based on DIRECTIVE 96/48/EC
APPENDIX 1 as follows.

a) Infrastructure
Infrastructure are specially built or upgraded for High Speed operation,
including connecting lines and (particularly) junctions. Specially built high speed
lines should be able to serve speeds equal to or greater than 250 km/h. Meanwhile,
specially upgraded high speed lines should be equipped for speeds of the order of
200 km/h. Otherwise if upgraded lines have special features as a result of

topography, relief or town-planning constraints, the speed must be adapted to each

case.

b)

Rolling Stock

The High Speed Train should have a very safe design and uninterrupted
travel at three circumstances. First, on specially built lines for high speed, the train
should be able to reach the maximum operation speed (i.e. accelerate from 250
km/h to 300 km/h) in appropriate situations. Secondly on existing lines upgraded
for high speed the train should be able to reach the speed of the order 200 km/h.
Thirdly, at other lines the train should be able to reach the highest possible speed.

c)

Compatibility of Infrastructure and Rolling Stock

Infrastructure and rolling stock should have an excellent characteristic

compatibility each other. This issue will affect and influence the performance
levels, safety, quality of service, and cost of high speed train services.
(UIC, 2013)

There is several simple ways to recognise express train service. Express

train absolutely has a higher speed operation than traditional rail. It normally
operates on standard gauge tracks with or without grade separated junctions, and
has a large turning radius design. Express train is also usually designed for
passenger service; only a few of them serve freight as well.
Railway operational speed has been increasing dramatically since rail was first
established in the 1830s, when 30 mph or 50 km/h was considered fast at that
time. The top ten fastest trains currently in service have an average speed of
around 350 km/h. High speed rail network are growing around the world. Detail
information about both history and networks are given in Appendix 2.

B. Problem Issues
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, is located on the northwest coast of Java
island, meanwhile Surabaya is the second largest city and is located at the eastern
end of Java island. As large cities both Jakarta and Surabaya play an important
role leading Indonesian economic growth. They already have the highest gross
domestic product (20% and 6% respectively). The two cities are connected by a
685-km long railway, of which 67% is single track (459 km) and the rest (226 km,
33%) double track. Journey time between the two cities is approximately 10 14
hours (average speed 60 km/h) (Dwiatmoko, 2010).

Figure 1. 3 High Speed Rail Planning in Java Indonesia

(Dwiatmoko, 2010)
A project to make all the North line double track has been under
construction and was due to complete in April 2014. The high speed train project
would provide a separate route parallel to this line, but with greater radius and
fewer curves. Details of this project are given in Appendix 3. Otherwise
implementation of a new high speed rail service in Indonesia need a huge amount
of investment, so authors try to provide another solution such as express train.

1. Why is Express Train needed in Java

There are several reasons why Express train is needed in Java:
1) Java is the most densely populated island in Indonesia, with a high rate of
average population growth (1.4% p.a.) (BPS, 2010). Mass public transport
is not developing very well, and the number of cars and motorcycles is
much greater than the number of vehicles of any other mode of transport.
Road congestion has become the biggest issue recently in Java, mainly in
the big cities such as Jakarta, Bandung, Serang, Cirebon, Yogyakarta,
Semarang and Surabaya. This will affect the economy in Java and more
widely in Indonesia, owing to high proportion of national GDP in Java.

2) The international airport (Soekarno-Hatta) and other big airports in Java

are predicted to reach their capacity limits in 2015 due to increasing
passenger demand numbers (Ministry of Transportation of Indonesia in
(Dwiatmoko, 2010).

3) Pollution needs to be reduced.

According data from ITF 2005 in (UIC, 2011), rail transport generates
very few CO2 gas emissions if we compare it with other modes of
transport such as road, sea and air.
Railway sector only contributes 2% emission of CO2 while road transport
has the biggest contribution of 73%. According to data from Alstom and
calculations by Systra in (UIC, 2011) the average emissions per km of
railway sector in Europe is only 17 g.
(Hartono, 2012) calculates that, CO2 emission will be reduced around 848
X 106 kg in 2020 if the high speed railway between Jakarta and Surabaya
were to operate. Detailed information is shown in Tables 1.3 and 1.4
below.

Table 1. 3 Jakarta Surabaya CO2 Emission without Introducing HSR

Without Introducing High Speed Rail (2020)
Corridor
Jakarta - Cirebon

Mode
Bus

307

Conv. Rail

149

Airplane
Cirebon - Semarang

Total(106 kg)

456

Bus

66

Conv. Rail

94

Airplane
Semarang - Surabaya

CO2 (106 kg)

1,329

1,169

Bus

59

Conv. Rail

60

Airplane

638

Total Emission CO2in 2020

758

2,542

Source: (Hartono, 2012)

Table 1. 4 Jakarta Surabaya CO2 Emission after Introducing HSR

Introducing High Speed Rail (2020)
Corridor
Jakarta - Cirebon

Mode

CO2 (106 kg)

Bus

270

Conv. Rail

123

Total(106 kg)

539
Airplane

Cirebon - Semarang

HSR

146

Bus

58

Conv. Rail

77

Airplane

454

HSR

105

Bus

53

Conv. Rail

49

Airplane

249

HSR

109

694

Semarang - Surabaya

461

Total Emission CO2 in 2020

1,694

Saving Emission

848

Source: (Hartono, 2012)

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Existing railway network operation on the North line (JKT-SBY) is too

slow (10-14 hours journey time) as we know the North line is important to
business and industrial (this line connects a lot of central business and industrial
cities).

2. Market Share Mode of Transport

Road traffic in Indonesia is worsening every year, mainly in the big cities
such as Jakarta and Surabaya. As the main centres of GDP in Indonesia, these two
cities have to prepare a good alternative transportation mode besides road
transport to prevent degradation of GDP due to traffic congestion.
Table 1. 5 Transportation Volume and Share for Each Mode in Indonesia
Passenger Transport
Mode

Freight Transport

Volume
(106 People)

Share
(%)

Volume
(106 ton)

Share
(%)

2,021.1

85.05

2,514.1

91.24

150.3

6.32

17.4

0.63

3. Ferry

116

4.88

27.4

0.99

4. Sea

42.3

1.78

194.8

7.07

5. Air

36.5

1.54

1.4

0.05

6. River

10.3

0.43

0.3

0.01

2,376.5

100

2,755.4

100

1. Road
2. Railway

TOTAL

Source: Ministry of Transportation of Indonesia in (Dwiatmoko, 2010)

Dependence on road transport should be reduced by providing an

alternative transport with the same or better quality. As we know air and sea
transport have a limited area to cover (as they cannot reach destinations as close
as road transport can). So an improvement in railway transport is the best solution
with a lot benefits for both government and people.

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3. Benefit and Drawback of EXPRESS TRAIN

Benefits
1) Increased economic growth because of faster journey time and reliability.
2) Reduced pollution if majority of private vehicles (cars) or air plane user,
switch to rail transport. Concentrations of NOx, CO and SO2 will reduce
significantly.
3) Reduced consumption of fossil fuels. Energy consumption per passenger
in Shinkansen accounts for 60% of that per passenger of a bus; 30%, an air
plane; and 20%, a car (case study Shinkansen) (Dwiatmoko, 2010). The
figure below shows a comparison of TGV energy consumption with other
modes of transport.

Figure 1. 4 TGV Energy Consumption Comparison

(Razi Nalim, 2010)
4) Population will not only be concentrated in Jakarta (JABODETABEK)
and Surabaya but also spread near stations along the route. Majority of
people want to live near the city centre to reduce their journey times. Poor
service of existing public transport modes (including trains) is encouraging
people to use private cars or motorcycles in their daily activity. This
situation triggers other problems such as congestion which is bad for
economic growth and efficiency.
5) Reduced land acquisition needs compared to highways/road and airports.

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Table 1. 6 Land Use Comparison between Road Vs Rail

Road / Highways

Rail

2x3

2x1

Direct land take by

infrastructure

2.5 ha/km

1.3 ha/km

Indirect + direct land take by

infrastructure

9.3 ha/km

3.2 ha/km

Lines

Source: (UIC, 2011)

6) Reduced congestion in other modes of transport (road and air transport).

Drawbacks
1) Abstraction from another alternative route. The number of passengers on
South line Java network will be reduced owing to significant journey time
differences, although this situation could be mitigated by applying
appropriate ticket prices.
2) There would be enormous construction cost and special materials to
construct the system. For example, HS1 project in the UK spent 5.8
billion to construct a 108 km length of the network ( 54 million/km)
(railway-technology.com);the first high speed rail project in Japan
(Tokaido Shinkansen, 1964) cost 380 billion at that time ( 738
million/km) (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of
Japan, 2010).
3) Staff and the labour who work on the system and construction respectively
would need to have special skills (several critical positions in the project
would be filled by experts from foreign countries), which would be
expensive. Government should train several people in advance in order to
meet the skills requirement, which is needed in time for completion.
4) There would be incompatibility with the existing infrastructure (platform,
station, track gauge, signalling etc.) so a new dedicated track (and hence
more land) would be required.

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4. Track Betterment
As every country has a different socio economic background, the best
solution to implement an express train system will also be slightly different. As
we know, money is an enabler. Indonesia is one of Asias developing countries,
and a limited budget has always been an insuperable issue in order to implement
something with a huge budget (such as an express train project). The Indonesian
Ministry of Transportation has been working with the Japanese Government to
estimate the budget to construct a new line high speed rail from Jakarta to
Surabaya (Table 1.7). Due to very high costs, Indonesia will not be able to
undertake this project alone. The Indonesian Government will have a long period
loan (40 years) from the Japanese Government to realize this project and adopt the
Shinkansen System. However, many people and communities are against this
policy due to the high rate and long period of loan. Furthermore, constructing an
express train system also needs similar investment as well owing to the
characteristics similarities both of them.
Track betterment along Jakarta and Surabaya could be a good alternative
to the express train system. The budget could be reduced significantly in several
elements. A detailed budget estimation for the new high speed line is shown in
Table 1.7 below.

Table 1. 7 Construction and Project Cost Estimation HSR in Java

ITEM

AMOUNT
(million, USD)

CONSTRUCTION
Civil and Architect Work
Depot Equipment

12,096
325

Power

1,451

Signal and Telecom

1,135

Rolling Stock

650

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AMOUNT
(million, USD)

ITEM
PROJECT
Consultancy Services

1,566

Tax and Duty

1,722

General Administration

157

Land Acquisition

835

Price Escalation

414

Contingencies

1,018

TOTAL COST

21,369

Source: Ministry of Transportation of Indonesia in (Dwiatmoko, 2010)

A policy of track improvement would obviously eliminate land acquisition costs,

and in general will reduce cost in several sectors such as power supply
installation, signalling systems, and earthworks (cuttings, embankments,
tunnelling, etc.).
Table 1. 8 Track Betterment Vs New Line Comparison
No

Sector

New Line

Track Betterment

TECHNICAL
1

Land Acquisition

At least 3.2 ha/km are needed to

construct EXPRESS TRAIN
2x1 line.

In general do not really

need additional land
acquisition, except there is
special condition such as,
small curve and high
elevation.

Budget

Full budget from the preconstruction (consultancy,

architect work, land
acquisition), until construction
process.

Cost in several sector can

be eliminated (land
acquisition) or reduced
(consultancy).

Geology
Structure

Possible to choose appropriate

contour (elevation), topography,
and geology structure which the
best for express train
implementation.

Maximise and improve

the existing condition to
be able accommodate
express train
requirements.

15

No

Sector

New Line

Track Betterment

Space
Availability

Space is needed to construct the

new line where still available,
but it will be need some time to
acquire all the space along the
route.

It is not a big issue.

Performance

Definitely will be appropriate to

accommodate express train
service.

Need to conduct the test

run and feasibility to
make sure the track is
already fulfilling all the
requirements to
accommodate express
train service.

Track Design

Curve radius and elevation will

be appropriate to accommodate
speed over 200 km/h

Need depth analysis, test,

and evaluation to make
sure the design is working
properly. Maybe changing
several piece of track to
make sure the radius
curve and elevation is
appropriate. It will be
more difficult than
constructing a new line.

Remove Utilities
along the route

Survey and area mapping are

absolutely needed in order to
avoid or move utilities along the
road.

Do not need.

SOCIAL
8

Local Economy
Activity

New express line believed to be

a trigger a new economic
growth not only for Jakarta and
Surabaya but also cities along
the route (mainly cities that have
a new station).

Jakarta and Surabaya will

have the biggest impact
rather than any other
cities.

Human
Behaviour

Grade separated junctions will

reduce the accident risk between
express train and road vehicles,
as well as preventing people
across the express train track.

There are a lot of at-grade

crossings which needs an
appropriate solution to
reduce and avoid
accidents.

10

Squatters

Preventing step can be held to

avoid it.

It will be difficult to move

or eliminate squatters.

Source: (Directorate General of Railways Republic of Indonesia, 2013) & Author

16

In contrast to Europe (where this is not an issue), squatters in Indonesia cause

problems for railways, because they live in restricted areas (such as under bridges,
under fly-overs, along the railway line, etc. as shown in Figure 1.5 below.).

Figure 1. 5 Squatters along railway line in Jakarta

(Ciputra News, 2014) & (sakgoni.blogspot.com, 2010)
Methods of preventing squatting are needed. In the authors opinion, it is much
easier to prevent it than move them out afterwards. Suggestions to prevent
squatters include:
1) Building a high fence along the railway network.
2) Recruiting a patrol team to look after the land along the railway network.
3) Providing a temporary shelter for the squatters.
4) Policing with substantial penalties and sanctions for the squatters.

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C. Research Question
The research questions arise regarding to problem issues and have to be
answered are:
1.

What are the challenges to be faced before constructing express train

network in Indonesia?

2.

What are minimum requirements for express train track design and other
infrastructures (signaling system and power supply)?

3.

How are Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Net Present Value (NPV) for all
investment options?

4.

How much environmental impact (green house gas emission) during express
train network construction?

D. Research Purpose
The aim of this thesis is to look in depth into the possible express service
for the North line of Java. The feasibility of track betterment and other facilities
will be studied, in order to facilitate express trains travelling at more than 200
km/hour along the track Jakarta - Surabaya. For the particular objectives of the
thesis are described below:
1)

to determine what are the challenges to be faced before constructing

express train network in Indonesia;

2)

to investigate what are the minimum requirements for express train track
design and other facilities (signaling systems and power supply);

3)

to examine how much the Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Net Present Value
(NPV) of all investment options;

18

4)

to examine how much environmental impact (green house gas emission)

during express train network construction.

E. Scope
The scope of this master Thesis is limited by the availability both data and
literature study as stated below:
1)

Track betterment and infrastructure improvement options are based on

literature study and experience from other countries.

2)

Human factors (behavior) are neglected.

3)

Only the North Line railway link is considered.

F. Originality
Dwiatmoko (2010) reported the forecasting cost and benefits also
infrastructures for High Speed Train project in Jakarta Surabaya corridor. An
efficient transportation system with high speed train favors many economic
changes and most of them are positive. The investment in high speed train will
impact the growth of national as well regional economic development, due to
reduction of travelling time and more efficient transportation. The total cost of
high speed train project for Jakarta Surabaya corridor including cost of the
consulting service, tax, general administration, land acquisition, price escalation,
and contingency is about 21,369 million US$.
Hartono (2012) investigate the advantages of High Speed Rail on Java
over existing modes of transport (road transport/bus, conventional rails, and air).
Market share of existing modes of transport will reduce after high speed rail has
been operating on Java. The total market share of the high speed rail is predicted
at 25% and becomes the second largest of the market share. The largest market

19

share is bus with 52%, while conventional rails and air transport will have 14%
and 9% respectively. This condition was predicted will happen due to high speed
rail is very competitive in term of journey time and cost. In addition high speed
rail development can reduce carbon emissions (CO2) on Java.
In this research determine the key issues likely to arise with the
construction of any option for express train operation in North line Jakarta
Surabaya include land topography and its impact on curvature & gradient, existing
condition of level crossings, poor safety management (high number of accidents
record), and power supply performance. Furthermore, investigation of track
betterment to the existing track on North line of Java will conduct in order to
facilitate express train operation (more than 200 km/h). To achieve the best
suitable investment option which will implement in the North line of Java, BCR
and NPV calculation will examine. Construction of express train not only brings
positive impacts but also negative impacts, therefore this research will examine
the forecasting gas emissions during high speed rail construction on the existing
North line of Java.