A Planner's Guide To Carbon - 7-8-08

A PLANNERS GUIDE TO CARBON
Lancefield Consulting Limited

REALISING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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Lancefield Consulting Ltd

Lancefield Consulting is a technical planning consultancy, which provides
guidance and advice to both public and private sector clients in relation to
sustainable development in the built environment, sustainable design and urban
design.
Over the last 3 years, Lancefield Consulting has produced Sustainability and
Quality of Life Statements for leading developers (including Countryside
Properties, Exemplar and European Land and Property Developments) in support
of planning applications for major urban regeneration projects. In collaboration
with Upstream (now part of JLL) Lancefield Consulting has also provided planning
and development advice to the Berkeley Group, MEPC and Stanhope.
In 2007, Lancefield Consulting drafted a ground breaking Supplementary
Planning Document for the London Borough of Barnet on Sustainable Design and
Construction. Through 2007 and 2008, Lancefield has been providing training to
planning officers at the GLA and the London Boroughs of Barking, Barnet,
Islington, Kingston and Newham in the subject areas of sustainable and urban
design.
UrbanBuzz
UrbanBuzz is a 2-year, 5m knowledge exchange impact programme in the
broad subject area of building sustainable communities. It is led by University
College London with the University of East London as its prime partner.
The programme has operated in a novel way by acting as an onward-funding
mechanism, which has supported a wide range of projects and events, all of which
represent collaborations between higher education institutions and public sector
organisations, businesses and/or communities.
In total 27 projects have received funding (varying from 5,000 to 300,000+) and
it is the aim of the UrbanBuzz programme to maximise the knowledge transfer
legacy that can be leveraged from these projects. Some of the projects represent
one-off events that will leave static outputs, where other projects have
supplemented on-going research and development programmes and can be
expected to have a natural continuance beyond the life-time of the UrbanBuzz
funding programme.
The Planners Guide to Carbon arose out of a programme of training delivered
by Lancefield Consulting to local authorities across London.

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CONTENTS
Introduction
Essential Knowledge
Code for Sustainable Homes, Merton Rule and the London Plan
Energy Statements
Energy Efficient Design
Energy Technologies
Combined Heat and Power
Solar Photovoltaics
Solar Water Heating
Heat Pumps
Biomass and Biofuels
Wind
Conclusions
Appendices
A - Table: Target and Design Carbon Savings
B - Jargon Buster and other useful information
C How much does it cost?
D What goes with what?

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INTRODUCTION
This document provides Planning Policy and Development Control officers within
local authorities with the bare minimum, absolute essential information that they need
to know about energy in the built environment. The documents primary focus is to
provide enough information to the Development Control officer to enable him or her
to understand whether a planning application contains adequate information on
energy and carbon emissions.
This document focuses mainly on residential development, but the general principles
apply to all development types.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE - PHYSICS
Before engaging in any negotiations or discussions on energy and carbon, it is
absolutely essential to appreciate that energy comes in two forms:
Light or Electrical Energy
Thermal Energy or Heat
Light or Electrical energy represents a higher quality of energy than thermal energy
and can be easily converted into thermal energy. Thermal energy cannot, however,
be converted back into electrical or light energy without significant loss of energy.
When produced from non-renewable resources (oil, gas or coal), light or electrical
energy generates high carbon emissions, where thermal energy tends to generate
lower carbon emissions.
The importance of this knowledge is that different technologies (renewable or nonrenewable) deliver either electrical or thermal energy to a building. A gas boiler
produces thermal energy. Photovoltaics and wind turbines produce electrical energy.
Solar Water Panels produce thermal energy. Combined Heat and Power systems
produce both electrical and thermal energy (albeit about twice as much thermal
energy as electrical energy).
The usefulness of an energy source depends how it matches the energy
requirements of the building heating, lighting or electrical power (power).
Authorship
This document has been prepared by Lancefield Consulting Ltd in collaboration with Urban Buzz.
The Guide has been used in practice training sessions with the Greater London Authority (GLA)
and the London Boroughs of Barking, Barnet, Islington, Kingston and Newham. Feedback from
these training sessions has been incorporated into the document together with detailed criticism
from the GLA, Professor Mike Davies (University College London) and Dr Rajat Gupta (Oxford
Brookes University).

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ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDINGS

The manner, in which buildings use energy, is generally considered as follows:
Heating maintaining the internal temperature above that of outdoors
Cooling maintaining the internal temperature below that outside (or preventing
internal temperature rising because of internal heat sources such as IT
equipment)
Hot Water that you use for baths, showers, etc
Lighting either natural lighting or artificial, powered from an electrical source
Power all those gadgets that we have in modern homes, from computers and
kettles to washing machines and fridges
If you have a supply of electrical energy, then this can be applied to all the energy
requirements of a building. Electrical energy can easily be used to power a radiator
or air conditioning unit, to heat water, power the lights and supply energy to all those
modern gadgets. But electrical energy drawn from the national grid is very carbon
intensive.
If you have a gas supply to the house, then it can only be used for heating and hot
water. In the case of offices, it can also be used to generate cooling. Unless you
have a combined heat and power system, gas cannot be used for the lighting or to
power those modern gadgets.
Each renewable energy type will generate either electrical energy or thermal energy
and this dictates which aspects of the buildings energy requirements the renewable
energy system can serve.
Consider your own home in the summer months: your energy consumption will
primarily relate to hot water (for baths and showers) and power. There will be no
heating, no cooling and, given the long daylight hours, little energy consumed in
lighting. Your power requirements are strongly biased towards electrical energy.
KEY WORDS OR PHRASES
Merton Rule This is an approach to planning policy, seeking delivery of a
percentage saving of carbon emissions (originally 10%) through the use of renewable
energy technologies. It originated in the London Borough of Merton, but has now
been adopted widely (see www.thermertonrule.org).
Building Regulations (Part L 2006) is the latest version of the building regulations,
regulating the energy performance of buildings.

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ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE POLICY AND REGULATION

The Building Regulations only address a proportion of all the energy consumed in a
home or office: specifically, that associated with the installed energy systems.
Building Regulations Regulated Heating, Cooling, Ventilation and Lighting

boiler / heating / hot water

cooling mainly offices

building services fans, pumps, etc

fixed lighting indoors and outdoors
_________________________________________________________________
Outside Building Regulations Unregulated Power

other plugged-in lighting and alarms (fire, security, etc)

kettles, toasters, ovens, fridges, freezers and kitchen kit
cleaning equipment dishwasher, washing machine, tumble dryer, hoover,
carpet/curtain cleaner
IT equipment computers, tvs, hi-fi, printers
recharging equipment cameras, telephones
garden stuff lawnmower, hegde-trimmer, DIY kit, etc
The Merton Rule, as interpreted within the planning policy of most local planning
authorities, represents making a saving of 10% (or now sometimes 20%) of the total
carbon emissions from a development through the use of local renewable energy
technologies. That is the full list above, including Unregulated Power. For modern
houses, total energy consumption can be twice the regulated energy consumption.
(Some local planning authorities have accidentally worded their policy only to
correspond to the Building Regulations component but not the GLA and not Merton
be aware of the precise wording of your local policy.)
Whenever you consider an energy statement, then you must always check whether
the calculations are based on Building Regulations only or the full energy
consumption for the property.
The energy component for the Code for Sustainable Homes relates only to the
Building Regulation quantity of energy (for Code Levels 1 to 5). There is
consequently a mismatch between Building Regulations (and the Code) energy
consumption calculations as compared to estimations required to meet Merton Rule
criteria. Watch out for these!

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CODE FOR SUSTAINABLE HOMES, MERTON RULE AND LONDON PLAN

The Code for Sustainable Homes, the Merton Rule and the London Plan all seek to
reduce energy consumption in buildings. The London Plan approach is essentially
the same as the Merton Rule (in principle), but relies on a more detailed step-by-step
process to follow. Furthermore it now requires a 20% target, not 10%.
For all these approaches, the baseline starting point is the Building Regulations (Part
L 2006). The Building Regulations rely on a complicated building simulation model,
which provides a prediction for the regulated carbon emissions by a building. The
Building Regulations provide a Target Emission Rate for standard building types (see
Table in Appendix A). Hence the Target Emission Rate for a 4-bedroom detached
house (assumed area of 140 square metres) is 21.2 kg CO2 per square metre per
year. The Target Emission Rate for a mid-floor, 2-bedroom flat is 18.30 kg CO2 per
square metre per year.
The actual design (Design Emission Rate) must achieve lower emissions than the
Target Emission Rate. An engineer considering the energy performance of a
building must start by estimating the Design Emission Rate for that building.
Code for Sustainable Homes
The Code defines more exacting targets for the regulated emissions. Hence, to
achieve Code Level 3, the Design Emission Rate for the building must be 25% lower
than the Target Emission Rate for that building type. Code Level 5 seeks 100%
saving against Building Regulations (so the regulated component must sum to zero
carbon emissions). Code Level 6 represents a step-change and seeks to achieve
zero carbon emissions, taking into account unregulated power as well.
London Plan
The London Plan provides a stepped process to reducing carbon emissions:

Be Lean being as efficient as possible, primarily in relation to the regulated

emissions (this equates directly to performance against the Code, if no Clean or
Green technologies are incorporated)
Be Clean seeking to generate energy locally through more carbon efficient
technologies, such as combined heat and power (equates to Code performance,
if no Green technologies are included)
Be Green seek to deliver a 20% reduction in the final carbon emissions (after
applying Lean and Clean) through use of renewable energy technologies
(essentially a Merton Rule, but factoring in required prior consideration of Clean
technologies).
The London Plan also provides a hierarchy of Clean technologies to consider in a

deemed order of merit, based on their normal contribution to improved building
performance; these are summarised in the Appendix B.

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ENERGY STATEMENTS (ENERGY DEMAND ASSESSMENTS)

You should expect the following general methodology for any energy statement.
a. Building Regulations Estimate. Statement of the annual carbon emissions
associated with the Building Regulations components of the building. This
represents the typical target rating for a building of the type being considered
(detached house, semi-detached or a flat). (Target Emission)
b. Energy Efficient Design Features (Be Lean and Be Clean). Identification of
design features (including improved insulation, better air tightness, centralised
boiler plant and combined heat and power technology) which will improve upon
the Building Regulations calculation and which will lead to a score under Energy
within the Code for Sustainable Homes. (Design Emission and Code score).
c. Power Calculation. Addition of Power consumption estimate. There is a method
for calculating Unregulated Power within the Technical Guide for the Code for
Sustainable Homes for Code Level 6.
d. Total Carbon Emissions. B plus C should provide a total estimate of carbon
emissions for the building, which should be split between thermal and electrical
energy components. In more sophisticated energy statements, the variation of
energy consumption over the year will also be shown.
e. Renewable Technologies. The remainder of the energy statement should seek
to match appropriate technologies to the energy consumption patterns (thermal
and electrical energy) of the building and its occupants, aiming to meet the 10%
or 20% criteria. This final calculation represents the Merton Rule calculation (and
also relates directly to the requirements in the London Plan).
Throughout all energy statements, you should require planning applicants to provide
estimates of the total carbon dioxide emissions per year for the household (or
average for the households) units given in tonners of carbon dioxide per year for
each dwelling. This enables comparison against rules of thumb (see next section).
Energy Statements Caveat
When an engineer is developing an energy strategy, they will not follow the precise
process set out above; but they will be able to explain their approach in accordance
with the above structure. To meet the final Merton Rule requirements, the engineer
must address the whole building energy requirements from the outset in order to
achieve an optimal carbon saving strategy. Most power requirements of a building
are for electrical energy, which changes the balance of electrical to thermal energy
and might dictate a different final energy solution than if the regulated energy
(Building Regulations component) were considered separately.
Recognising this difference between Code for Sustainable Homes performance and
Merton Rule requirements, the GLA SPG on Sustainable Design and Construction
only requires an explicit baseline as (a) above (Target Emission Rate) and not any
explicit statement of the final Design Emission Rate. Rather under the GLA
guidelines, steps (b), (c) and (d) tend to be consolidated into one single step.

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ENERGY EFFICIENT DESIGN THE PLANNERS PERSPECTIVE

Achieving a low carbon building is a technical engineering challenge and no planner
can or should be expected to understand the detail. Many of the issues are beyond
the scope of direct consideration under the planning system (such as what insulation
is used, the insulation performance of the windows or the air tightness of the
building).
But there are some areas, where a planner can use his or her common sense to
identify spurious claims by planning applicants and which could reasonably be
expected to be addressed during the planning process.
Rules of Thumb Numbers to Know
The average household carbon emission for the UK is approximately 6 tonnes
carbon dioxide per year. This includes both new and existing dwellings. Modern
dwellings should significantly improve on this average.
The range of figures for new dwellings that you should keep in mind are as follows:
Likely Worst Case Scenario - Detached House (4 bedrooms of floor area 140
sqm) just meeting the Building Regulations minimum (Part L 2006) with a
predicted occupancy of 2.8 will consume in the order of 4.4 tonnes of carbon per
year. (The Building Regulations component of this sum is 3 tonnes per year and
the Power component is 1.4 tonnes (about 30%).)
Likely Better Case Scenario - Mid-Level Flat (2 bedrooms of floor area 50 sqm)
achieving Code Level 4 against the Code for Sustainable Homes and with a
predicted occupancy of 1.8 people will consume in the order of 1.3 tonnes of
carbon per year. (The Building Regulations component of this sum is 0.5 tonnes
per year and the Power component is 0.8 tonnes (unregulated power now
exceeding regulated carbon emissions.)
A table is provided in Appendix A with a breakdown of these calculations.

Using these numbers, it can be deduced that:
To meet a 10% Merton Rule, the Detached House meeting Part L only will need
to generate the equivalent of 0.44 tonnes of carbon saving per year.
To meet a 10% Merton Rule, a block of 10 flats built to Code Level 4 will need to
generate the equivalent of about 1.3 tonnes of carbon saving per year.
Remember: You should make sure that energy statements provide figures which
explicitly state the predicted emissions in tonnes of carbon dioxide generated per
year. If an energy statement shows numbers that veer significantly away from the
above Rules of Thumb, then a planning officer should seek further clarification.

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Remember that in an energy statement these figures should be broken down

according to thermal and electrical energy and the renewable energy technologies
chosen to match the energy requirements of the building.
Location
The average generation of carbon dioxide per car in the UK is about 3 tonnes per
year. This is half the average household (dwelling only) emission of carbon dioxide.
New flats now produce considerably less carbon than the average car.
For much new build, transport represents the major factor generating carbon
emissions per household.
So, do not forget the critical importance of transport towards generating carbon
emissions location and access to amenities is critical.
Energy Supply
Non-renewable energy delivered to a building tends to come in two forms: electricity
or gas (or sometimes oil instead of gas).
Electricity is a highly refined energy product, for which over 40% of the original
energy is lost by the time the electricity reaches the household. Gas delivered
directly to a household is much more efficient. But unless the gas is burnt using
combined heat and power, then it can only generate low quality energy (heat).
Any reduction in the use of electrical energy drawn from the national grid achieves a
proportionately larger reduction in carbon emissions than the same reduction in use
of gas.
Orientation and Facade
The orientation of a property will have a very significant impact on its carbon
performance, at least in relation to heating and cooling. Large south facing windows
will capture sunlight and heat the building up like a greenhouse, leading to discomfort
or the need for air conditioning (especially for modern, well-insulated buildings).
The quantity of windows in a property will strongly dictate its carbon performance.
Even the best double and triple glazed windows are an order of magnitude worse at
insulating a building than the walls and roof.
So, when you are considering planning applications, you should watch out for the
following:
A large proportion of the faade glazed. More than 25% and you should become
suspicious that it may struggle to meet Building Regulations, leave alone
achieving improvements on the Building Regulations.

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Large south-facing windows should be avoided, unless they are accompanied by

shading mechanisms.
Ventilation
When considering flatted developments, beware the single aspect flats. The same
aspect flat located on the north side of a building verses on the south side of the
building will have hugely different levels of internal comfort, particularly during the
summer months. This may imply a reliance by the designer on cooling technology,
even if this is not explicit elsewhere in the application. Generally speaking, cooling in
residential properties should be deemed unnecessary in the UK climate. Good
design should enable avoidance of this extra energy consuming practice.
Single aspect flats cannot be cross-ventilated (in other words having a window open
at the front and the back). For deep flats, this means that active ventilation will be
required at the back of the property. If this is the case, then the designer should be
incorporating heat recovery within the ventilation to counter the carbon emissions
associated with the active ventilation.
Other Terminology
You should not be phased by other terminology: for example, U-values, Air
Tightness, Thermal Mass and Thermal Bridging.
U-Values relate to the level of insulation of a building and dictate the rate of heat loss
through the buildings faade (walls and windows), roof and walls. The lower the Uvalue the better, indicating reduced heat loss.
Air-tightness relates to the draftiness of the building. A value of around 10 is what is
expected within the Building Regulations.
Thermal Mass represents the capacity of a material to store and retain heat (or
coolth). This is different to insulation, which simply prevents conduction of heat
through itself but does not itself have the ability to store heat or coolth. A building
with high thermal mass can help to average out the day/night fluctuations in outdoor
temperature.
Thermal Bridging arises when materials that are poor insulators come in contact,
allowing heat to flow through the path created. For example, structural steel beams
will represent a good path of conduction of heat. Thermal breaks are required to
prevent the heat being conducted away.

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PLANNING NEGOTIATIONS AND PLANNING CONDITIONS

Code for Sustainable Homes verses the Merton Rule
There is a large discrepancy between the Code for Sustainable Homes and
application of the Merton Rule. Throughout the whole Code calculation (out of a total
of around 100 points), only 1 point is awarded for use of any renewable technologies.
Normally there will be a much cheaper way to win Code points. Only above Code
Level 4 does it become essential to look to renewable energy technologies to
achieve sufficiently low design emissions.
To meet a 10% Merton Rule (taking Power into account) can cost millions of pounds
for even relatively small developments. Furthermore, it can be very difficult to
condition and check that a constructed building does indeed meet the aspirations
within the planning application or secured through negotiation.
For example, a planning officer will have to rely entirely on trust that a planning
applicant has installed the correct surface area of sufficiently high performing
photovoltaics, or that the right type of boiler has been installed, or that the wind
turbine really does generate the required carbon savings. Most planning authorities
do not have the resources to check whether such conditions or obligations have been
adequately met (certainly not for small to medium developments).
In negotiations a balance has to be found between a high Code score verses a high
(or any) Merton Rule percentage of renewables. In the case of the Code, a system is
in place to enable a planning authority to require certification. If this is achieved, then
(though it only relates to the regulated energy consumption) at least a defined
improvement in energy efficiency has been secured. In contrast, without very
complex planning conditions or S106 obligations, any percentage agreed against the
Merton Rule has a high chance of never being secured.
In practice, to be sure of making a carbon saving, in many instances and particularly
for smaller developments, it is probably better to aim for a higher Code scoring and
sacrifice the Merton Rule.
Code for Sustainable Homes Planning Conditions
It is useful to be aware of how the Code operates. Practically there are three stages
to assessment.
1. A pre-estimation that will accompany a planning application.
2. A design stage accurate estimate prior to construction.
3. A certification stage, post completion.
In practice the last point that planning will be able to influence designed outcome is at
Stage (2). It is therefore critical that the relevant planning condition has two stages
requirement to present the pre-construction estimate and then the final certificate.

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ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES - OVERVIEW

The following represents a short summary of each of the key renewable energy
technologies, providing key rules of thumb to watch out for.
Centralised Boiler Plant and Combined Heat and Power
Description
There are various technological options available which centralise the energy
generation within a development. These can vary in scale from a single gas boiler in
the basement of a block of flats, replacing individual boilers in individual flats, through
to a district system serving several or numerous buildings and in which both heat and
electricity are generated (combined heat and power).
Generally speaking any centralisation within a development will deliver energy
efficiency improvements against individual units in houses or apartments.
Where electricity is also generated (combined heat and power (CHP)), then
significant improvements are attained because of the off-setting against griddelivered electricity, which as stated earlier is very carbon intensive because of the
energy lost in distribution.
Type of Energy Used and Generated

Centralised boiler systems only produce thermal energy. CHP systems produce both
heat and electricity.
All such systems can draw on either non-renewable energy (gas or oil) or renewable
energy sources (biomass or biofuel see later). But beware, there are very, very few
examples where CHP and biomass have been used successfully to-date. Any
proposals suggesting biomass powered CHP should be treated with suspicion unless
very reputable service engineers are involved.
Without biomass or biofuel, CHP is NOT a renewable energy technology: just a
carbon efficient technology.
Constraints, Limitations and Conflicts

CHP systems produce roughly twice as much heat as they generate electricity. To be
viable economically they require a large and constant demand for heat. This can
sometimes make their application to energy efficient new housing problematic.
Current insulation standards mean the requirement for space heating is very low and
demand is present for only part of the year. The only constant source of heat demand
is for domestic hot water and in terms of reducing CO2 emissions much of this
demand could be met by the use of solar water heating instead (certainly in low rise
dwellings).

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For CHP systems to be economically viable they need to run for at least 4,000 hours
per year. They are more suitable for leisure centres with swimming pools and
hospitals that have a high, year round heat demand or in mixed use developments
with a suitable heat demand distribution across the building types. (Note: cooling
demand equates also to heat demand because the thermal energy from the CHP can
be easily converted to provide cold water for cooling.)
Typical Quantities of Carbon Saving

Well-design CHP systems can achieve up to 30 to 35% carbon savings in a
development. If a system is designed to meet electricity demand, it will produce
spare heat, which could supply other nearby developments.
Typical Costs
The cost of CHP plants depend on the site, local requirements and the machine
installed. Costs of the actual units can range between 500 and 2,000 per kW of
electrical output. A good mid-range estimate is 900 per kW hence a 50kW system
would cost 45,000 and a 5MW system would cost 4.5m.
As a rule of thumb, for residential CHP systems will be sized to provide around 30kW
of electrical output per 100 residential units. Based on the above, a CHP system for
100 units would cost around 27,000. Note that commercial and retail floorspace
can consume considerably more and quickly lead to much larger units than one sized
for residential only.
But the CHP unit itself may represent only a minor proportion of the overall cost. The
other costs include the centralised plumbing through the building and the heat
exchange units within properties. These costs have been estimated to equate to
around 5,000 per dwelling (between 3,000 and 6,000). But if the developer
planned at the outset to have some form of centralised hot water system (such as a
centralised boiler), then the cost of converting to CHP will be relatively small.
It is important to recognise that combined heat and power schemes below 300 or 400
dwellings are unlikely to be cost effective to a commercial developer. Smaller
schemes have to date only proven cost effective where public sector discount rates
and project lifetimes of over 20 years are used.
For smaller developments of 100 homes or less, (typical of infill projects) densities
may need to be around 75 dwellings per hectare to be cost effective.
Capital Costs verses Operational Costs

A major benefit of CHP systems is that they lead to significant cost savings for
occupants of dwellings. However this is achieved through a much higher up-front
capital cost to the developer. Unless a developer is likely to find a way to recoup this
money, there is a strong disincentive to go down this route.

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Solar Photovoltaics
Description
Otherwise known as PVs, these are tiles that generate electricity. Ideally they are
placed on a south-facing 30-40 degree surface (roughly equivalent to a normal
pitched roof), but they can also be placed on (almost) flat or vertical surfaces. PVs
are now being designed to be very unintrusive and can even now replace glass (for
instance, installed as roof of a conservatory).
PVs vary significantly in their efficiency from the highest quality to the lowest quality
of panels. They are specified according to kWp (peak output).
Type of Energy Generated

PVs use sunlight to generate electrical energy.

While prices are reducing all the time, the main limitation is that they still cost a great
deal for the quantity of carbon saving achieved.

8m2 (2m x 4m) of High Efficiency PVs will generate approximately 750 kWh/yr. If this
is used to offset the use of electricity in a building, then this equates to about 0.43
tonnes of carbon per year.
The Detached House example noted earlier would need little more than 8m2 of high
efficiency panels to achieve a 10% carbon saving. For Low Efficiency PVs, an area
of around 24m2 may be required (6m x 4m, which may be more than the south facing
roof area).
The block of 10 flats example noted earlier would require 24m2 of high efficiency
panels to achieve a 10% saving.
Typical Costs
According to the British Photovoltaic Association, the cost of installing PVs is
approximately 6 to 7 per Wp. On this basis, the cost to achieve the 10% carbon
saving for the detached house would be circa 8,000 to 10,000. The cost to
achieve the 10% carbon saving for the block of 10 flats would be 28,000 to 32,000.
When being installed in new build, the above figures should be marginally reduced.
Very approximately, cost is 20,000 for each tonne of carbon saved per year. While
high efficiency PVs cost more per square metre, when considering carbon savings
low efficiency and high efficiency PVs are cost equivalent. Choice of high efficiency
verses low efficiency is a design, not a cost, issue.

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Solar Water Heating
Description
Solar Water Panels use energy from the sun to heat water. The hot water is stored
in a hot tank. These systems can operate successfully in diffuse light conditions
(clowdy) and will generate hot water all the year round. Ideally they are placed on a
south-facing 30-40 degree surface (roughly equivalent to a normal pitched roof), but
they can also be placed on (almost) flat or vertical surfaces.
Solar Water panels are much more visually intrusive compared to PVs.

Solar Water panels generate hot water (thermal energy).

They cost much less than PVs. Care needs to be taken as to what other renewable
energy technologies are selected. Technologies such as Combined Heat and Power
tend to produce excess heat, which can be used to heat water. In which case, Solar
Water Panels provide no added benefit.
The degree of benefit associated with Solar Water panels depends very much on
water use patterns and they work best where hot water is required during the day,
such as when buildings are occupied by elderly or young families.

The standard domestic system (2 metres x 2 metres = 4m2) reduces C02 emissions
by around 0.35 tonnes per year (Energy Savings Trust) and will provide about a third
of hot water needs for a household0.
To achieve a 10% annual carbon saving, the Detached House example would need
5m2 of panels. The 10 Flats would need 15m2 for all the flats.
Typical Costs
A standard household system (area of 4m2) will cost between 2,500 and 4,000.
The approximate cost for the Detached House would be 3,000 - 5,000.
The approximate cost for the Block of 10 Flats would be 9,000 - 15,000.
Very approximately, cost is 7,000 - 11,000 for each tonne of carbon saved per
year.

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Heat Pumps
There are two fundamentally different types of Heat Pumps: ground source heat
pumps (GSHP) and air source heat pumps (ASHP). Both use refrigeration
technology to convert a small temperature difference from a large volume (the air or
the ground) to create a large temperature difference in a smaller volume. This larger
temperature differential can then be used to cool or heat the air in a building.
Ground Source Heat Pumps
Description
These are used to extract heat or coolth from the ground to provide space and water
heating or cooling. The Heat Pumps take in heat at a certain temperature and
release it at a higher temperature, using the same process as a refrigerator. The
main variations on the core technology are:
Horizontal or Vertical Pipe distribution underground. Horizontal need a large

area of space (e.g. a car park). A single house would require around 100m2
(10m x 10m). The vertical need to be placed in (potentially) deep bore holes.
Open or Closed. The Open systems extract water from the ground and either
return it or discharge to the sewer. The Closed systems re-circulate the same
water within closed pipes.
Water Bodies. Where a river, canal or lake lies proximate to a development
then a closed or open loop system can be used with this surface water.

GSHP consume electricity but generate hot or cool water (thermal energy). When
effective they produce 3 to 4 times more thermal energy than electrical energy
consumed.

GSHP are not generally suitable for single dwellings. Compared to efficient gas
boilers, they achieve little by way of reduction in carbon emissions, for considerable
extra cost and risk. They come into their own when cooling is required, for retail or
offices. Open systems are much more effective, but require a permit to extract water
from the ground. Technical feasibility must be determined through testing. Highly
skilled input is required to achieve good results.
This solution conflicts with Solar Water Panels and Combined Heat and Power.
Given the technical expertise required, a planning officer should remain sceptical
unless a respected consultancy has been engaged to carry out the analysis and
provided the recommendations and determined the likely carbon savings.
Treat with extreme care.

Page 18 of 25

This varies significantly upon type of system installed and expertise used to design
and install. Where a system provides for all heating and hot water requirements,
then it could save up to 3 tonnes per year. It will only achieve highest carbon savings
if the heat pumps do not rely on electricity from the national grid. In this respect, they
operate well in conjunction with Photovoltaics.
Typical Costs
It is generally considered that a good rule of thumb is 1,000 - 2,000 per kW
capacity. A typical residential system of 6 - 8kW costs 8,000 - 12,000. This
indicates a capital cost of 3,000 to 4,000 per tonne of carbon dioxide per year.
Air Source Heat Pumps
Description
In air-source heat pumps, external air at ambient temperature is cooled or heated by
passing over a finned heat exchanger. As with GSHP, they can be used to both heat
and cool a building. ASHP are most efficient when supplying low temperature
distribution systems such as underfloor heating. These pumps are particularly cost
effective in areas where mains gas is not available.

As with GSHP they deliver thermal energy only.

The technology is relatively new and while still rapidly evolving, they are currently
less efficient than GSHP. Their performance may be variable because of day night
variations in air temperature. This is why they operate best with low temperature
distribution systems. They operate very efficiently in conjunction with Photovoltaics,
albeit they need to be backed up by grid electricity supply.

A typical domestic system could provide for all the space heating requirements in
modern well insulated dwellings, providing circa 1 to 2 tonnes of carbon saving per
year.
Typical Costs
An ASHP typically costs in the region of 3,500 (6kW) and 6,000 (12kW), excluding
the cost of the distribution system (eg. radiators). This represents a capital cost of
circa 2,000 to 3,000 per tonne of carbon saved per year.

Page 19 of 25
Biomass and Biofuels
Description
Biomass or biofuels are at best carbon neutral as the carbon emitted on burning has
been recently absorbed from the atmosphere through growth of plants. However
most planning authorities will accept these fuel sources as being renewable. There
are two contrasting methods of using biomass heating in housing: single room
heaters and stoves or centralised boilers. Biomass can be used to power CHP
systems; but there are very few examples of this being done successfully to-date.

Except in the circumstance of a biomass fuelled CHP system, biomass systems only
generate thermal energy.

The most significant constraint is the sourcing of the fuel, delivery and storage. The
degree of carbon saving achieved depends upon the distance travelled and the level
of refining of the fuel required. In buildings, Biofuels, which are highly refined fuels
(biomass equivalent of petrol), generally do not provide any carbon savings
compared to gas. They should not therefore be accepted, unless rigorously
assessed for appropriateness.
These systems all require significant levels of maintenance and cleaning and need
management in place to ensure this happens. Because of the maintenance, 100%
back up systems (normally a standard gas boiler) must be installed.

Biomass boilers can easily cover all the heat requirements of a building, but without
CHP will not meet any of the Power (electricity) demand.
Typical Costs
The capital cost of a biomass boiler will typically be 2,000 for an individual house
rising to 30,000 for a block of flats or office. This is only marginally more than the
gas equivalent. It is a very cheap way (in terms of capital costs) for developers to
achieve significant carbon savings according to Merton Rule requirements.
It is unlikely that occupants will see any cost savings from the use of biomass boilers
as the fuel is very likely to be comparable in cost to other fuels, if not more
expensive. In addition there are the extra maintenance requirements.
Beware Because of the Building Regulations requirement for a back-up system,
many more opportunistic developers agree to install a biomass boiler with the full
intention of never using it.

Page 20 of 25
Wind
Description
Wind turbines come in all shapes and sizes: the larger, the more effective and
efficient. Very small wind turbines in urban areas have been referred to as Ecobling because they deliver very little (if any) benefit. Wind turbines vary in rating
from 600W (1.7m diameter blades) to 3.5MW (blades bigger than Jumbo jet wings).

Wind Turbines generate electrical energy.

Good wind conditions are required, preferably not turbulent from neighbouring
properties. Average wind speed for a location has a huge impact on the output of the
wind turbine.
Visual intrusion is the key planning concern. The ideal position of a wind turbine is to
be high and clear of obstructions, which tends to be entirely counter to visual
planning considerations.
Noise is often raised as a concern, but in modern wind turbines does not tend to be
an issue. If poorly installed on buildings, they can lead to vibration nuisance.

The annual output from a 600W (normal residential size) turbine can vary from 800
kWh/yr up to around 3,000kWh/hr. When converted into carbon savings, this range
represents a potential saving of between 0.45 tonnes carbon per year up to 1.7
tonnes of carbon per year. In urban areas, the lower end of this range is more likely.
For the Building Regulations compliant Detached House example, this should mean
that most, if not all, electricity requirements were met and provide for a sizeable
carbon saving (well in excess of 10%). For the Block of 10 Flats built to Code 4, the
upper end of this spectrum would meet the required 10% Merton Rule target.
Typical Costs
A 600W turbine will cost of the order of 3,000.
Very approximately, cost is 5,000 or less for each tonne of carbon saved per year.
It is a very good solution if the environmental conditions are right and if it is
acceptable in planning terms. But beware over-estimates on level of windiness,
particularly in built-up areas.

Page 21 of 25
CONCLUSIONS
These are some of the key issues to be wary of:
EXAGGERATION: It is in the interest of the whole supply chain within the
construction industry to exaggerate the performance of renewable technologies. If in
any doubt, make sure that the figures are corroborated by a reputable services
engineer.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY: Houses built to Levels 3 and 4 of the Code are already very
high performing dwellings which need very little space heating. The increasingly
significant factor defining energy consumption is the lifestyle and gadgetery of
occupants. This is driving the Building Regulations (and consequently Code Levels 1
to 5) further and further apart from Merton Rule solutions.
TRANSPORT: In highly rated dwellings, energy consumption in private vehicles
becomes a very significant component (much more than 50%) of the household
carbon emissions. The PPS Supplement on Climate Change places an onus on
planning to limit or mitigate this. Planning applicants should at the very least provide
transport related carbon estimates in energy statements or transport assessments.
CODE FOR SUSTAINABLE HOMES: Beware that just because a dwelling meets a
high Code Level, it does not mean that it performs well across all issues. Factors
such as internal noise and lighting are often sacrificed and points scored elsewhere.
CODE FOR SUSTAINABLE HOMES AND CHP: As a general rule of thumb, if a
building is designed to Code Level 3, then the addition of CHP alone will take its
rating up to Code Level 4.
TRICKS OF THE TRADE: Beware the developers who:

suggest Biomass or Biofuel and then never turn on the boilers (or even never
install them)
remove the A+ Rated White Goods from dwellings after Code or Ecohomes
assessments
propose technologies that do not exist, such as dual-fuel biomass CHP units!
LOOKING GREEN: Just because it looks green does not mean that it is green.
KEEP IT SIMPLE: Technologies such as Solar Water Panels may appear less sexy,
but they have their place and are often better long-term solutions than more
complicated strategies.
STICK TO CARBON: Make sure that energy statements are consistent in their
figures throughout ask for all subtotals and totals to be given in tonnes of carbon
dioxide per dwelling per year so that you can compare these to the rules of thumb.

Page 22 of 25
APPENDIX A - A PLANNER'S GUIDE TO CARBON

Bedrooms Floor Area Assumed
(sqm)
Occupancy
BR Part L
Target
Emission
(kg/m2)
BR Annual Carbon
Part L
Code 3
Code 4
(BR and Code relevant figures)
(Annual Tonnes of Carbon)
(0%)*
(25%)*
(44%)*
Power
Component
Code 6**
(tonnes of C
per yr)
Total Annual Carbon

Part L
Code 3
Code 4
(Merton Rule relevant figures)
(Annual Tonnes of Carbon)
Detached House
140
2.8
21.2
3.0
2.2
1.7
1.4
4.4
3.6
3.1
Semi-detached House
120
2.8
21.9
2.6
2.0
1.5
1.3
4.0
3.3
2.8
Mid-terrace House
64
2.3
21.6
1.4
1.0
0.8
1.0
2.4
2.0
1.8
Top Floor Flat
50
1.8
20.8
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.8
1.8
1.6
1.4
Mid-Floor Flat
50
1.8
18.3
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.8
1.7
1.5
1.3
Ground Floor Flat
50
1.8
21.7
1.1
0.8
0.6
0.8
1.9
1.6
1.4
* Required Savings for Designed Emission (final building design) against Target Emission
** Taken from Appliances and Cooking Estimator for Code 6 within Code for Sustainable Homes Technical Guidance
Photovoltaics Calculation
8m2 of High Efficiency PVs will generate in the order of 750 kWh/yr.
The Conversion Factor to estimate Carbon Savings when Electricity is being displaced is 0.568 kgCO2/kWh.
The Carbon Saving provided by 8m2 of High Efficiency PVs will be (750 * 0.568) = 0.43 tonnes of carbon per year
Each m2 of High Efficiency PVs achieve approximately 0.05 tonnes of carbon saving per year
Solar Water Heating Calculation
Annual Carbon Saving associated with standard domestic array of Panels (4m2) is 0.35 tonnes carbon per year
Each m2 of Solar Water Panels can be expected to generate a saving of approximately 0.09 tonnes of carbon saving per year
Wind Calculation
Annual electricity generated from a 600W (1.7m diameter) turbine varies between 800 kWh/yr and 3,000 kWh/yr
The Conversion Factor to estimate Carbon Savings when Electricity is being displaced is 0.568 kgCO2/kWh.
The lower Carbon Saving provided by a 600W turbine would be around 0.45 tonnes of carbon per year
The higher potential Carbon Savings provided by a well located 600W could be up to 1.7 tonnes of carbon per year

Page 23 of 25
APPENDIX B - JARGON BUSTER

Air-tightness relates to the draftiness of the building. A value of around 10 is
what is expected within the Building Regulations.
Building Regulations (Part L 2006) - This is the latest version of the building
regulations, regulating the energy performance of buildings. Next revision due in
2010.
Carbon verses Carbon Dioxide All reference to carbon throughout this document
should be deemed to mean emissions of carbon dioxide and mass of carbon dioxide
emitted (eg. tonnes of carbon dioxide per dwelling per year).
Design Emission This is the actual annual emission of carbon dioxide predicted to
arise from the building design.
GLA Technology Hierarchy In the London Plan Alterations (2008), the GLA
provide a hierarchy of Clean technologies to consider in order of merit according to
the normal benefit these technologies are deemed to contribute to reducing carbon
emissions. The hierarchy is as follows:

connection to existing CCHP/CHP distribution networks

site-wide CCHP/CHP powered by renewable energy
gas-fired CCHP/CHP or hydrogen fuel cells, both accompanied by renewables
communal heating and cooling fuelled by renewable sources of energy
gas fired communal heating and cooling.
Merton Rule This is an approach to planning policy, seeking delivery of a

percentage saving of carbon emissions (originally 10%) through the use of renewable
energy technologies. It originated in the London Borough of Merton, but has now
been adopted widely (see www.thermertonrule.org).
Target Emission This is the stated maximum allowable emission rate within the
Building Regulations for a particular type of building (detached house, semi, flat or
other). The Code defines more exacting standards measured as a percentage
reduction against this Target Emission.
Thermal Bridging arises when materials that are poor insulators come in contact,
allowing heat to flow through the path created. For example, structural steel beams
will represent a good path of conduction of heat. Thermal breaks are required to
prevent the heat being conducted away.
Thermal Mass represents the capacity of a material to store and retain heat (or
coolth). This is different to insulation, which simply prevents conduction of heat
through itself but does not itself have the ability to store heat or coolth. A building
with high thermal mass can help to average out the day/night fluctuations in outdoor
temperature.
U-Values relate to the level of insulation of a building and dictate the rate of heat
loss through the buildings faade (walls and windows), roof and walls. The lower the
U-value the better, indicating reduced heat loss.

Page 24 of 25
APPENDIX C HOW MUCH DOES IT COST?

The cost estimates provided in this document are rules of thumb only, ball-park
figures. They have not been obtained from any contractors or suppliers, but rather
drawn from publicly available documents.
The intent of providing these cost figures is primarily to provide a sense of magnitude
so that it is possible to determine whether costs quoted on individual projects are
likely to be reasonable or not.
A key caveat should be further taken into consideration. The cost of installing
renewable energy technologies usually involves three factors:
the renewable energy technology kit itself;
installation costs; and
building adaptation costs.
For example, the cost of a CHP system itself may be more than equivalent boilers,
but is still the same order of magnitude. A key element of the cost of CHP lies in the
requirement for centralised heating and cooling water pipework to be incorporated
into the building design, together with appropriate heat exchangers within dwellings.
The cost quoted by a developer for incorporating CHP into a development will
depend what he would have otherwise intended to do. If he had aimed to install an
all electric system, then the cost of up-grading to CHP will be many thousands of
pounds per unit (well over 5,000 per unit, closer to 10,000). But if the developer
had already intended to install a centralised boiler plant to provide heating only, then
he would have already assumed the costs of the pipework. The key cost of up-grade
would be the CHP unit in place of a boiler, which would be relatively nominal.
The same applies to the use of Solar Water Panels placed on blocks of flats. These
would require a centralised hot water and/or heating system. In contrast,
incorporating wind or PV into buildings can be much less problematic; but it still
requires consideration as to how the energy is distributed fairly between dwellings in
a multi-unit building.
Cost of installing renewable technology consequently depends very much upon the
baseline assumptions in the developers cost model. When entering any negotiations
on such matters, you should always ask what the baseline assumptions are, on to
which the new costs are being added.

Page 25 of 25
APPENDIX D WHAT GOES WITH WHAT?

Set out below are two quick reference tables to help remind you about the different
technologies the energy the produce and whether they match.
BEWARE
Energy Type
Renewable
Electrical
Thermal
Centralised
Boiler
No
Efficient, but not

renewable
CHP
No
Excess heat conflicts

with other systems
Photovoltaic
Yes
Solar Water
Yes
Lifestyle implications
GSHP
Yes
Technology difficult to
get right
ASHP
Yes
Technology still young

and fickle
Neutral
On-going cost, sourcing

and maintenance



Wind

Biomass
Over-estimates in
energy generated
ASHP
Boiler
CHP
PV
Solar Water
GSHP
ASHP
Biomass
Wind
GSHP
Yes
In buildings, no benefit
against gas
Solar
Water
Wind
CHP
No
Boiler
Biofuel
PV
Biomass
Still costly for level of

output

A Planner's Guide To Carbon - 7-8-08

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A PLANNERS GUIDE TO CARBON

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