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ManagementCommunication
ManagementCommunication:Introduction
Nomatterhowstrongone'sfinancialmodelis,
ifonecannotwritealogical,compellingstory,
theninvestorsaregoingtolookelsewhere.
Andinmybusiness,thatmeansdeath.
DarrenWhissen,directorofresearchat
WavelandLLC1
Whenyou'remanagingasmuch
changeascorporationsgloballymustdealwithtoday,theabilitytocommunicate,andcommunicateeffectively,issoimportantthatitoughttobeacorecapabilityinabusinessschool
curriculum.
RichardAnderson,
CEOofDeltaAirLines2

CommunicationandYourBusinessCareer
CommunicationandYourBusinessCareer
Accordingtoalonglineofresearch,leadersandmanagersspendmostoftheirtimeatworkcommunicating.Theycommunicateup,down,andlaterallyinsidetheorganizationandoutside
toaudiencessuchasvendors,regulators,customers,andshareholders.Theytalkoneonone,runmeetings,andgiveandlistentopresentations.Theywriteemails,reports,texts,Tweets,blog
posts,wikientries,andavarietyofotherworkrelateddocuments.
Butitisnotjustfrequencythatmakesbusinesscommunicationskillssoimportant.
Theoldmodelofbusinessleadersandmanagersemphasizedtheirpowerandauthority:Theytoldemployeeswhat,when,andhowtodotheirjobs.Thisstereotypewasprobablynever
entirelyaccurateinanycase,however,thisstyleofmanagementdoesn'tfittheneedsofmodernorganizations.
Leadersstillneedtogetthingsdone,buttheyhavetotrustotherstodothework.Inafastpaced,complexworld,employeesmustknowhowtothinkandactontheirown,notwaitforthe
boss'sorders.Now,accordingtoHenryMintzberg,awellknownbusinessprofessor,managingisaboutinfluencingaction.3
Communication,writtenororal,istheprimarymeansforleadersandmanagerstoinfluenceaction.
CommunicationDrivesSuccess
Therearethreekeystosuccessinbusiness.Oneofthemisskillincommunicating.

LeadersSaythatTheyLackSkills
LeadersSaythatTheyLackSkills
A2004studyprovidedevidencethatleadersinbusinessorganizationsthinktheyaren'tpreparedtocommunicatewell.Eightysixpercentoftherespondentsratedcommunicationskills
asacriticalleadershipcompetencybutonlythirtyfivepercentratedtheircommunicationabilityasastrength,atenpercentdeclinefromasimilarsurveyfouryearsearlier.4
Bystudyingandpracticingcommunicationskillsnow,youwillbebetterpreparedtolead.
MakeCommunicationaStrengthNow
TomKahldescribeshowheusedhisMBAexperiencetoimprovehowhecommunicated.

BusinessLeadersValueCommunication
BusinessLeadersValueCommunication
Giventhecriticalfunctionsofcommunication,it'snotsurprisingthat,foranumberofyears,employersrespondingtotheGraduateManagementAdmissionCouncil(GMAC)surveyhave
namedcommunicationastheirmostsoughtafterskillinMBAhires.
Similarsurveyshavehadsimilarresultsforalongtime.ThegraphcalledWhatRecruitersWantinMBAsshowsresultsfromarecentGMACsurvey.5

Businessleadershaveahighregardfortheabilitytocommunicate.Ifyoucan'tconveyyourthinkingclearlyandlogically,ithaslittlevalue.
JoeThompsonofProcter&Gambleexplainswhyhiscompanyvaluesclarityofcommunication.
ACultureofClarity
ElisabethBentelCarpentersaysthatinstartupscommunicationisasurvivalskill.
StartupCommunicationNeeds
Andthesedaysyouhavetoknowhowtocommunicateinmultiplemedia.Beingagreatpresenterdoesn'tcompensateforpoorwritingskills,nordoeshavinggreatwritingskills
compensateforbeingapoorpresenter.

HavinganMBAdegreedoesn'tassureyouajobifyoucan'tcommunicate.Beingabletospeakandwrite
wellcanmakethedifferencebetweengettingajobyouwantandsettlingforajobthat'soffered.
GoodCommunicationDifferentiates
TomKahl,CFOofatechnicalconsultingcompany,speakstothevalueofcommunicationskillsasadifferentiatorinthejobmarket.

WhatYouWillLearninThisCourse
WhatYouWillLearninThisCourse
Thisonlinemanagementcommunicationcourseteachesconceptsandtoolsthatcanhelpyoubeabetterbusinesscommunicator.Itcoversthreebroadareas:
PlanningCommunication
ThemodulecalledPlanningCommunication"introducesyoutoconceptsforunderstandingsituationsinwhichcommunicationisneeded.Knowinghowtousetheseconceptswillhelp
youcreateasuccessfulmessage.
Theendresultofplanningisanunderstandingofhowtoachieveyourspecificpurposethroughaparticularaudience.(Sometextbooksrefertothisresultasacommunicationstrategy.)
PlanningCommunicationappliestobothwritingandpresenting.
WritinginBusiness
Someyearsago,RobertEccles,NitinNohria(nowdeanofHarvardBusinessSchool),andJamesBerkleysaidthis:
Inanutshellmanagerslivein...auniversewherelanguageisconstantlyusednotonlytocommunicatebutalsotopersuade,andeventocreate.6
ThemodulecalledWritinginBusinessteachesconceptsforcreatingwrittenmessages,withemphasisonpersuasion.Topicsrangefromthewritingprocesstosentencestyle.The
coursehasmanyexamplesandexercisestoaidyouingraspingandapplyingtheconcepts."WritinginBusiness"usesdifferentformsofwrittenmessages,suchasmemos,emails,texts,
andreports.
PresentinginBusiness
ThemodulecalledPresentinginBusinessteachesbasicskillsforthespokendeliveryofcontentpreparedinadvance.Itcoversorganizing,preparing,anddeliveringapresentation.
Thecontentemphasizesspeakingpersuasivelyandengagingtheaudience."PresentinginBusiness"alsohasmanyexamplesandexercises.
Unlesstoldotherwise,youcanstudythewritingandpresentingunitsinanyorder.

PracticingYourSkills
PracticingYourSkills
Thiscourseprovidesafoundationforcommunicationskills.Skillsareaformofaction.Tobecomebetteratthem,youhavetodosomething.Inotherwords,youneedtowriteandpresent.
Youwillbecomemoreexpertatbothifyouregardtheuseofthemasanongoinglearningexperience.
RecruitingandCommunicationSkills
Practicingwritingandpresentingskillscanpayoffinajobofferyouwant.

PlanningCommunication
Andasforpurpose,don'tsettlefor'Iwantmywordstowork.'Visualizespecificallywhatyouwantthewordstodo.Makethereadersseesomething?Makethemfeelcertainemotions?
Performcertainactions?Changetheirminds?
PeterElbow,
WritingwithPower 1

Introduction
Introduction
Intheworkworld,everyonefeelsshortoftime.Managersfireoffemailsandtexts,takecallsoneafteranother,seepeopleintheiroffices,andrushofftomeetings.Oftendaily
communicationdoesnotrequirealotofthought.Butsometimesitdoes,eventhoughmanagersfindithardtoresistplungingintoawrittenorspokencommunication.Takingthetimeto
properlycomposethoughtsbeforecommunicatinghelpssendthemessagemoreeffectively.
Businessisaboutresults.Planningyourcommunicationbyanalyzingthesituationandorganizingyourmessageoftendeliversbetterresultsthanoperatingoninstinct.

WhatGoodAreModels?
WhatGoodAreModels?
Inthiscourse,youwilllearnaboutafewmodelsconsistingofconceptsapplicabletocommunication.Manyareasofbusinesseducationemploymodelsandframeworks,fromMichael
Porter'sFiveForcestomarketing's4Ps.
Intheshortterm,youmemorizethemodelsandlearnhowtoapplytheminthebusinesssituationstheyweredesignedfor,suchasindustryanalysisordevisingamarketingplan.Forthis
typeoflearning,youcanfindthesituationsincases,textbooks,simulations,andsimilareducationalmaterials.
Youmayfeelthatthemeticulous,stepbystepapplicationofmodelsisn'tpracticalintherealworld.However,learninghowtoapplymodelscanembedtheminyourmemory.It'sno
differentfromlearningadance.Youareshownthestepsandpracticeuntilyoudon'thavetothinkaboutthemyouknowwhattodoalmostautomatically.
Thiscourseteachesconceptsthat,throughpractice,youcanincorporateintoyourworkasarealworldbusinesscommunicator.

CaseStudy:PlanningCommunication
CaseStudy:PlanningCommunication
Acasestudywillbeusedinplanningcommunicationasavehicleforshowingyouhowtouseconcepts.Let'sconsidertwocommunicationtasksfacingTasha,aassociatevicepresidentof
marketing,sales,andcustomerservice.Shehasresponsibilityforseveraldepartments,includingthecallcenter.
TashaworksforAppsGo,amediumsizecompanythatdevelopssoftwareapplicationsformobiledevices,includingcellphonesandtablets.Ithasaprofitablenicheintheindustryand
distinguishesitselffrommanyofitscompetitorswithfirstclasscustomerservice.Tashaisworkingontwoissuesrequiringcommunication,onewithcallcenterrepresentativesandone
withherboss,Dmitri.
MeetTasha
Tashaworksasanexecutiveatamediumsizecompanythatspecializesinmobiledevicesoftware.

InformingtheCallCenterRepresentatives
InformingtheCallCenterRepresentatives
Thecompany'sinformationtechnology(IT)departmentwillsoonrolloutanewversionofthecustomerrelationshipmanagement(CRM)softwareusedinthecallcenter.Manyofthe

changesareminor.Ontheotherhand,afewnewfeatureswillallowasmoother,easierworkflowsomethingtherepswillwelcome.
IThasgivenTashaatenpagereportdescribingallthechangesinminutedetail.Normallythesupervisorofthecallcenterwouldhandlethetransitiontoanewversion,buthehashis
handsfullandTashahasvolunteeredtotakecareofit.
Frompastexperience,Tashaknowstheteamdoesnotliketoreadlongdocuments,whateverthecontent.Requiringteammemberstoreadthereportisn'tlikelytoworkbecause
they'llskimitandnottakeinmuchdetailornotreaditatall.Inaddition,beforethelastsoftwareupgrade,theITinformationhadsomeinaccuraciesthatledtoconfusion,wasted
time,andgrumblingamongthereps.Tashadoesnotwantherteammembersinanegativeframeofmindbeforetherolloutactuallyhappens.They'realreadyunderalotofstress
fromoverwork.
Tashadecidesthatbeforetherollout,she'llgivetherepsashortsummaryofthenewfeaturesmostrelevanttotheirjobs.Thebrevityandattentiontochangesmeaningfultothereps
shouldmakethemmorewillingtoreadthedocument.
AudienceofanInformativeMemo
Tashagetsafriend'sperspectiveonheraudience.

PersuadingDmitri
PersuadingDmitri
Likemostmanagers,Tashajugglesmultipleprojects.Onethatconcernsherisaproposalshe'sbeenworkingonwiththecallcentersupervisor.Theproposalrecommendshiringtwo
newcustomerrepsfluentinEnglishandSpanish.ThecompanylaunchedSpanishlanguageversionsofitsappsnearlytwoyearsagoandrampedupthemarketingofthemayearago.
ThenumberofcallcentercustomerswhopreferSpanishorspeakonlySpanishhasbeenincreasing.Ricardo,theoneSpanishspeakingrep,hasbeenswampedwithcallersandhas
becomeresentfulabouthisworkload.Overallthecenterisreceivingmorecustomercontactsfrommultiplechannels(phone,fax,email,livechat)thaneverbefore.Asthepressureon
employeeshasmounted,experiencedrepshavebeenquittingorretiringinalarmingnumbers.
Ahiringrequestwillbeatoughsell.BusinessisstillrecoveringfromadowneconomyandTasha'sboss,Dmitri,vicepresidentofmarketing,sales,andcustomerservice,runshis
departmentsasleanlyaspossible.TheCEOwantsdepartmentbudgetstobeatorbelowindustrybenchmarks.However,Tashaworriesthatthecallcenterwillsoonbeunabletofulfill
thecompany'sheavilymarketedclaimsofgreatcustomerservice.
AudienceofaPersuasiveMemo
TashaencountersDmitri'sreluctancetodealwithcallcenterstaffing.

AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation
AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation
Thisdiagramtellsyoutwobasicfactsaboutcommunication.First,sendersneedtoknowwhatthepurposeorintentionoftheirmessageisandtheyneedtoknowitwithsomeprecision.
Second,becausesendersneedtheaudiencetoaccomplishthepurpose,theymustknowwhateverinformationabouttheiraudiencethatcanhelpattainthepurposeofthemessage.
Aneffectivecommunicatorisagoodlearner.Theknowledgegainedfromthinkingaboutthepurposeandaudiencecanenhancethemessage,givingitagreaterchanceofsucceeding.
Effectivecommunicatorsalsoknowthattheycanalwayslearnmoreabouttheaudience,eveniftheyworkwithaudiencememberseveryday.Thenextsectionshowshowyoucanlearnwhat
youneedtoknowwhencreatinganimportantmessage.

ThreeQuestionsforAnalyzingaSituation
ThreeQuestionsforAnalyzingaSituation
Afewsimplequestionswillorganizeyourthinkingaboutasituationandresultinausefulunderstandingofit:

Question
Why?
Who?
How?

ExplanationoftheQuestion
Purpose:
WhatIwanttoaccomplishbycommunicating
Audience:
ThepeopleIwillbecommunicatingwith
Message:
ThecontentIcommunicatetotheaudience

Thesethreequestionswillbeexplainedfurtherandwillalsobeappliedtoexamples.
Checklist:AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation

Why?KnowingYourPurpose
Why?KnowingYourPurpose
Sowhydoyouneedtocommunicateinaparticularsituationinthefirstplace?YouaskyourselfthequestionWhy?toidentifyyourpurpose:theoutcomeyouwanttoachievethrough
communication.
OnFebruary11,2009,JohnJ.Mack,chairandCEOofMorganStanley,appearedbeforeacommitteeoftheU.S.Congress.Hehadacommunicationneed:Heneededtotellhisbank's
sideofthestoryafteritacceptedalargeamountoftaxpayermoneyfromtheTroubledAssetsRecoveryProgram(TARP).
Mack'spurposewasspecific.HismessagewasintendedtoshowCongressandotheraudiencessuchasthemediaandtaxpayersthatthebankwasusinggovernmentmoneyproductively.
Hispurposewastorestorethereputationofthebankasaresponsibleandtrustworthyorganizationafterthedisastersofthefinancialcrisis.
Inbusiness,managersfrequentlycommunicateforoneoftworeasons:totransferinformation(toinform)ortomotivatetheaudiencetochangetheiropinionortotakeanaction(to
persuade).

ThePurposeofInforming
ThePurposeofInforming
Informativecommunicationdescribesorexplainssomeaspectofreality.Examplesaredescriptions,forexample,ofanorderentryprocessoranexplanationofhowachemicalprocess
createsaninputforthemanufacturingofaproduct.Informativecommunicationcanbothdescribeandexplain.Forexample,amanagermightwanttodescribethestatisticalmethods
thecompanyusesforqualitycontrol,thatis,namethemandtelltheaudiencewhattheycando.Hemightalsoexplainhowtousethem,takingtheaudiencestepbystepthrougheach
methodandshowingthemwhatdataarenecessary,howtomakecalculations,andwhattheresultingvaluesmean.

ThePurposeofPersuading
ThePurposeofPersuading
Persuasionistheuseoflanguagetomotivateanaudiencetothink,feel,oractinthewaythecommunicatorintends.Seethetableforexamples.

PersuasiveCommunication
Conferencecallwithstock
marketanalysts

Purpose
Think:
Motivatetothinkthecompanyisasoundinvestment.

CEOatanannual
shareholdersmeeting
Videopresentationto
employees

Feel:
MotivatetheshareholderstofeelconfidenceinanewCEO.
Act:
Motivateemployeestoactinaspecificway:signupforafitnessprogram.
Think,feel,andact:
ConvincetheCEOthatthecompanysstrategyisflawedandtofeeldoubtaboutit,andthento
authorizeateamtoproposechanges.

PresentationtoCEO

ThePurposeofPersuading
LeadershipbyInfluence
Anexperiencedmanagerunderscoresthevitalroleofinfluencebypersuasion.

GettingThingsDonewithPersuasion
GettingThingsDonewithPersuasion
Amanagementwriter,JayConger,hascalledpersuasionthelanguageofbusinessleadership.Persuasionisacatalystforgettingworkdoneandforachievingoutcomesthatleaders
can'trealizeontheirown.
UsingVideotoPersuade
Here'savideoofanexecutivedescribinghowsheusedpersuasionwithherworldwidesalesteam.

Persuasion
Salespresentation

CatalystforWork
Sellingonlinevideoservices

OutcomeYouCan't
RealizeonYourOwn
SellingintheUnitedStates,LatinAmerica,andAsia

Leadersandmanagersusepersuasiononadailybasis.Withoutpersuasion,verylittleworkwouldgetdoneandorganizationswouldn'texistbecausetherewouldbenowaytoensure
thatpeoplesharedthesamegoalsandworkedcooperativelytowardthem.Thealternativestopersuasionareauthoritarianismoranarchy,bothofwhichhaveseveredrawbacks.
Persuadingpeopleusuallydoesn'thappenonthefirsttry.Popularliteratureonpersuasionpromisestoteachtechniquestowineverytime.Inbusiness,issuesarecomplicatedand
audienceshavediverse,andoftenstronglyheld,ideasoftheirown.Theseconditionsaren'tusuallyconducivetoquickoreasywins.
Businesspersuasionisusuallyaprocess,notanevent:ittakesmultiplecommunicationsaswellasothertypesofinfluence.Intheprocesstheinitialpurposecanchangeasthe
audiencemembersaskquestions,raiseobjections,andputforwardtheirownideas.
Audienceresistanceisactuallyagoodsign,althoughitcanbehardonacommunicator!Whenpersuasionstimulatesadiversityofviewpoints,theendresultisoftenbetterthanthe
oneproposedatthebeginningoftheprocess.
Tohelpyoudefineyourpurpose,usethesetwoquestions:

Informative
Whatistheimportanceoftheinformation?
WhatspecificinformationgapdoIwanttofill?

Persuasive
Whatistheimportanceofthetopic?
WhatdoIwanttheaudiencetothink,feel,anddo?

Example:Tasha'sPurposes

Applyingthequestionstothetwocommunicationsituationsshefaces,Tashasettlesontwodistinctpurposes:
Informative
1. Importance:Someofthenewsoftwarefeaturesmakethereps'
workmoreefficient.
2. Gaptofill:Iwantthemtoknowwhatthefeaturesareandhowtheywork.
Persuasive
1. Importance:Thecallcenterisseriouslyunderstaffed.
2. Think,feel,anddo:IwantDmitritounderstandthatwehaveaseriousproblem,feelsomediscomfortabouttheproblem,andultimatelyhiremoreSpanishspeakingreps.
Clarifyingyourpurposeisessential.Ifyoudon'tknowwhatyouaretryingaccomplish,youcan'texpecttocreatecommunicationthatachievesmuchofanything.Infact,ifyouaren't
clearabouttheintentionofyourmessage,therecouldbeharmfulunintendedconsequences.
Exercise:TheCommunicationCampaign

Who?KnowingYourAudience
Who?KnowingYourAudience
Communicationisnotaboutthepersoncommunicatingit'sabouttheaudience.
Soonceyou'veclarifiedthepurposeofyourmessage,thinkabouttheaudience.Understandingyouraudiencewillhelpyouachievethepurposeyouhavedefined.
Youdon'tneedorwanttoknoweverythingaboutthepeoplewhowillreceivethemessage.Youwantonlyinformationthatwillbehelpfulinrealizingyourpurpose.
Professors,textbooks,andpopularbooksoncommunicationallexhortcommunicatorstounderstandtheiraudience,buttheadviceoftenisn'tfollowed.Thewriterorspeakermaythink
sheknowstheaudiencewellenoughalreadyorbelievesthatknowingmoreaboutthemwouldn'tmakeadifference.However,evenanemailtosomeonethewriterknowswellbenefits
fromforethought,whensomethingimportantisatstake.
WomensCommunicationStrengths
EarlyinhiscareerSriniKrishnamurthylearnedtheconnectionbetweenmessageandaudience.
Example:TheCostofNotKnowingYourAudience

Aconsultingteampresentsanevaluationofacompany'sbusinessunits.Thepresentationculminatesinanopinionabouttheoverallperformanceofeachunit.Theteamnotesthat
onedivisioncouldhaveexceededitsgoalsbyahealthymarginbutwasheldbackbyitsmanagement,whichtheteamcriticizesaspreoccupiedwithinternalpolitics.
Theteamisn'tawarethattheheadofthatbusinessunitisaclosepersonalfriendofthecompanyCEO.TheCEOdefendshisfriend,whichshiftsattentionawayfromperformance
andinjectstensionintothemeeting.
Hadtheteamaskedquestionsabouttheiraudience,theymighthavelearnedoftherelationshipbetweentheCEOandtheheadofthebusinessunitandpresentedtheirjudgmentof
thebusinessunitmorediplomatically.
Thinkingabouttheaudiencecanonlyhelpyourcommunication.Trythis:Beforeyoustartcreatingthecontentofawrittenorspokenmessage,taketenminutestothinkonlyaboutyour
audience.Recordthepointsthatseemmostworthwhile.Assoonasyoucan,compareyourperceptionsoftheaudiencewithsomeonetrustworthythatknowssomeoralloftheaudience
members.Theoddsareveryhighthatwhatyoulearnwillaffectwhatandhowyoucommunicate.
WhenJohnMack,chairandCEOofMorganStanley,wentbeforeaU.S.congressionalcommittee,heknewtheaudiencewashostileandsuspiciousofhim.Soheincorporateda
measuredapologyinhisopeningstatement.Apologiestendtoplacatepeopleandmakethemreceptive.Notsurprisingly,thecommitteewasmorerestrainedintheirreactiontohim

thantoother,lesscontriteWallStreetexecutives.
Toexploreyouraudience,thesequestionsarehelpful:
Whoismyaudience?
Whatdoaudiencemembersknowaboutthetopic?
Whatistheirattitudetowardthetopic?Dotheyhaveanybiasesrelatedtothetopic?
Whatistheirattitudetowardme?
Whatismyattitudetowardtheaudience?

PrimaryandSecondaryAudiences
PrimaryandSecondaryAudiences
Insomesituations,youmayhavemorethanoneaudience,whichisanimportantfactorwhenthecommunicationneedstoaddressdifferentaudiences.
Let'ssaythatyou'rethechairofacrossfunctionalteamchargedwithmakingadecision.Youfavoramoderatelyaggressiveoptionandknowthatamajorityoftheteamagrees.Butan
adamantminorityopposesthatoptionandadvocatesamoreconservativedecision.Youarewritingamemotothecommitteerecommendingadecisionthatwillbediscussedatthe
nextmeeting.
Inthissituation,themajorityofthecommitteeisthesecondaryaudience.Theyalreadyagreewithyou.Theopponentsaretheprimaryaudiencebecausetheyneedtobeconvinced.
Preachingtothechoirfeelsgoodbutwon'tachieveyourpurposeinthissituation.
Let'sreturntotheexampleofJohnMack,chairandCEOofMorganStanley.Mack'sprimaryaudiencewasthecommitteemembers.Hehadmultiplesecondaryaudiences:other
membersofCongress,shareholders,voters,themedia,regulators,andWallStreet.Infact,it'sdebatablewhetherthecommitteewashisprimaryaudienceatallbecausehisbankhad
muchatstakewithsomeofthe"secondary"audiences,suchasregulatorsandshareholders.
Exercise:GettingtoKnowHerAudience

BarrierstoCommunication
BarrierstoCommunication
Asyouthinkabouttheaudience,bealertforobstaclestocommunicationfactorsthatcanmakeachievingapurposemoredifficultor,inextremecases,impossible.Thegoalof
identifyingbarriersistoremovethemorlessentheirimpact.
Inbusiness,therearemanypotentialbarrierstocommunication:
Hostilitytotheconclusion,thecommunicator,orboth.
Audiencebeliefthatthewriterorspeakerisn'ttrustworthy.
Lackofbackgroundknowledgeinthewriterspeakerortheaudience.
Biasinthespeakerwriterorintheaudience.
Ethicalandlegalissuesrelatedtothetopic.
Powerandotherorganizationalissues,suchasaspeakeraddressinganaudienceoverwhomhehas
nopowerbutwantsthemtodosomething.
Culturalfactorssuchasdifferentattitudestowardconflictinthepresenterandtheaudience.
Languageissues,suchastheinabilityofanaudiencetofollowsomeonespeakingtoofastintheirsecondlanguage.
RecognizingCulturalBarriers
AProcter&Gambleexecutivespeaksofdealingwithculturaldifferencesincommunication.
Example:RecognizingBarrierstoCommunication

Imaginethatyouareanentrepreneurwhowillpresenttoagroupofpotentialinvestors.
Considerhowtheywillperceiveyou.Theinvestorshavefarmorebusinessexperiencethanyoudoandhaveheardmanypitchesforfunding.
Youareconvincedyouhaveagoodbusinessplanthattakesadvantageofalargeopportunity.
Makingsureyouraudienceseesyouascrediblewillstrengthenyourpitch.
Herearesomeideasforbuildingcredibility:
Giverealisticnumbersandprepareforpredictablequestionsaboutthemsoyouarereadytorespond.
Don'tpretendtoknowsomething.
Knoweverythingthereistoknowaboutyourbusinessandthemarketinwhichyouwanttocompete.
Exercise:EvaluatingBarrierstoCommunication

CognitiveBias
CognitiveBias
Researchersinpsychologyhavefirmlyestablishedoverthelastfortyyearsthathumansareprofoundlybiasedintheirthinking.Thebiasestheyrefertoareneitherconsciousnor
deliberatethey'reinherentinpeople'sthoughtprocesses.Theimplicationsofbiasforcommunicationareprofound.
Asacommunicatoryoufacebiasintwoways:yourownbiasesthatinfluenceyourmessageandthebiaseswithwhichtheaudiencereceivesyourcommunication.Ineithersense
senseitisdifficulttocopewithbias.Peoplegenerallyaren'tawareofitandwilloftendenythatithasanyinfluence.Biashasrelevanceforcommunicationbecauseitcanleadto
distortedviewsofasituation,tensionbetweenthecommunicatorandtheaudience,andmisunderstandings.
Thescienceofbiasisextensiveandgrowing.Here,you'llfindexplanationsofthefollowingfourbiases,withmajorpotentialimpactoncommunication:
Falsegeneralization(thelawofsmallnumbers)
Anchoringbias
Availabilitybias
Representativenessbias

FalseGeneralization
FalseGeneralization
Falsegeneralization,alsocalledthelawofsmallnumbers,meansdrawingaconclusionfromasmallsetofdatatheresultingconclusionisoftenwrong.TheNobelprize
winningpsychologistDanielKahnemansaysthatthetendencyarisesfromourneedtobelievethattheworldisorderlyandconsistentmoresothanitactuallyis.
Example:ABadSellingYear

Asalesmanagerishavingdoubtsabouttheabilityorcommitmentofoneofhissalespeople,Mireille,becauseshe'snotmakinghernumbersinthecurrentyear.Froma
broaderperspectiveofthelastsevenyears,however,shehasbeenatopperformer.

DealingwithFalseGeneralization
DealingwithFalseGeneralization
Youcanavoidthebiasoffalsegeneralizationasacommunicatorbytakingintoaccountalargersetofdata.Toaddressfalsegeneralizationinaudiencemembers,youcanshow
themanexpandeddatasetandwhatyouregardasamoreaccurateconclusion.
Example:ProvidingMoreData

Mireillehasbeendemoralizedabouthersalesperformance.Hermanagerhasbecomeincreasinglyimpatient,andseveraltimesshehastoldhimthatshewillworkharder.
Afriendmentionsthatshe'shadastringofgoodyearsandwasnamedsalespersonoftheyearnotlongago.Mireillegathersthesalesnumbersforthelastsevenyearsand
calculatesheraverageyearoveryearincrease.Shecomparesthatnumbertotheaveragefortheentiresalesstaffhersislargerbyseveralpercentagepoints.Inashortmemo
shesharestheinformationwithherboss.

AnchoringBias
AnchoringBias
Anchoringbias(orsimplyanchoring)isexcessiverelianceononeorafewvalues,particularlywhenjudging,deciding,oracting.Anotherwayofputtingitisthatoneorafew
valueshaveunjustifiedinfluenceoverjudgment,decisionmaking,oraction.Anchoringoccursinfinancialmarketswhenastockpricefallsprecipitouslyandinvestorsbuyatthe
newlowerprice,believingthatthestockisnowundervalued.However,thestockpricemayfallbecausethecompanyisactuallyworthlessduetopoordecisionmakingorfailure
ofsomekind.
Example:TheDomineeringSalesGoal

ThesalesmanagersetanaggressivesalesgoalforMireilleforthecurrentyear,wellbeforeherregionencounteredeconomicstressesandherterritorywasreconfigured,which
eliminatedseveralofherlargestcustomers.Nevertheless,thesalesgoalisthereferencepoint,oranchor,fordiscussionsaboutMireille'sperformance.

DealingwithAnchoringBias
DealingwithAnchoringBias
Tofendoffanchoringbias,youhavetobealerttoyourownreferencepoints.Whenyoutrytoconvinceanaudiencewithanargument,examineitscontentforreferencepointsor
benchmarksthatyouassumeareaccurate.Aretheytrulyaccurate?
Likewise,assesstheanchorsthatyouraudiencemayhave.Arguingaconclusionrootedinanassumptionthatcontradictsanaudienceanchorcanrunintotroubleifyouaren't
awareoftheanchor.Youshouldfirstdealwithafallaciousanchorbyprovingwhyit'sfallacious.
Example:PullingtheAnchorUp

Mireillepreparesabriefpresentationforthesalesmanagerandassistantmanagerabouthersellingefforts.Sheplanstoshowthemhowthelossofherlargestcustomers
accountsfornearly75percentofthegapbetweenhercurrentsalesandthegoal.Shewillalsoestimatethesaleslossesduetolocaleconomicproblemsinherterritory,which
accountforanother15percent.Herconclusionwillproposealowergoalcoupledwithapromisetoworkhardertodevelopnewaccounts.

AvailabilityBias
AvailabilityBias
Thisbiasisthetendencytobaseajudgmentordecisionontheeasewithwhicharelevantfactoreventcanberecalled.Oftenrecencyplaysamajorroleit'seasiertorecallan
eventthatjusthappenedthanonethathappenedatanearliertime.Acommonexampleofavailabilitybiasisthefearpeoplehaveofflyingafteracommercialairlinercrashes
versusthecomforttheyhavewithdrivingtotheairport.Drivingismanytimesmoredangerousthanflyingatalltimes.
Example:TheRiskofSuccess

Thecompanyhashadseveralyearsofbriskgrowth.Mireilleseeseconomicshiftsthatmayreversethisgrowthtrendifthecompanydoesn'tadjustitsofferingsandpricing.
However,thesalesmanagerandthestaffmembershavegreatconfidenceinthestatusquobecauseoftherecenttrackrecord.

DealingwithAvailabilityBias
DealingwithAvailabilityBias
Researchersoftencontrastconclusionsinfluencedbyavailabilitybiaswiththoseguidedbybaserates,atermthatmeanstheprobabilityofsomethingbeingdeterminedby
rationalmeans,suchasstatistics.Anexampleisthefatalityratesforflyingincommercialairlinesversusthosefordrivingacar.
Youcanavoidavailabilitybiasbybuildingyourargumentsonbaserates.Foraudiencememberswhohaveavailabilitybias,youneedtoprovetothemthattheirviewisn't
derivedfromthebaserateandthenargueamoreaccurateview.
Example:BroadeningtheView

Mireilleassemblesthesalesrecordsforthepasttenyears.Althoughtheoveralltrendispositive,sheuncoversafairlyregularoscillation.Shetracksthemagainstsomeinternal
benchmarksandafewmacroeconomicmeasurements.Shefindsafewcorrelations,whichsheexplainsinamemotohercolleagues.Inthisway,shemovesthediscussionfrom
thesimpleassumptionthatthegoodtimeswillcontinuetoadatadrivenevaluation.

RepresentativenessBias
RepresentativenessBias
Representativenessbiasallowspeopletojudgewhethersomethingbelongsinaspecificcategoryaccordingtocharacteristicstheybelieverepresentmembersofthecategory.A
familiarexampleofrepresentativenessbiasisstereotyping,suchasthinkingthatayoungmanwhoisverytallmustbeabasketballplayer.
Example:CherryPickingGoodNews

ThesalesmanagercountersMireille'spositionthatthecompanyshouldbepreparedtomakeseriouschanges.Hecitesseveralfactorsrelatedtothecompanythathavebeen
consistentthroughouttheupswinginsalesandthatremainso.Becauseofthesalespeople'srepresentativenessbias,theydon'tthinkMireille'swarninghasmerit.

DealingwithRepresentativenessBias
DealingwithRepresentativenessBias
Tospuryourawarenessofrepresentativebias,askyourselfwhetheraclassificationyouhavemadeincludesalltherelevantfactors.Inpersuasiveformsofcommunication,
concentrateonclassificationsvitaltoyourargument.
Asfarasaudiencesareconcerned,addressingrepresentativenessbiasissimilartocounteringfalsegeneralization:Expandthenumberoffactorstheaudienceisusingtoclassify
something.
Example:CreatingaBetterPicture

Mireilletriedtochangehowhermanagerandpeersseethepresent.Sherealizesshehasherownrepresentativenessbiassheregardsthenegativefactorsasbeingmore
salientthanthepositiveones.
Insteadofarguingagainsttheoptimisticviewofheraudience,shepreparesasetofcriteriaforevaluatingthesustainabilityofsalesgrowth.Thecriteriaincludethefactorsthe
salesmanagerreliedonandtheadditionalfactorsshethinksareimportant.Shethenpreparesasustainabilityscorecardthat'sneitherasoptimisticashercolleaguesview
noraspessimisticashers.
Exercise:DetectingBias
Example:InformingtheReps

Forherinformativecommunication,Tashausestheaudiencequestionstoidentifycharacteristicsoftherepsrelevanttothemessage.
Whoismyaudience?
Myprimaryaudienceisthelessexperiencedcustomerservicereps.Asecondaryaudienceisveteranreps.

Whatdoaudiencemembersknowaboutthetopic?
Therepsdon'tknowaboutthenewfeaturesthat'stheinformationgapI'mfilling.I'llneedtodescribethebenefitsofthechangesinenoughdetailfortheinexperienced
reps.Imightlosealittleoftheattentionofthelongerservicereps,butthat'sariskworthtaking.
Whatistheirattitudetowardthetopic?Dotheyhaveanybiasesrelatedtothetopic?
Theyhatetheamountofinformationtheygetandtendtodeleteemailsbeforetheyreadthem.ThiscouldbethemostimportantbarriertocommunicationthatIface.On
theotherhand,theywelcomeanythingthatmakestheirworkeasier.
TheaudiencemighthaveanavailabilitybiasabouttheITdepartment.Beforethelastupdatetothesystem,thedepartmentgaveconfusingandcontradictoryinformation.
Therepsmightignoretheinformationbecausetheydon'ttrustit.
Whatistheirattitudetowardme?
TheyknowI'montheirside.Isuspecttheydon'tthinkIfullyunderstandthedemandsoftheirjob.It'strueIhaven'tspentalotoftimeinthecenter,butIknowthe
workflow.
Whatismyattitudetowardtheaudience?
Thecallcenterisessentialtothesuccessofourcompany,andthecurrentteammembers,especiallytheveterans,arecompetent.Irespectandlikethem.But,honestly,
sometimestheyirritatemewhentheyimmediatelyresistorcomplainaboutachange.
Conclusions
Becausetheinformationisdetailed,Iwillputitinmemoformandsenditasanemailattachment.Theywon'treadalongemail.
Thememoshouldbeasshortaspossible.
Itshouldfocusoninformationofhighestvaluetothereps.
Intheemailandatthebeginningofthememo,I'llemphasizehowtheinformationwillhelpthemdotheirjobmoreeasily.
Getthedetailsright!
Theitemaboutaccuracyisanexampleofwhyitisimportanttopayattentiontotheaudience.Anaccuratereportwillhelpovercomethereps'biasabouttheIT
department.
Anothermajorbarrierisinformationoverload.Thememoneedstoemphasizethebenefitofthecommunicationtotherepsinthesubjectlineandinthefirstsentence.
Example:PersuadingDmitri

Tasha'sothercommunication,theoneshehopeswillwinherboss'ssupporttohiremoreSpanishspeakingreps,requirespersuasion.Toreview,persuasionistheuseof
languagetomotivateanaudiencetothink,feel,oractinthewaythecommunicatorintends.
TashawantstochangethewayDmitrithinksabouthiringandgethimtotakeaction:hiretwomorereps.Hewillneedtoclearitwithhisboss,directorofthebusiness
unit.IfDmitrithinksTasha'smemocontainssolidevidence,he'llprobablysharethememowiththedirector.
Tashanowtypesanswerstotheaudiencequestions.
Whoismyaudience?
Dmitriismyprimaryaudience,butIhavetoconsiderasecondaryaudience:Dmitri'sboss,thedirector.IfIconvinceDmitri,hewillwanttogettheapprovalofthe
director.
Whatdoaudiencemembersknowaboutthetopic?
Dmitriknowsthecallcenteroperationwellandmostofthereps,especiallytheveterans.Hedoesn'tknowalotaboutwhat'sbeengoingoninthecenterrecently.The
directorknowsthecallcenterfrom30,000feetnodetails.BasedonwhatDmitrisays,thedirectorisanumbersguy.
Whatistheirattitudetowardthetopic?Dotheyhaveanybiasesrelatedtothetopic?
IhavetoassumeDmitri'sinitialattitudeisgoingtobenegative.Thedirectorissimilar,exceptthathedoesntseemtovaluethecallcenterasmuchasDmitrihesees
itasacostcenter,notasanasset.
Dmitriandthedirectormayhaveananchorbias:theindustrystandardbenchmarkforcostpercall.Corporatehasbeentoldmanytimesthattheindustrybenchmark
haslittlemeaningbecauseithidesalargenumberofvariables.Andyet,ineverydiscussionofthecallcenter,corporateexecutivesrefertothebenchmark.
Whatistheirattitudetowardme?
DmitrithinksI'manexcellentmanager.Buthemayfeelthatmyobjectivityiscompromisedbyloyaltytothereps.Idon'tknowthedirectorexceptwhatI'vegleaned
fromDmitri.Heprobablydoesn'thaveawelldefinedattitudetowardme.
Whatismyattitudetowardtheaudience?
Thisoneishardtoanswer.Dmitrihasadvocatedforthecallcenterbefore,butthere'sarumorthathellbepromotedsoon,sohemightwanttoleavetheproblemforthe
nextguy.Idon'tlikethatpossibility.Thedirector?Ivegotabiasagainstthecorporatetypes.Toomanyofthemthinktheyknoweverything.

TakingNoteofWhatYouLearn
TakingNoteofWhatYouLearn
Ananalysisofacommunicationsituationhasaproduct:valuablelearningaboutthecontentofthecommunication.Tryingtorememberallofthelearningviamemoryintroduces
theriskthatyouwilllosesomeofit.Takingnotesinsomeformreducestherisk.
Everyonehashisorherownwayofrecordingthoughts.Somepeopleliketotakedetailedhandwrittennotesothersprefervisualrepresentationsusingcomputermindmapping
applicationsorjustdrawingonasheetofpaper.Regardlessofthemeans,theobjectiveisthesame:topreservewhatyoulearnaboutasituationsothatyoucancreate
communicationefficiently.

How?ChoosingaChannel
How?ChoosingaChannel
Neverbeforehavebusinesspeoplehadsomanywaystocommunicate.Theproliferationofoptionsisanassetforlinkingeveryoneinanorganizationtogetheracrosslongdistances
andforcreatingopportunitiesforfasttransmissionofinformationandactivitiessuchascollaboration,innovation,andmentoring.
Youprobablydon'toftenhavetothinkaboutchannelchoicebecauseit'sagiven:Someoneemailsyou,andyouemailareply.Someonecallsyouandyoutalkonthephone.
Buteveninthesecommonplaceinstances,channelchoicecancropup.Forinstance,haveyouevertoldsomeoneyouaretalkingwithonthephonetosendyouanemailwiththe
details?Allthatmeansisthatyoupreferadifferentmodeorchannelforthecontentofaparticularcommunication,suchasthecaller'sfullcontactinformationorthedetailsofa
person'srequest.
Forhighvaluecommunicationwhereyouhaveachoice,itpaystopauseandthink.

QuestionsAboutChannels
QuestionsAboutChannels
Herearequestionsthatcanassistyouinselectingachannel:
Whatchannelisbestformypurpose?
Whatchannelisbestformyaudience?
Whatchannelisbestforconveyinginformationormakinganargument?
Whatchannelisbestforanemotionalimpactontheaudience?
Whatchannelisbestforme?

Foralistofcommunicationchannelsandfactorsthatcaninfluencechoicesofthem,seetheChannelCharacteristicstable.
Briefcase:ChannelCharacteristics
Exercise:ChannelChoice
Message:
BestChannel:
Feedback:
ChannelChoices:

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Example:PersuadingDmitri

Let'sapplythesequestionstoTasha'scommunicationwiththebossaboutaddingnewrepstothecallcenter.
Whatchannelisbestformypurpose?
IwantDmitritounderstandmyargument,askquestionsaboutit,andchallengeitifheneedsto.Ialsowanthimtobepersonallyengaged.Acombinationofawritten
document(sohecanabsorbtheargument)andafacetofacemeeting(toincreasehispersonalengagement)willworkbest.
Whatchannelisbestformyaudience?
Dmitriisatalker.Hesnotoriousfornotansweringemailsanddoesntlikereadingreportsandotherdocuments.Buthewantsproposalslikeminethatdependon
evidenceinwritingfirst.Hewantstoseeeverythinglaidoutinalogicalway.
Whatchannelisbestforconveyinginformationor
makinganargument?
Definitelywriting,fortworeasons:(1)Detailedevidenceandconclusionsarehardtorememberunlessthey'reinwritingand(2)Dmitricangooverthememoseveral
timesuntilhefullyunderstandstheargument.Thisprocesshelpspersuadehimandmakeshimamoreeffective"missionary"fortheargument.
Whatchannelisbestforanemotionalimpactontheaudience?
ThereportcangetDmitriworriedandpartlymotivatedtomakemyconclusionhisown.ButtalkingtohimfacetofaceisabetterwaytoshowhimhowconcernedIam.
Whatchannelisbestforme?
Writingisthebestchannelforme,definitely.IthinkI'madecentwriterandIliketoputthepuzzlepiecestogether.Idontlikestanduppresentations.Aoneonone
conversationonadifficulttopiccanbetense,butI'lltalktohimafterhe'sreadmyreportandabsorbedmyargumentandevidence.

How?UsingReasoningintheMessage
How?UsingReasoningintheMessage
Peopleinbusinesshaveanincentivetorelyonreasoning.Businessactingonthebasisofirrationalthinkingwillsuffersoonerorlater.Manyoftheplayersinthefinancialcrisisof
2008,forexample,believedthatrealestatepriceswouldcontinuetoriseindefinitely,despiteampleevidencetothecontrary.Inthelongrun,theirthinkingwasirrationalandan
entireindustry,manyeconomies,andmillionsofpeoplesufferedforit.
Ontheflipside,businesspeoplewieldreasontogreateffect.Facingimminentcollapse,theU.S.autoindustryusedreasontoreconstructitself,developinghighquality,innovative,
andfuelefficientvehicles.Biotechnologyanddrugcompaniesusereasontofindandcommercializenewtherapiesforformerlyintractablediseases.
Reasonisthemostfundamentaltoolforcreatingbusinesscommunication.Workplaceaudiencesexpectthecontentofpresentations,memos,emails,andotherformsof
communicationtobewellreasonedandlogical.
Exercise:UsingCommunicationToolsSpontaneously

InformativeCommunication
InformativeCommunication
Reasonhasalargeroleininformativecommunication.First,itisusedtoselecttheinformationofgreatestvaluetotheaudience.Usuallythehardestpartofselectingisdeciding
whattoleaveout.
Weliveintheinformationage.Collecting,storing,andtransmittingdataissoadvancedthatvastamountsofitarebeingwarehousedbecausewedon'thavethecapacitytoassess
itsvalue,muchlessuseit.
Butasreceivers,humanshaven'thadtimeyettoadapttheirbrainstotheinformationage.Itiseasyforustoenterastateofcognitiveoverload.Toofrequentlycommunicators
don'trecognizeourcognitivelimits.Theybelievethatthemoreinformationtheypushataudiences,thebetterinformedtheaudiencewillbe.
Uptoapoint,thatbeliefistrue,butafterthatpoint,audiencesbecomeconfused,tired,andunreceptive.Especiallyinbusiness,communicatorsoweittotheiraudiencestobe
strictaboutselectinginformationonthisprinciple:needtoknow,notnicetoknow.
Second,reasonisusedininformativecommunicationtobuildalogicalorganizationthathelpstheaudienceunderstandthecontent.Unstructuredinformationcanbe
communicatedandtheaudiencemayevenbeabletounderstandit,butitwon'tstayintheirmemories.Communicatinginformationthattheaudiencewon'trememberis
pointless.
Let'sconsiderafriendlyneighborwhovolunteerstoteachyouhowtochangeatire.Shetellsyouwhatyouneedtodobutnotinthecorrectorder.
Monthslater,you'reonaroadalongwayfromhomeandhavetochangeatirefrommemory.Verysoonyou'refrustratedbecauseyoucan'tremembertheorderofsomeofthe
steps.Doyoujackupthetirebeforeyouloosenthelugnutsordoyouloosenthemfirstandthenjackupthetire?
Usingreasoninaninformativemessageprimarilyhastodowithselectingandorderinginformation:
Whatinformationdoestheaudienceneedtoknowtoachievemypurpose?
Whatisthemostlogicalwayofpresentingtheinformation?
Example:InformingtheReps

Let'sreturntoTasha'scommunicationtothecallcenterrepresentatives.Tashahastostructuretheinformationlogically.Ithasanorganicorder:theprocesstherepsfollow
whentheyusethecallcentersoftware.
Tashatakesamomenttoconsiderthecontentinrelationtoitsvaluetotheaudience.
IcouldjustfollowtheITreport,whichgoesthrougheachcomputersteptherepstakewhenthey'reonacallandshowswhichoneshavechanged.Idon'tthinkthatwilldoitfor
thereps.Mostofthemcandothebasicstepsintheirsleepeventheinexperiencedonessotheydon'tneedtoberemindedoftheorder.Theywanttoknowthechangesthat
mattertothem.

PersuasiveCommunication
PersuasiveCommunication
Businessaudiencesexpectpersuasiontoberational.Theytypicallydon'trespondwelltopersuasionthat'sprimarilyemotional.Rationalpersuasionconsistsofarguments.The
abilitytoargueskillfullyisvaluedinbusiness(andinbusinessschool).

UsingArguments
UsingArguments
Thereareallsortsofdefinitionsofargument,butinpracticalterms,argumentisreachingaconclusionbyusingevidence.Evidencecomprisesqualitativeandquantitativefacts,
calculations,inferencesbasedonfacts,theoreticalknowledge,personalexperience,andexpertopinion.
Aconciseevidencestatement,combinedwiththeconclusion,canbeanexcellentopeningforapresentationorawrittencommunication.Theexampleillustrateshowtoconstruct
astrongargument.Businessargumentscanbemorecomplicated,buttheprocessfollowedintheexampleappliestothem,too.
Exercise:BuildingtheLogicalOrderofanArgument

UsingAssumptions
UsingAssumptions
Youhaveprobablyheardofinductiveanddeductivereasoning.Inductionistheprocessofconcludingthatsomethingisprobablytruebasedonrelevantobservations.Deduction
istheprocessofconcludingthatsomethingisprobablytruebyreferencetoaprinciplethatisgenerallyacceptedastrue.
Noticetheuseofthewordprobablyinthedefinitions.Realworldreasoningusuallydoesn'tgiveyouaresultthatistruebeyondanydoubt.Eventhestrongestconclusionsare
probablytrue.
Neitherconceptofreasoningisdirectlyusefulforcreatingpractical,realworldarguments.Moreusefulistheevidenceconclusionformofargumentexplainedintheprevious
section.Deductivelogic,however,doeshaveaconceptofgreatvalueforrealworldreasoning.Deductionworksbecauseagenerallyacceptedprinciplejustifiesrelatedstatements.
Indeduction,thegenerallyacceptedprincipleiscalledthemajorpremise.Itisalsocalledanassumption.
TheFunctionofAssumptions
Theassumptionmakestheconclusionpossiblebyconnectingtheevidenceandtheconclusion.Ofcourse,theargumentintheTadexampleissoobviousthattheassumption
doesnotseemimportant.
Butwhentheargumentisnotsoobvious,knowingtheassumptioncanhelpawriterorspeakerdecidewhethertheargumentwillbeacceptabletotheaudience.
Reset
FortheargumentaboutTad,whatistheassumption?DragthecorrectideaslistedbelowintotheLogicBoxtocreatetheassumption.Incorrectchoiceswillreturntotheir
originalposition.
Ahumanbeing
Tad
canthink
hasabrain

LogicBox
Evidence
Tad
isahumanbeing.
Assumption

Conclusion Therefore,Tad hasabrain.


Clickheretocontinue.
TounderstandtherelationshipsintheTadargument,let'sputthestatementsintoa"logicbox."Theboxshowshowthethreemainideasintheargumentareconnected.

LogicBox
(A)Tad (B)isahumanbeing.
(A)Tad (C)hasabrain.
Thetwosentencesexpresstheserelationships:
IdeaA=IdeaB
IdeaA=IdeaC
Giventheserelationships,itfollowsthatIdeaB=IdeaC.TheassumptionisthestatementthatlinksideasBandC.
Clickheretocontinue.
Let'sstartwithasimpleexampleofanargument:
Tadisahumanbeing.
Therefore,Tadhasabrain.
WeknowthatTadisahumanbeing.That'sastatementofevidenceitisafact.Fromthatfactweconcludehehasabrain.Buttheconclusiondependsonanassumption.
Clickheretoseetheassumption.
CheckingYourAssumptions
Tochecktheassumptionofanargument,followthesesteps.

Whattodo.
Definetheassumption.
Evaluatetheassumption'sacceptability
totheaudience.

Howtodoit.
Determinethelogicallinkbetweentheevidenceandconclusion.
Decidewhethertheintendedaudiencewillbelievetheassumption.
Iftheassumptionisacceptable,usetheargument.

Usetheargumentorchangeit.
Iftheassumptionisnotacceptable,changetheargument.
CheckingYourAssumptions:DefiningThem
Youcandefineyourassumptionspreciselybystatingyourevidenceandconclusionssothattheyhavethreeuniqueideas.WewillusetheLogicBoxtodefinethe
assumptionofabusinessargument.
Thisistheargumentwewilluse:
FiliaFoodshasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.
Hereistheargumentinalogicbox:

LogicBox
(A)FiliaFoods
(B)hasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.
(B)Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplant (C)shouldfinishit.
(A)Therefore,FiliaFoods
(C)shouldfinishtheplant.
Doyouthinkthatmostbusinessaudienceswouldagreewiththeassumption,"Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplantshouldfinishit"?
Return

LogicBox
(A)FiliaFoods
(B)hasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.
(A)Therefore,FiliaFoods (C)shouldfinishtheplant.
Theassumptionmustlinkideas(B)and(C).Canyoustateit?
Clickheretoseetheassumption.
CheckingYourAssumptions:EvaluatingAcceptability
Judgingtheacceptabilityofassumptionsdependsontheaudienceandallthevariablesthataffectit,suchasculture,values,history,bias,andknowledge.Knowingyour
audiencewellallowsyoutoaccuratelyevaluateanassumption'sacceptability.
Example:EvaluatinganAssumption'sAcceptability

Inthelastsection,wedefinedtheassumptionofanargumentaboutfinishingaplant:
Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplantshouldfinishit.
Theassumptionisaversionofthesunkcostfallacy:thinkingthatmoneyalreadyspentjustifiesmorespending.Mostaudiencesawareofthefallacywouldnotfindthe
argumentconvincing.
Exercise:JudgingtheAcceptabilityofanAssumption

CheckingYourAssumptions:UsinganArgumentorChangingIt
Recalltheargumentaboutfinishingtheplant:
FiliaFoodshasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplantshouldfinishit.Therefore,FiliaFoodsshould
finishtheplant.
Theassumptionisnotgoingtobeacceptabletoasmartbusinessaudience.Considerforamomentwhatwouldbeastrongerargumentforfinishingtheplantandthen
clickheretoseenewevidence.
Hereisanargumentwithnewevidencebutthesameconclusion:
FiliaFoodscannotmeetworldwidedemandwithoutanewplant.Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.
Withtheassumptioninthemiddle,theargumentisasfollows:
FiliaFoodscannotmeetworldwidedemandwithoutanewplant.
Acompanythatcannotmeetworldwidedemandwithoutanewplantshouldfinishtheoneithasbeenbuilding.
Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.
Theassumptionseemsacceptabletoabusinessaudienceaslongastheevidenceaboutdemandisconvincing.
Exercise:StrengtheningArguments

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ThreeQuestionsforCreatingArguments
ThreeQuestionsforCreatingArguments
Herearequestionsthatareusefulforconstructinganargument:
WhatargumentscanImaketoachievemypurpose?
WhatevidencedoIhaveorneedtosupportthearguments?
WhatassumptionsamImaking?Aretheyacceptabletotheaudience?
Example:PersuadingDmitri

WeknowthatTashawantstochangeDmitri'sthinkingaboutstaffingthecallcenterandgethimtotakeanactiontohiretwomoreSpanishspeakingreps.Shehas
builtanunderstandingofheraudience,althoughitisinsomewayscontradictory.Humanbeingsarecomplicated!
Shecanuseherunderstandingoftheaudiencetocreateanargumentthatwillpersuadethem.
Example:PersuadingDmitri(Continued)

WhatargumentscanImaketoachievemypurpose?
Mymainargumentisthatthecallcenterisunderstaffed:Therearen'tenoughrepstohandlethecallvolume.ThebiggestneedisSpanishspeakersbecausemostof
theincreasedvolumeiscomingfromSpanishspeakingcallers.Anotherargumentisthatturnoverhasskyrocketedandisinflatingourcosts,andtheturnoveris
causedmostlybyworkload.Finally,I'llgatherinformationaboutservicequality.
Ishouldthinkaboutthealternativestonothiringnewfulltimereps.I'veheardthatansweringargumentsforotherpossibilitiesmakespeoplemorelikelytoaccept
youroption.
WhatevidencedoIhaveorneedtosupportthearguments?
Ialreadyhavenumbersoncallvolumeandturnover.Ineedtoaskhumanresourcestotellmehowmuchtheturnovercosts.Icouldjustsaythecostishigh,buta
numberismoreconvincingtoDmitriandthedirectorthanageneralstatementaboutrisingexpenses.
WhatassumptionsamImaking?Aretheyacceptabletotheaudience?
Themainargumentsareunderstaffingandturnover.Bothargumentshavethisform:
Evidence
Thecallcentersuffersfromseveralrelatedproblems(understaffing,turnover,servicequality).
Conclusion
Thecallcenterneedsmorerepresentatives.

TheAssumption
Wheneverthecallcentersuffersfromtheproblem,itneedsmorerepresentatives.
TheassumptionwillbeacceptabletoDmitriandotherexecutivesonlyif,intheirview,theproblemsaresignificant.

Example:PersuadingDmitri(Continued)

Dmitri'scurrentpositionisnottohireanycallcenteremployeesexcepttofillopenpositionscausedbypeoplequittingorretiring.ButifTashacanfurnishafact
basedargument,shecouldpersuadehimandgivehimconfidencethathiringistherightchoice.
Ontheotherhand,Tashafearshemaywanttoducktheissueandleaveitforthenextpersonwhosucceedshim.Shecan'tbesurehowaccuratetherumorsarethat
corporatewantstopromotehim.ShespeculatesDmitriwillmakeajudgmentabouthowsoontheproblemwillbecomeunavoidable.
Tashawillneedafactualargumentwithquantitativeevidence.NumbershaveaparticularappealtoDmitriandseniorexecutives.Writingonlyaboutunhappy
customersandlowemployeemoralewillnotpersuadethem.
Tasha'sconclusionis:
WeshouldhiretwocustomerrepsfluentinEnglishandSpanish.
BeforeTashaidentifiesevidence,shethinksaboutthecriteriarelevanttothedecisionsheisrecommendingandsettlesonthree:
Turnover
Costs
Qualityofcustomerservice
Shetypestheevidenceshegathersinadocument.Hereissomeoftheevidencethecriteriahelpedherfindandquestionsthatshehastoanswer.Finally,inlightof
theassumptionofthearguments,shethinksabouthowtoprovetheproblemsareharmfultothecompany.
NotesaboutevidenceforapersuasivememotoDmitri
Turnover
Turnoveris100percenthigherthanlastyear.ThisnumbershouldconvinceDmitrithattheproblemisserious.
Welostsomeofourmostexperiencedandproductivereps.
Moremayquit.
Experiencedrepsarequittingorretiringduetooverworkandstress.
Whatarethecauses?
Thenumberofcallsintothecenterexceedscapacitybyanaverageof15percent.
SixtypercentoftheincreasedcallvolumeisfromcustomerswhorequestaSpanishspeakingrep.
Whyhighercallvolume?
Overallsaleshaveincreased.
BigjumpinsalestoSpanishspeakersisitrelatedtomarketingcampaign?Needtoresearch!
Costs
Thehumanresourcesdepartmentsaysthatnetcostofturnoverthisyearisestimatedtobe$200,000.
That'sabouta17percentincreaseinourtotalbudget.
Theincreaseisdetrimentaltothecompany.
Servicequality
Standardindicatorsshowadeclineinquality.Thenumbersprovetheproblemisharmful.
Numberofcallersputonholdup15percent.
Numberofabandonedcallsup13percent.
Averagecalllengthup2minutes.
Customercomplaintsaboutserviceareup27percent.

AfterTashaanswersherquestionsaboutthemarketingcampaign,shewritesadraftoftheargument.Readherdraftmemo.Noticehowshestatesherconclusionatthe
beginningandusestheevidenceshegatheredtocomposeanargument.DoyouthinkitwillconvinceDmitri?
Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version1

How?UsingEmotionintheMessage
How?UsingEmotionintheMessage
Scholarsinpsychology,neuroscience,economics,andotherfieldssaythatemotioninfluenceseverythingwedo,includingthinkingandacting.
DanAriely,abehavioraleconomist,tellsofanexperimentinwhichadaycareoperatordecidedtoimposeafineonparentswhopickedtheirchildrenuplatethegoalwasto
increasethenumberofparentswhocameontime.Thechangehadanunintendedconsequence:Latepickupsincreasedafterthefinewasimposed.
Rationally,thesituationhadn'tchangedatall.Thedaycarecenterwasnottryingtomakemoremoneyitwastryingtodeterlatepickups,asithadwhentheyaskedparents
tocomplyvoluntarily.
Whatchangedweretheparents'feelings.Aftertheimpositionofalatefee,theylookedatlatepickupasatransactionratherthanaspartofarelationshipwithagroupof
peoplecaringfortheirchildrenpeoplewhowantedtobeabletoleaveworkontime.
Emotionisgenerallynotanessentialfactorininformativecommunication,butitmattersagreatdealinpersuasion.Emotioninfluenceshowanaudiencereactstoa
communication.Italsoinfluenceshowwritersandspeakersexpressthemselvesintheirmessages.
Considerthesethreequestions:
Howdoaudiencemembersfeelaboutmytopic?
Whataudiencefeelingscanhelpmeachievemypurpose?
HowcanIelicitthesefeelings?
Example:PersuadingDmitri

Tashaknowsthatshehastodealwithaudienceemotions.She'salreadyawareofDmitri'slikelyemotionalresponsetoherhiringrequest:discomfortandevenslight
hostility.Thedangeristhathisfeelingsmaycausehimtorejectherargumentwithoutseriouslyconsideringit.

Howdoaudiencemembersfeelaboutmytopic?
Dmitriandthedirectorwilldislikeaproposalfornewhires.
Whataudiencefeelingscanhelpmeachievemypurpose?
Ideally,IdlikeDmitriandthedirectortohaveapositivefeelingaboutmyproposal.Failingthat,IwantDmitritobeasworriedaboutthesituationasIamandto
seetheissueasurgent.Iwantthedirectortroubledenoughtoacceptmyrecommendation,evenifhedoesntlikeit.
HowcanIelicitthesefeelings?

Ishouldntusestrongemotionallanguage.Thatwouldmakemeseembiased.AndDmitriandthedirectormighthavesomestereotypesaboutwomen.Ijustdont
know.
TashawillargueheropinionthewayDmitrilikes:withfacts.Shecouldrelyontheargumentalonetomotivatehim,butshewantstomaximizetheoddsofsuccess
andknowsthatemotionsareinplayanyway,whethershewantstodealwiththemornot.
Shetriestoestablishtheurgencyofthehiringissue.ThesoonerDmitrithinksthecallcenterwillhaveamajorproblem,themorelikelyhewillbetoact.Dmitris
rumoredpromotioncouldbeanasset.Hewillnotwanthislastactoverseeingthecallcentertobeadebacle.

Exercise:WhatAudienceEmotionWillHelpYouPersuade?

PleasereadTashasPersuasiveMemo,Version2.Thesentencesthatdirectlyevokeemotionarehighlighted.
TashasPersuasiveMemo,Version2

Businessaudiencescanfoolthemselvesthattheyreimmunetofeelingsaffectingtheirjudgment.Emotionsarerealitiesinfact,theyarepartofhowwemakeour
judgmentsanddecisions,andwearentconsciousofsomeofthem.(Formoreonthistopic,seeCognitiveBias.)
Practically,then,youarebetteroffhavingtheaudiencesemotionsworkingforyou.Emotionsenergizepersuasionandcanhaveamultipliereffectonamessage.Dmitri
canbemoremotivatedasaresultofthefeelingsTashaevokesinhermemothanhewouldifhereadamemothatavoidedevokingemotionasmuchaspossible.
AudienceEmotions
Dmitrihasstrongfeelingsabouthiringtosolvethecallcenterproblem.Tashacan'teliminatehisfeelingsagainstthatsolution,butshecanintensifyhisfeelings
aboutdoingnothing.

How?UsingCharacterintheMessage
How?UsingCharacterintheMessage
Characteristheaudience'sattitudetowardaspeakerorwriter.Audiencesformattitudesofthepersoncommunicatingnotonlyfromthecontentofthemessagebutalso
fromothersourcessuchasbodylanguageandfacialexpression(speakers),toneandvocabulary(writers),andtheaudience'spreviousimpressionsoftheperson(both
writersandspeakers).
Audiencesareespeciallyreactivetotheknowledgeandcredibilityofaspeakerorwriter:
Knowledge
Anaudiencewantstobesurethecommunicatorknowswhatheorsheistalkingabout.Tobereceptivetoamessage,anaudiencemusthavesomerespectforthe
intellectualauthorityofthecommunicator.
Credibility
Anaudiencewantstobesurethatcommunicatorscanbetrusted,thattheytellthetruthastheyseeit,andthattheyaretransparentwiththeirevidenceandabouttheir
motives.
Readthefollowingexcerptfromarecentlettertoshareholders.ImagineyouhaveinvestedinBuffett'scompany,BerkshireHathaway.Howwouldyoufeelaboutthe
messageinthisexcerpt?
TotheShareholdersofBerkshireHathawayInc.,20091

Andnowapainfulconfession:Lastyearyourchairmanclosedthebookonaveryexpensivebusinessfiascoentirelyofhisownmaking.
FormanyyearsIhadstruggledtothinkofsideproductsthatwecouldofferourmillionsofloyalGEICOcustomers.Unfortunately,Ifinallysucceeded,comingupwitha
brilliantinsightthatweshouldmarketourowncreditcard.IreasonedthatGEICOpolicyholderswerelikelytobegoodcreditrisksand,assumingweofferedan
attractivecard,wouldlikelyfavoruswiththeirbusiness.Wegotbusinessallrightbutofthewrongtype.
Ourpretaxlossesfromcreditcardoperationscametoabout$6.3millionbeforeIfinallywokeup.Wethensoldour$98millionportfoliooftroubledreceivablesfor55
onthedollar,losinganadditional$44million.
Buffett'shonestyelicitstrust,aninvaluableassetforanexecutiveandleader.Hisselfdeprecatinghumorandhishumilityoffsetthebadnews.Weareusuallywillingto
forgivepeoplewhotakeresponsibilityforfailures.ThecharacterBuffettprojectsinhisshareholdersletterisstablefromyeartoyear.Consistencyisanotherkeytoa
persuasiveethos.

OnDemandCharacter?
OnDemandCharacter?
Incommunicationshouldyoupresentyourselfasyoureallyareorshouldyoupresentyourselfinwhateverwayyouthinkfurthersyourpurpose,evenifthatmeans
disguisingormisrepresentingyourcharacter?
Inaway,thequestiondoesnotmattermuch.Itisveryhardforsomeonetoconstructafallaciouscharacter.Askilledactorcanloseherorhimselfinarole,butforthe
restofus,ourcharacterstendtobestubbornlyfixed.Theriskoftryingtoexpressfalsecharacteristhattheaudiencewilldetectit,atwhichpointthepersuader's
credibilityevaporates.
However,wecanstressdifferentaspectsofourcharactertosuitourpurpose.Inhishighlyeffectivemarketingpresentations,SteveJobscameacrossasaproudand
excitedparent,withnewdevicesashischildren.IninternalmeetingsatApple,herevealedothersidesofhischaracter:demanding,impatient,sometimes
denigrating.
Whenyouareconsideringwhatethosyouwanttoconvey,askthesequestions:
Whatistheaudience'sattitudetowardmycharacter?
WhatdoIwanttheaudiencemembers'attitudetobe?
HowcanImovetheaudiencetothedesiredattitude?
Example:PersuadingDmitri

HereareTasha'sthoughtsaboutcharacterandherattempttopersuade:

WhatisDmitri'sattitudetowardmycharacter?
HerespectsmeandIcanbuildonthat.ButeveryoneknowsI'mveryloyaltothereps,andhemightquestionmyobjectivity.Thedirectormightassumethesame
thing.
WhatdoIwanttheaudiencemembers'attitudetobe?
First,IwantDmitriandthedirectortoknowthatI'mamanagementteamplayer.Next,IwantthemtoknowthatI'manexpert.Ispeaktheirlanguage(numbers)
andknowwhatI'mtalkingabout!
HowcanImovetheaudiencetothedesiredattitude?
Icandothisbybeingobjectiveandlogical.I'veresearchedalotofevidence,includingnumbers.Maybesomebackgroundonourdepartment'scostcuttingwould

helpmyteamplayerimage.
Example:PersuadingDmitri(Continued)

Tasha'ssecondaryaudience,Arthur,thedirectorofcorporatemarketingandsales,doesntknowherwell.Shethinksthatpositioningherselfandherdepartmentas
costcutterswillmakeafavorableimpressiononhim.
Inreality,Tashasfeelingsdomotivateher.Theplightofheroverworkedandstressedemployeesisupsettingandsheispainedtoloseveteranreps(needlessly,inher
opinion)thatshelikesandrespects.Yetshespragmaticenoughtounderstandthatinthememohercharactershouldcomeacrossasanalyticalandmethodicaltogive
herabetterchanceofpersuadingDmitriandhissuperior.
SeeTasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version3.Thestatementsthatdirectlyaffecttheaudience'sattitudetowardherarehighlighted.
Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version3
Exercise:MatchingCharactertotheCommunicationSituation

TheEthicsofPersuasion
TheEthicsofPersuasion
Toconvinceanaudience,anindividualcanfudgedata,manipulatefeelings,andprojectafalsecharacter.Unfortunately,thesemisusesofpersuasionarealltoocommon,
includinginbusiness.
Manypeoplearesuspiciousofpersuasion,regardingitasawaytowinoveranaudiencethroughdeceptionorpureemotion.Nonetheless,businesspeopleengagein
persuasioneverydaybecauseitstheartofthepractical:theuseoflanguagetogetthingsdone.Humanshaveengagedinitsinceweacquiredlanguage.
Persuasionissensitivetotheethicsofbothsidesofacommunication.Tashacouldusefalseormisleadingevidencetopersuade.Ontheotherhand,Dmitricouldclaim
thatthereasonforthebacklogofcallsisnotunderstaffingbutthepoorperformanceofcallcenterrepsandusethatasanexcusetofirearephehasneverliked.Thepoint
isthatbothcommunicatorsandaudienceshaveethicalresponsibilities.
Wheneverpersuasionisused,ethicsareinplay.Speakerscanchangedatatosupporttheiropinion.Writerscanuseinflammatoryorexaggeratedlanguage.Bothcan
manipulateanaudiencebyexploitingabias.Yet,audiencesaren'thelpless.Theycanlistenorreadcritically.
Everyonehasopportunitiestoexploitcommunicationforthesakeofsomekindofperceivedadvantage.Whenindoubt,askyourselfwhatoutcomeisbestforyouandthe
commongoodinthelongaswellastheshortrun.

OrganizingaMessage
OrganizingaMessage
Ananalysisofacommunicationsituationtellsyouagreatdealaboutthemessageyouareplanning.Thatknowledgeinformswhatyoudonext:Createandorganizecontent.

InformativeCommunication
InformativeCommunication
Tocreateaninformativemessage,gathertheinformationnecessarytoaccomplishyourpurpose.Youalsoneedtounderstandtheinformation.Ifyoudonotunderstand
someoralloftheinformation,takewhateveractionyouneedtomasterit.
Theguidingprincipleforinformativecommunicationistoincludeeverythingtheaudienceneedstoknowandnomore.Limitinginformationtotheessentialssounds
straightforward,butthereisastrongtendencytothinkthatmoreinformationisbetterthanless.
Goodexamplesareanalystreportsonstocks.Thesereportsoftencontainanastonishingamountofinformation,suchaseighteenpagesonasinglebankstock,withfifteen
exhibits,someofwhichfillapage.Butdistillingamassofinformationintoacompactpackagecanbedone.
Aleadingfinancialfirmrequiresthatinternalanalystreportswrittenforportfoliomanagersbenolongerthantwopages.Analystsidentifyandincludeonlythe
informationofgreatestvaluetotheaudienceofportfoliomanagerssuchinformationcouldincludeexpectedearningspersharegrowth,thestrengthofacompany'score
productsorservices,andlongtermpotentialforgrowth.
Example:InformingtheReps

TheITreportTashahasreceivedcoverssoftwarechangesmadeintheupdate.Herfirststepisextractingthecontentrelevanttocallcenterreps.Shefindsacoupleof
changestothesoftwarethatshedoesnotunderstandcompletely,soshesendsanemailtotheITpersonwhowrotethereportforclarification.
TashaleavesoutfarmoreoftheITreportthansheusesinhermemo.Butevenwiththereductionincontent,Tashahasmorefilteringtodo.Someofthechangestothe
softwareareminor,havinglittleeffectonthereps'work.Shedecidesnottoincludesuchchanges.Theycoulddistracttheaudienceor,worse,signalthatthecontenthas
minimalworth.Theminorchangescanbecoveredquicklyinameeting.
AsTashaassemblesthecorecontentforhermemo,shefacesthecriticaldecisionofinformativecommunication:howtoorganizeittoachieveherpurpose.

InformationOrganizers
InformationOrganizers
Aneffectivewriterorspeakerputsinformationinanorderthatbestfacilitatesaudiencecomprehension.
Manycommunicationsfailbecauseofpoororganization.Byputtingdowntheirthoughtsinanillogicalorder,writersleavethetaskoforganizingtoreaders.Nodoubt
youhavereceivedwritingthatisdisorganized.Doyourememberyourresponse?Mostreaderswillmakeanefforttounderstand,buteventuallytheyreacha
thresholdoffrustrationandquitreading.
Everybodyofinformationisunique,yettherearetwobroadcategoriesoforganizersthatcanhelp:
Organicorganizers
Analyticorganizers

InformationOrganizers:Organic
InformationOrganizers:Organic
Organicorganizersarethosethatderivefromthenatureofthetopic.Asacommunicator,youreproducetheorganizationfortheaudience.Herearesomeofthe
mostcommontypesoforganiclogic:

Organic
Organizer
Physical
arrangement

Definition
Arrangementofphysicaldetails.

Chronology

Timesequence

Process

Seriesofstepsthat
leadtoaspecificoutcome.

Example
Describetheorganizationofaproductionlineand
explainwhyitisorganizedthatway.
Describethehistoryofaproductlineandexplain
decisionsthatshapeditshistory.
Describethestepsforenteringinformationintoa
computerdatabaseandexplaintherationaleforthe
orderofthesteps.

Hierarchy

Structureofauthority,power,
responsibility,orsimilarcharacteristics
ofanorganization.

Describeanorganizationchartandexplainthe
reportingrelationships.

InformationOrganizers:Analytic
InformationOrganizers:Analytic
Sometimesinformationyouhavetocommunicatedoesnothaveanobviousstructure.Inthesesituations,useanalyticorganizers,inwhichyouorganize
informationusingconceptsappropriatetothecontentandaudience.
Afrequentlyusedanalyticorganizerisorderofimportance.Atodolistarrangedfromthemostimportanttasktotheleastimportantisanexample.Soisasetof
recommendationsforimprovinganemployee'sperformancearrangedinpriorityorder.Anothercommontypeofanalyticorganizerislevelofdifficulty(basicto
advanced)andfrequency(highfrequencytolowfrequency).
Businessconceptsoftenserveasanalyticorganizers.Let'ssaythatyouhavenewemployeesonyourmarketingteamandwanttodescribethecurrentmarketing
planforaproduct.ThereisawelldefinedwayofcommunicatingamarketingplanthateveryMBAcandidatelearns:the4Ps(product,price,promotion,andplace).
The4Psframeworkisaninstanceofanorganizertailormadeforaparticulartypeofinformation.
Herearesomeexamplesofanalyticorganization:

Analytic
Organizer
Importance
Difficulty
Frequency
Business
concepts

Definition
Arrangebyvalue,worth,and
urgency.
Arrangebylevelof
difficulty.
Arrangebythenumber
ofoccurrencesoveraperiodof
time.
Arrangebyorderof
conceptsinabusinessmodel.

Example
Listofcriticalsafetypractices(mostimportanttoleast
important).
Trainingmanualforoperationofmachine(basictoadvanced).
Numberofmentionsofcompanyinvarioussocialmedia(high
tolowfrequency).
Amarketingplanorganizedaroundthe4Ps.

Exercise:OrganizingInformation
Example:InformingtheReps

Tashahasalreadygivensomethoughttoorganizingthemessageaboutthenewsoftwarefeatures.Shecouldfollowanorganicorder:thesequenceofstepsthe
repstakewhentheyusethesoftwareforatypicalcustomercall.
Sherejectsthatorder.First,therepsknowtheprocessextremelywellanddon'thavetobetoldwhichfeatureappliestowhichstep.Second,theyhaveastrict
standardfortheirhighestlevelofattention:Doesitmakemylifeeasier?Ifitdoesnot,theytendtoignoretheinformation.
SoananalyticorganizerlookstoTashalikethebestbet:theorderofimportancetothereps.
ReadTasha'sinformativememoandanalyzetheorganization.Thenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.
Tasha'sInformativeMemo

PersuasiveArguments
PersuasiveArguments
Likeinformativecommunication,persuasivecommunicationrestsonthefoundationofawelldefinedpurposeandanunderstandingoftheaudience.Butpersuasion
ismorecomplicated.Thegoalofinformativecommunicationisaudiencecomprehensionofthecontent.Notsowithpersuasion:Communicatorsseektomotivatean
audiencetothink,feel,ordosomethingspecific.
Toinformanaudience,thecommunicatorjustgivesanaudiencethenecessaryfacts.Topersuadeanaudience,shenotonlyhastoprovidethefacts,shemustalsotell
themwhythefactsshouldpromptthemtothink,feel,oractinacertainway.
Asimpleexampleofthedifferenceinvolvesbeautyproducts.Informinganaudiencewhatproductsadrugstoreordepartmentstoresellsandwheretofindthemin
thestoreisnotdifficult.Ontheotherhand,persuadingmembersofanaudiencetobuyspecificproductschallengesthemostskillfulmarketers.Consumerproduct
companiesspendbillionsofdollarsayeartoconvinceshopperstobuytheirproducts.
Businesscommunicationencompassesahugerangeofpersuasivecommunicationthatusesdifferentcombinationsofrationalargumentsandemotionaland
characterbasedappeals.Reportsbyfinancialanalystsuseonlyrationalargumentstopersuadeclients,althoughbothemotionalandcharacterbasedappealsare
implicit.Areport,forexample,byawellregardanalystwilllikelycarrymoreweightwithanaudienceofinvestorsbecauseoftheanalyst'sperceivedcharacterasan
expert.Ontheotherhand,atelevisioncommercialforaperfumecanhavenorationalargumentatallanddependentirelyonanemotionalappealandcharacter
basedappeals.
Managementcommunication,however,dependsheavilyonrationalargumentsforavarietyofreasons,themostimportantofwhichisaudienceexpectations.
Therefore,asfuturemanagersandleaders,youneedtoknowhowtobuildarguments.
Everyrealworldsituationthatcallsforpersuasiveargumentshasuniquecircumstances.However,threetypesofargumentsareextremelycommoninbusiness.
Thethreetypesofargumentsare:
Decision
Evaluation
Diagnosis
Youwillbelearningtemplatesforeachtypeofargument.Insteadofviewingeveryargumentasoneofakind,withfewornosimilaritiestoanyotherargument,the
templatestakeadvantageofelementscommontoeachtypeofargument.
Thesetemplatesarenotintendedtoreducethecomplexityofrealworldbusinessbuthelpyoutomanageit.Thetemplatesdonotaddresseverybusinesssituationfor
whichanargumentisrequired,buttheyareusefulinmanysituations.
Example:YouNeedanArgument

ImaginethatyouworkforasoftwaredevelopmentcompanybasedinSingapore.OneofyourteamsprogramssoftwareforaroboticscompanyinCanada.Thatteam
hascomeupwithaprogrammingapproachforaroboticmachinethatmakestheoperator'sjobmorestraightforward,thusreducingbothtrainingtimeand
operatorerrors.
Theresacatch,though.TheclientsengineersinCanadawillhavetoadapttheirprogrammingtothenewapproachyourteamhasdeveloped.Becausetheyare
employeesoftheclientcompany,theyhavemorepowerthanyoudo.ThemanageroftheCanadianengineerssaysyoumustpersuadehisengineerstoacceptthe
newapproach.
Youhaveaclearpictureinyourmindofthebenefitsandthedatathatsubstantiatesthem.Buthowcanyouorganizethismaterialintoalogicalargument?The
prospectofwritingdownyourideas,tryingtofindthebestorganizationforthem,andpositioningthedatainthebestwaypossibledoesnotappealtoyou.Youre
anengineer,afterall,notadebater.
Inthissituation,atemplateormodelfortheargumentwouldbehelpful.Itcouldguideyourthinkingaboutthecontentandstructureofapersuasiveargument.

DecisionArguments
DecisionArguments
Inyourcareer,howlikelyisitthatyouwilladvocateadecision?Theanswerisverylikely.Managersfindthemselvesinthispositionallthetime.Becausebusiness
isaboutaction,decisionsareessentialeventsinanyorganization.
Whenyouchoseyourlastjob,whatdidyouthinkabouttohelpmakethechoice?Youmighthaveconsideredthecompany,thesalary,thejobdescription,theboss,
andthechancesofpromotion.Ifyouacceptedthejob,youmadeaconvincingargumenttoyourselfthatitwastherightdecision.
InthefilmTheDarkKnight,Batmanfacesachoice:killTheJokerornot.Tomakethedecision,hecouldusethesecriteria:
BenefitstoGotham
Ethics
Thelaw
Hiscareerasasuperhero
Criteriaarepivotalwhenyouargueadecision.Ifyouarentsureofthecriteria,thereasoningforyourrecommendationwillbeunfocusedandconfused.Theother
crucialcomponentofadecisionargumentisevidence.Whenyouapplythecriteria,youhavetoshowtheaudiencestrongevidencethatclearlysupportsyour
recommendeddecision.
Exercise:KillTheJoker?

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DecisionArgumentTemplate
Althoughtherearemanywaystostructureanargumentaboutadecision,atemplatecanhelpyougetstarted.Thisapproachissimilartolearninghowtocook.
Novicesstartwitharecipe.Theylearntheingredientsandfollowtherecipestepbystep,asitiswritten.Astheybecomemoreskilled,cookscanvarytherecipeor
devisetheirown.Thistemplateandthetwoothersthatfollowarelikerecipesforarguments.
Briefcase:DecisionArgumentTemplate

TemplateSection

Description

StateDecision
StateDecisionOptions
StateRecommendation
StateCriteria
ProveDecision
Criterion1
Criterion2
Criterion3
RebutOtherOptions

Thedecisionthatneedstobemade
Thedifferentoptionsforthedecision
Theoptionyoubelieveisbest
Thecriteriayouusetomakethedecision
Theevidencesupportingthedecision
Supporttheproposeddecisionwithevidencebasedonthefirstcriterion
Supporttheproposeddecisionwithevidencebasedonthesecondcriterion
Continuetheproofwiththeremainingcriteria
Showwhytheotheroptionsarenotasgoodastherecommendedone

Example:PlanningaMessageAboutaDecision

Ananalystispreparingareportaboutastockshefollows,GrowthWare.ThecurrentratingisaHoldandshewantstoconvinceinvestorstobuy.Hereisthe
templatesheusestoplanherreport.

TemplateSection
StateDecision

Description
Bestuseofinvestorscapital
Buy
Hold
Sell
BuyGrowthWare
Earningspershare(EPS)
Strengthofcurrentbusiness
Longtermgrowthpotential

StateDecisionOptions
StateRecommendation
StateCriteria
ProveDecision
Earningspershare(EPS)
Strengthofcurrent
business
Longtermgrowthpotential
RebutOtherOptions
Hold
Sell

EPSlowinhistoricalterms
Uniquevalueproposition

Weakcompetitors
Basebusinessgrowingwithnewproductreleases

Newbusinesshasgreatpotential
Youwillmissadditionalgainbydoingnothing
Youwillmissvaluetoberealizedinnexttwotothreeyears

Exercise:InvestinaWindFarm?
Example:PersuadingDmitri

Tashausesthedecisionargumenttemplatetoorganizeherpersuasivememo.

TemplateSection
StateDecision
StateDecisionOptions
StateRecommendation
StateCriteria
ProveDecision

Description
Improvecallcenter
Statusquo
Hireparttimereps
Hirefulltimereps
Hirefulltimereps
Turnover
Costs
Servicequality

100%higherthisyear
Experiencedrepsleaving
Causeisoverwork
MoreSpanishlanguagecustomers
17%increaseinourtotalbudget
Turnoveraccountsformostoftheincrease
Fourmetricsindicatedecline:callersputonhold,abandonedcalls,averagecalllength,
andcustomercomplaints.

Turnover

Cost
Servicequality
RebutOtherOptions
Statusquo
Hireparttimerepsfor
callcenter

Currentproblemswillbecomeworse
Parttimerepstakealongtimetotrain,willendupcostingmorethanfulltimereps

ReadTasha'sdecisionmemoandanalyzetheorganizationoftheargument.Thenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.Oneparagraphhas
beenaddedtothebasicorganizationofadecisionargument.Whatisitspersuasivefunction?
Tasha'sDecisionMemo

EvaluationArguments
EvaluationArguments
Asecondtypeofpersuasiveargumentisassessmentorevaluation.Theexampleyoumaybemostfamiliarwithistheperformanceevaluation.Otherexamplesare
theevaluationofapotentialinvestmentbyaprivateequityfirmandabankreportratingaloanapplication.
Youmakeevaluationsinyourpersonallife.Youhaveprobablyspenttimeevaluatingdifferentbrandsandmodelsofcellphones.Youmaynothavethoughtof
characteristicslikeprice,appearance,screensize,andtouchscreenversusaphysicalkeyboardascriteria,butthatispreciselytheroletheyservedforyou.
Exercise:HowtoChooseanIdol

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EvaluationArgumentTemplate
Thekeystoanevaluationareusinganappropriatesetofcriteria,fullyapplyingthemtothesubjectoftheevaluation,andmakingareasonableoverallevaluation
basedonthecriteriaresults.
Intherealworld,evaluationsrarelyareallpositiveorallnegative.Applyingcriteriameansrecognizingboththenegativesandthepositives.Forinstance,whena
bankerevaluatesapotentialloan,criteriaaregoingtoshowbothstrengthsandweaknesses.
Theoverallevaluationrequiresjudgment.Foraloanapplication,isthebalancesheetorcredithistorymoreimportant?Othercriteriacanhelp,butjudgmentisstill
required.
Briefcase:EvaluationArgumentTemplate

TemplateSection

Description

StateSubjectof
Evaluation
StateCriteria
StateOverallEvaluation
ProvetheEvaluation
Criterion1
Criterion2
Criterion3

Whatorwhoisbeingevaluatedandonwhat
terms
Thecriteriayouusefortheevaluation
Yourbottomlineevaluationofthesubject
Theevidencesupportingthedecision
Evaluatesubjectwithevidencebasedonthefirstcriterion.Mayfindnegatives,
positives,orboth.
Evaluatesubjectwithevidencebasedonthesecondcriterion.Mayfindnegatives,
positives,orboth.
Continueproofontheremainingcriteria

Example:PlanninganEvaluation

AHongKongventurecapitalfirmhasevaluatedputtingmoneyintoatechnologystartup.Seetheresultsbelow.

StateSubjectof
Technologystartupinrobotics.
Evaluation
Market
Product
Competition
StateCriteria
Managementteam
Financials
Intangibles
StateOverall
Investmentisnotrecommended.Market,product,andcompetitionarepositive,butthe
Evaluation
managementteamisweakandtheinvestmentistoolargefortherisk.
ProvetheEvaluation
Market
+Willgrowrapidlyinthenextfewyears
+Goodpotentialtomeetneed
Product
Unanswereddesignquestions
+Nonenow
Competition
Willdevelopquickly
Management
Nooperatingexperiencetospeakof
team
Dontappreciatewhattheydontknow
Unrealisticprojections
Financials
Largeinvestmentrequired
+Savvyengineers
Intangibles
Navemanagers

Exercise:SizingupTabletComputers
Example:EvaluatingtheCallCenter

AssumethatTashastaskhaschanged.Dmitrihasaskedhertogivehimanupdateontheperformanceofthecallcenter.Soinsteadofadvocatingadecision,
shewritesanevaluationargument.
Thefactbasefortheevaluationisthesameastheoneforthedecisionargument.Butitisusedasevidenceforevaluatingtheperformanceofthecallcenter.
TashausestheEvaluationArgumentTemplatetoorganizeherargument:

TemplateSection
MyMemo
SubjectofEvaluation Performanceofcallcenter
Servicequality
StateCriteria
Financials
Humanresources
ProvetheEvaluation
+Currentlevelishigh
Servicequality
Qualityisdeclining
+Newcostreductions
Financials
Overbudgetby$300K
+Coreofexperiencedreps
Humanresources
Turnoverunsustainable
ReadTashasmemoandnoticehowtheargumenthaschanged.Analyzehowitisorganizedandthenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.
Tasha'sEvaluationMemo

DiagnosisArguments
DiagnosisArguments
Tounderstanddiagnosis,thinkofadoctor.Whenyouaresick,yougotoadoctor,whoasksforthesymptomsyouareexperiencing,examinesyou,andpossibly
orderstests.Thedoctorseeksadiagnosisthatbestaccountsforhisorherobservationsandprescribesacourseofactiontoimprovethecondition.
Therearemanyoccasionsinbusinesswhenaproblemneedstobediagnosed.In2009,anabnormallyhighnumberofincidentsofunintendedacceleration
involvingToyotavehicleswerereported.Toyotainvestigatedandfoundthatbesidesdrivererror,twoothercauseswereresponsible:stickypedalsandincorrectly
installedfloormats.Thefindingsledthemtorecallaffectedcarsandrepairthem.
Lessdramaticdiagnosesoccurinbusinesseseveryday,fromunderstandingwhyyourofficeprinterisn'tworkingtowhyaprojectisstalled.
Adiagnosticargumentisexplanatory.Itisneededwhenasituationoroutcomeneedsacausalexplanation,liketheexamplesjustcited.
DiagnosisArgumentTemplate

TemplateSection
DefinetheProblem
SummarizetheCauses
ProvetheCauses
Cause1
Cause2
Cause3

Description
Descriptionofthemajorsymptomsoftheproblemtobediagnosed
Briefdescriptionofeachofthemajorcausesoftheproblem
Theevidencesupportingthediagnosis
Useevidencetoshowhowthefirstcausecontributestotheproblem
Useevidencetoshowhowthesecondcausecontributestotheproblem
Continueproofoftheremainingcauses

Tomakeanaccuratediagnosis,useconceptsandknowledgerelevanttotheproblem,alongwithexperienceandcommonsense.Toexplainthefinancialcrisisof
2008,analystsusedanarrayofconceptssuchasmicroandmacroeconomics,theoperationofspecificmarkets,andpsychology.
Briefcase:DiagnosisArgumentTemplate
Example:PlanningaDiagnosis

TheoperationsmanagerofamultinationalcompanyinEuropehasbeenvexedbycustomercomplaintsaboutlatedeliveries.Todiagnosetheproblem,he
andhisteambrokeitdownintoproduction,inventory,warehouseoperations,anddeliverytothecustomer.Aninvestigationfoundthreemajorcauses,
oneofwhichsurprisedeveryone.
Heplanstomeetwithtopexecutivesaboutthefindingsandorganizeshistalkusingadiagnostictemplate:

TemplateSection
DefinetheProblem

Description
Highnumberofcustomercomplaintsaboutlateproductdeliveries
Delaysinreplenishinginventory

SummarizetheCauses

Useofwarehousefortraining
Unusualnumberofweathereventsdelayingdeliveries

ProvetheCauses
Delaysinreplenishing
inventory
Useofwarehousefor
training
Unusualnumberof
weather
eventsdelaying
deliveries
Exercise:DiagnosingtheSuccessofaZoo
Example:DiagnosingtheCallCenter

Manufacturingdelaysresultedinslowerreplenishmentofinventoryofafewhigh
volumeproducts
Unusualturnoverandretirementsamongforkliftoperators
Useofwarehousetotrainnewoperatorsinterferedwithfulfillment
Severewinterandspringweathersloweddowntruckandairdeliveries

AssumethatTasha'staskhaschangedagain.Thistime,Dmitrihasaskedhertodiagnosewhycallcentercostshaveincreased.Insteadofadvocatingadecision
orevaluatingthecallcenter'sperformance,shewritesadiagnosticargument.
Thefactbaseforthediagnosisisthesameastheoneforthedecisionandevaluationarguments.ButTashawilluseitasevidenceofcausesfortheincreasein
costs.
ReadTasha's"DiagnosisMemoandnoticehowtheargumenthaschanged.Analyzehowthememoisorganizedandthenmovethecursoroverthetextofthe
memoforexplanations.
Tasha'sDiagnosisMemo

PlanningCommunication:Memos
PlanningCommunication:Memos
Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version1
Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version2
Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version3
Tasha'sInformativeMemo
Tasha'sDecisionMemo
Tasha'sEvaluationMemo
Tasha'sDiagnosisMemo

TemplatesandChecklists
TemplatesandChecklists
Checklist:AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation
Checklist:CommunicationChannelCharacteristics
TemplateDefined:DecisionArgument
TemplateDefined:EvaluationArgument
TemplateDefined:DiagnosisArgument

BlankTemplatesforPlanning
Template:PlanningaDecisionArgument
Template:PlanninganEvaluationArgument
Template:PlanningaDiagnosisArgument

PlanningCommunication:ExamIntroduction
PlanningCommunication:ExamIntroduction
ThistestwillallowyoutoassessyourknowledgeofPlanningCommunication.
Allquestionsmustbeansweredforyourexamtobescored.
Navigation:
Toadvancefromonequestiontothenext,selectoneoftheanswerchoicesor,ifapplicable,completewithyourownchoiceandclickthe"Submit"button.After
submittingyouranswer,youwillnotbeabletochangeit,somakesureyouaresatisfiedwithyourselectionbeforeyousubmiteachanswer.Youmayalsoskipa
questionbypressingtheforwardadvancearrow.Pleasenotethatyoucanreturnto"skipped"questionsusingthe"Jumptounansweredquestion"selectionmenuor
thenavigationalarrowsatanytime.Althoughyoucanskipaquestion,youmustnavigatebacktoitandansweritallquestionsmustbeansweredfortheexamtobe
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Yourresultswillbedisplayedimmediatelyuponcompletionoftheexam.
Aftercompletion,youcanreviewyouranswersatanytimebyreturningtotheexam.
GoodLuck!

WritinginBusiness
Writingskillsarefundamental
inbusiness.Itsincreasinglyimportant
tobeabletoconveycontentinatight,
logical,directmanner,particularlyina
fastpacedtechnologicalenvironment.
Respondent,Writing:ATickettoWork...oraTicketOut:ASurveyofBusinessLeaders1

Introduction
Introduction
Thismoduleaddresseseffectivebusinesswriting.Whyshouldyoubeconcernedaboutyourwritingskills?Aren'tpresentationsandotherfacetofacecommunication
moreimportantthanwriting?
AccordingtoasurveyoflargeU.S.companies,thejobsoftwothirdsofmanagementlevelemployeesincludesignificantwritingsuchasemails,presentations,
technicalreports,formalreports,andmemos.
Eightypercentormoreofcompaniesinthefinancialsector(includinginsuranceandrealestate)andaslightlysmallerpercentageintherestoftheserviceindustry
considerwritingintheirhiringdecisions.
Considerthesequotesfromcorporaterecruiters:1
Poorlywrittenapplicationmaterialswouldbeextremelyprejudicial.Suchapplicantswouldnotbeconsideredforanyposition.
Inmostcases,writingabilitycouldbeyourticketin...oritcouldbeyourticketout.
Thinkaboutyourownworkexperience.Howmuchtimedidyouspendreadingandwritingemailsandattachments,texts,wikientries,memos,andreports?Didyou
useInternetcommunicationlikeTwitterforbusiness?DidyouusetextsandInstantMessagingforwork?
Chancesarethatyouspentmoretimewritingthanyourealized.

WritingIsGettingMoreImportant
WritingIsGettingMoreImportant
Ironically,moderndigitalmediatendtorelyonaveryoldmeansofcommunicating:writing.
In2011,1.88billionpeoplewereusingemailworldwide,sending32billionlegitimateemails(notspam)perday.Inthatyear,25billionTweetsweresenton
Twitter,andFacebookhad600millionusers.
In2011,businessusershandledanaverageof110emailmessagesaday.Theysentabout36messagesadayor180perweek.Eventhoughmanymessagesmight
beshort,emailaloneaccountsforsignificantwritingtimeeachday.Addinmemos,reports,texts,andTweets,andthevolumeofwritingbecomesamajorpartof

amanager'sworkload.
Globalizationhasaddedtothewritingbusinesspeopledo.
Workteamsareoftenscatteredthroughouttheworld.Membersmayrarelyornevermeetfacetoface.Duetotimedifferencesandotherobstacles,theycarryon
muchoftheircommunicationinwriting.Skillinwritingnowhasacentralroleinhowwellpeopleworktogether.
CommunicationChallengesintheFuture
Thedigitalageofbusinessneedsgoodwriters.
AlthoughEnglishhasbecomethecommonlanguageofinternationalbusiness,differencesintheculturalnormsofaudiencescomplicatecommunicationacross
borders.Awrittenreportthatseemslaboriousandoverlyformaltomembersofaglobalteaminonecountrymaystriketeammembersfromanotheraswellpaced
andrespectful.
Communicationskillsnowmustincorporatesomeawarenessofhowaudiencesdifferaccordingtoculture.Inthiscourse,theexamplesandexercisesincludecross
culturalissues.

WritingClarifiesandPreservesThinking
WritingClarifiesandPreservesThinking
Thetranscriptofaspontaneousconversationtypicallycontainsmanyverbalstumbles,pauses,falsestarts,gapsinlogic,unfinishedthoughts,andunexplained
references.
Althoughpeopledomanagetounderstandoneanother,oralspeechisn'twellsuitedforcommunicatinglargequantitiesofinformationorextendedthinkingona
complicatedtopic,asinareportonfuturemarketopportunitiesforacompany.Also,oncesomethingisspoken,it'sgoneunlesswewriteitdown.Ourmemoryof
oralcontentsimplyisn'treliable.
Writingenablespeopletopreservetheirthinking,animportantfunctioninbusiness.Muchofacompanysinstitutionalmemoryresidesinwrittendocumentssuch
asanemployeehandbookorfieldreportsontroubleshootingequipment.Whensomeonestartsanewjob,heorsheisoftenhandedastackofdocumentsand
referredtowrittenresourcesonthecompanyintranet.

TheWritingProcess
TheWritingProcess
Wemayhaveaninnatecapacityforlanguageandspeaking,butwedontseemtohavethatkindofcapacityforwriting.Nearlyeveryonelearnstotalkandcanspeak
withease,butwritingisdifferent.Puttingourthoughtsintowritingthatisreadilyunderstoodbyotherstakesmoreeffortthanspeaking.
Someresearchonworkplacewritingindicatesthatexperiencedwritersuseaconsciousprocessforwritingwhileinexperiencedwritersdon't.Thedifferenceshowsup
inthefinishedproductsforonething,thewritingofexperiencedwritersisoftenmorelogicallyorganizedthanthewritingofnovices.
Anotherstudysoughttolearnwhetheragroupofengineeringgraduatesusedthewritingprocesstheyhadbeentaughttoworkplacewriting.Theydid.Infact,they
founditindispensableforwrittencommunication.
Thisevidenceconfirmsthatstudyofthewritingprocessisntanacademicexercise.Theprocesscanbeapracticaltoolformanagers.
Everywriterhasapersonalwritingprocess.Reflectingonhowyouwrite,asopposedtowhatyouwrite,canmakeyourprocessmorereliableandefficient.
Howdoyouwrite?Describetheprocesstoyourself.Doyouhavetroublegettingstarted?Areyouawareofpointsintheprocesswhereyoustruggle?Thefollowing
explanationofthewritingprocessincludesdiscussionofprocessproblemsthatmakewritingharderthanitshouldbe.
Writerstypicallyhavemessyprocessesthatjumpfromoneactivitytoanotherinunpredictablepatterns.However,experiencedwritersuseamethodtocontrolthe
messiness.Theythinkofthewritingprocessasfourinterconnectedactivities:
Butevenexperiencedwritersdon'tnecessarilymovefromactivitytoactivityinastraightline.Theymay,forexample,discoverwhilerevisingthatthedraftneeds
morecontent.Theythengobacktoaltertheirwritingplanandresearchthecontent.Orwhileeditingandcorrecting,theymayrealizefurtherrevisionsneedtobe
made.

Preparing
Preparing
Preparingconsistsofdoingresearch(ifnecessary),definingyourpurpose,understandingtheaudience,andorganizingyourthinkinginawritingplan.Youfollow
thewritingplantocreatethefirstdraft.
Theproductofpreparingisawritingplanyoucanfollowforthefirstdraft.
Somewritersdispensewiththepreparingstage.Theycomposetheirthoughtsandarrangethemastheygo.Theapproachcanworkwellforwriterswhoknowtheir
subjectextremelywellandhavewrittenaboutitbefore.Theyalreadyhavelogicaltemplatesintheirmemoriesthattheycanapply.
Thedownsideofthisapproachisthatitasksyourbraintodotwodifficulttasksatonce:Putyourthoughtsintowritingandarrangetheminalogicalorder.Youmay
haveexperiencedthestresscausedbyaskingtoomuchofyourbrain.Tofreemoreworkingmemorywhenyouwrite,firstplanwhatyouaregoingtosay.

ResearchandNotes
ResearchandNotes
Preparingfrequentlybeginswithresearchandnotetaking.Physicaldocuments,thecompanyintranet,onlinedatabases,andthewebcanfurnishvastquantities
ofinformation.Paradoxically,theaccessibilityofsomuchinformationbothfacilitatescommunicationandhampersit.Theinformationcanprovidecompelling
evidenceforanargument,butitcanalsoleadtoinformationoverloadthatparalyzesthought.
Everyoneinbusinessexperiencessomedegreeofinformationoverload.Tolimititwhenwriting,usepurposeandaudiencetosetboundariesontheinformation
youneedforamessage.Forexample,ifyouarewritingareportonwhyphonecallsaredeclininginimportance,youwouldrestrictyourresearchtoinformation
thatdocumentsthedeclineandhelpsidentifythecauses.
Notescanbeusedformorethanrecordinginformation.Theycanbeadialogwithyourmaterial.Youcanwritedownquestionsyouneedtoanswerwithresearch
orinthemessageyouwillwrite.Youcancapturepointstoincludeinthewritingandbegintomapoutanorganization.
Becausemostwritingisdoneoncomputers,youcantakeadvantageofsoftwareforwebresearchsuchasEvernote,Ubernote,ZohoNotebook,andMemonic.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism
AccordingtotheCouncilofWritingProgramAdministrators,plagiarismoccurswhenawriterdeliberatelyusessomeoneelse'slanguage,ideas,orotheroriginal
(notcommonknowledge)materialwithoutacknowledgingitssource.
Plagiarismviolatesatrustwiththeaudience.Unlessinformedbyasourcecitation,theyassumeeverythinginadocumentistheproductoftheauthor.Asyou
know,theperceivedcharacterofthewriterorspeakerisoneofthecornerstonesofpersuasionandcharacterhastwoelements:knowledgeandcredibility.Any
hintthatawriterismisrepresentingthesourceofhisorherthinkingcanleadtothedestructionofboth.Inabusinesssetting,plagiarismcandorealdamageto
anindividualsreputationandanorganizationsifthedocumentisforexternalaudiences.
Giventhevaststoreofonlineinformation,writerscanfindandusecontentfarmoreeasilythantheycouldwhenmostsourceswereprinted.Textfromaweb
pagecanbequicklycopiedandpastedintoalongdocumentandthesourcecanbeforgotten.Butthatsameabundanceofinformationmakesdetectingplagiarism
easier,throughonlinesearchesandsitesdesignedtodetectplagiarism.
Itisneveracceptabletousewordforwordcontentfromanothersourcewithoutusingquotationmarksandasourcenote.Paraphrasingcontentorusingspecific

informationordatafromanothersourcerequiresasourcenote.

GeneratingIdeas
GeneratingIdeas
Twoofthebestwaystothinkofideasforthewritingplanareaskingquestionsandtalkingtopeople.PlanningCommunicationintroducedyoutoquestionsabout
purpose,audience,andthreeresourcesforcreatingamessagereason,emotion,andcharacter.TheChecklist:AnalyzingaCommunicationSituationprovidesall
ofthesequestionstohelpyougenerateideas.
Checklist:AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation

Todevelopideasforanargument,usethetemplatesfromPlanningCommunication.Theydefinethepartsofdecision,evaluation,anddiagnosisarguments.You
canuseblanktemplatestoplanargumentsforawrittenmessageorapresentation.
Peopleoftenprovidemuchofthecontentofacommunicationpeoplewhohaveknowledgeyoucanuse,whohavecommunicatedonthesametopic,whohave
receivedsimilarinformationinthepast.Theycanbeinsidetheorganization(forexample,peersyouworkwithandinternalexperts)oroutside(forexample,
clients,customers,andoutsideexperts).
Beopportunisticinyoursearchforcontentrelevanttoyourwriting.Areferenceinawebarticle,Tweet,oracolleague'scasualremarkcouldleadtohighvalue
content.
Officedistractionsaffectnotonlyreadersbutalsowriters.Moreandmoreorganizationsarefieldingcomplaintsfromtheiremployeesthattheycan'tconcentrate.
Openofficedesignshavebecomewidespreadbecausetheyfosterfacetofacecollaborationandarecheapertobuildthanofficeswithwalls.Butopenofficesalso
batheeveryoneinnoise.
Writersinnoisyenvironmentsshouldseekwaystoinsulatethemselves.Manyorganizationshavequietspacesthatwriterscanusewhentheyneedto
concentratefully,suchaswhentheyaregeneratingideasandwritingafirstdraft.
Earplugsworkforsome,asdoeslisteningtomusicthroughheadphones.However,musicwithwordsrecreatesthenoisyofficeproblem.Listeningtorecordings
ofwhiteorpinknoisewithheadphonesmasksnearbysounds,providingabufferbetweenthewriterandtheenvironment.

OrganizingIdeasinaWritingPlan
OrganizingIdeasinaWritingPlan
Onceyouhavesufficientinformationandideas,youhavetoorganizetheminalogicalstructureforwritingthefirstdraft.Youneedtodotwothingstopreparea
plan:
Groupsimilarpointstogether.
Arrangetheminasuitableorder.
Groupingmakestheleapfromdiscreteideastoorganizedthought.Asmaterialissortedbysimilarity,relationshipsamongthegroupsemerge.These
relationshipshelpyoudefinealogicalorder.
Theformatoftheplancanbeasimpleoutlineorthemanyvariationsonanoutline,fromalistofphraseswithbulletpointsunderneathtoalistofcomplete
sentences.Theformatdoesn'tmatterwhatdoesmatteristhattheformatworksforyou.
Youcancreateawritingplancalledamindmapthatismorevisualthananoutlineoralist.Youcandrawmindmapsbyhandormakethemonacomputerwith
specialsoftwareapplications.Thepopularmindmappingtechniquerepresentsthinkinggraphically.Itusesshapesandlinestorepresentideasandtheir
connections.
Inthecenterofamindmap,writetheideayouwanttodevelop.Aroundthatidea,writethemostimportantrelatedideasandconnectthemwithlinestothe
mainideaand,asappropriate,toeachother.Youcanaddsubordinateideasandconnectthemtotheexistingpoints.Deleteandrearrangeideasastheirlogic
becomesclearer.
Exercise:MakinganOutlinefromaMindmap

Close
Exercise:MakinganOutlinefromaMindmap
Belowareaseriesofpointsgeneratedinamindmap.Nowcreateanoutlineofthesamepointsbydraggingeachitemtoitsbestpositionintheoutlineform.
WhyarePhoneCallsBecomingObsolete?
In2008,numberofmobiletextssurpassednumberofmobilecalls
Moresmartphones
Webbasedapps(Skype,Google)substituteforphonecalls
Numberofmobilephonecallsdroppinginalmosteveryagegroup
Textbasedapps:texting,Twitter
WhyarePhoneCallsBecomingObsolete?
Issues

Causes

ResetExercise

Drafting
Drafting
Inthedraftingstage,youcomposeyourthoughtsinwords,sentences,andparagraphs.Thegoalofdraftingistowriteamessagethatexpressesyourthinkingbut
isn'tnecessarilyaudienceready,meaningthatthedraftcanhavefaultsandmistakessuchgapsinlogicorevidence.

NeedforSpeed
NeedforSpeed
Unlessyoudictateeverything,writinghasamechanicalspeedlimit:Youcanonlywriteortypeasfastasyourhandswillletyou,butthebrainthinksfarfaster.As
aresult,youarealwaysatriskoflosingsomeofyourthoughtsbecauseyoucan'tcapturethemquicklyenough.
Youcanmakethemismatchbetweenwritingandthinkingworsebybeingtooconcernedaboutcorrectness.Areyouaperfectionistwhocan'tstandtowritemore
thantwosentenceswithoutstoppingandcorrectingmistakesorimprovingthestyle?
Ifyouare,thinkaboutadistancerunnerwhotakesonestridebackforeverytwostridesforward.Eventuallytherunnerwillfinishbutfarmoreslowlythanifshe
hadbeenrunningforwardallthetime.

WhyRevisingHelpsDrafting
WhyRevisingHelpsDrafting
Ithelpstounderstandalittleabouttherevisingstagebeforeyouwriteadraft.Duringtherevisionstage,youtakeastepbackandworkwiththedrafttoimprove
itsorganization,content,andanythingthatcompromisesreadabilitysuchassentencefragmentsorambiguousstatements.
Don'tbeconcernedthatyourfirstdraftisn'tperfect.Itshouldn'tbeifyou'vefreedyourselffromtheconstraintsthatgetinthewayofcapturingyourthinking.

WritingtheDraft
WritingtheDraft
Herearepracticesthatcanmakedraftingmoreproductiveandefficient.
Youdon'thavetobeginatthebeginning.
Youdon'thavetowriteeachsectionintheorderinwhichitappearsinyourwritingplan.Writewhatyouknow,whereveritbelongsintheplan.
Don'tworryaboutthesmallstuff.
Correctnessandsentencestylecomelater.Turnoffthegrammarchecker.Itgetsinthewayofthinking.Also,mostgrammarcheckersarewrongmoreoften
thannot.Turnoffthespellchecker.It'salsoadistractionthatinterruptsthought.
Grabthoughtsinanyform.
Captureyourthoughtseveniftheydontpresentthemselvesincompletesentences.Whenyouneedapieceofinformationbutknowwhatyouwanttosay
aboutit,dontinterruptyourselftolookforit.Youcaninsertitlater.
Don'tstickwithabadplan.
Ifyourwritingplanisn'tworking,stopandreworktheplan.Don'ttrytowriteyourselfoutofapoorplan.

Revising
Revising
Intherevisingstage,carefullyreviewthedraft,focusingonthecontentandorganization.Tokeepthatfocus,youshouldn'tbetooconcernedwithwritingstyle,tone,
andmistakessuchasfaultygrammaryoucandealwiththoseissueslater,inthelaststageoftheprocess.
Thegoalofrevisingistomakethesubstantivechangesthatarenecessarytoachieveyourpurpose.Thekeystothisstageare:
Readingthedraftfromtheaudience'spointofview
Makingnecessarychanges,eveniftheyaremajor

ReadingastheAudienceWould
ReadingastheAudienceWould
Onceyouhaveafirstdraft,shifttotheaudience'spointofview.Yourwritingisdesignedtoachieveapurposethroughtheintendedaudience.It'salsoademand
onaudiencemembers'time.Yourwritingshouldthereforebereaderfriendly.Itshouldhavethequalitiesofgoodwritingdiscussedinthismodule.
Thefollowingrevisionquestionsaskyoutothinkaboutthedraftfromtheaudience'spointofview.
HaveIincludedallofthecontentnecessaryformypurpose?
Isthelengthandamountofdetailappropriateforthepurposeandtheaudience?
Arethereanygapsorredundanciesinthecontent?
Canmyreaderseasilyfollowthelogicofthewriting?
Arethesentencesofeachparagraphinalogicalorder?
Ismytoneappropriatetotheaudienceandoccasion?
Tomakesureyouhavefocusedonyourkeypoints,askyourselfthisquestion:WhatwouldIsayifIhadonly60secondstogetmypointacrosstotheaudience?
Theanswertothisquestiontellsyouwhathastobeincludedandwhatmaynotbenecessary.

WhatIftheDraftDoesn'tWork?
WhatIftheDraftDoesn'tWork?
Everywriterhasexperiencedit:Youfinishadraft,startrevising,andrealizesomethingiswrong.Theplandoesntsaywhatyouthink.Itcouldbethat,inthe
processofwritingthedraft,youchangedyourmind.
Say,forinstance,thatyou'reevaluatingthevalueofsportsthemedrestaurantsinahotelchain.Initiallyyoudidn'tthinktheproposalmadesense,butasyou
werewriting,youseetheevidenceinanewlightandthinktherestaurantscouldaddenoughrevenuetobefeasible.
Youchangethewritingplantoreflectthenewpurpose.Youwillbeabletousesomeoftheevidenceyoualreadyhave,butyouwillprobablyhavetoaddmore.
Thenyou'llbereadytorevisethedraftorgobackandwriteanewdraft.

FeedbackfromOthers
FeedbackfromOthers
Youcanneverbecompletelyobjectiveaboutyourownwriting.Youneeddisciplineandcouragetocommitthetimeformajorrevisions.Tocompensatefor
yourlackofobjectivity,askforfeedbackfromothers.
Areadercanserveasarepresentativeofyouraudience.Hecanconfirmwhereyourwritingworksandisolatewhererevisionsmightbeneeded.

EditingandCorrecting
EditingandCorrecting
Intheeditingandcorrectingstage,reviewthedraftfortonesentencestyleandcorrectgrammar,spelling,andothermechanicalissuessuchasconsistent
treatmentofnumbers.Editingconsistsofmakingyoursentencesaseasytoreadaspossible,withoutlosinganyessentialmeaning,andadjustingthetone.Thegoal
ofcorrectingistofixmistakesingrammar,spelling,punctuation,andotherwritingmechanics.

Editing
Editing
Thetargetofeditingisthesentence.You'lllearnmoreaboutwellwrittensentencesinWritingStylelaterinthecourse.

Atthisstageintheprocess,askyourselfthesequestions:
Canmyreadereasilyunderstandmysentences?
Isthewritingstyleconsiderateofthereader?(Isitclearandeconomical?)
Isthetonesuitableforthepurpose,audience,andtopic?

Correcting
Correcting
Thegoalofcorrectingistotakethefinalstepinmakingyourwritingreadyforthereader.
Errorsinawrittenmessageforcereaderstoperformafixup,theprocessofmentallystoppingtocorrectamistakeandthusunderstandingthemeaningofwords
orsentences.Eachfixupdivertsthereaderfromtheprocessofbuildingmeaningfromthemessage.Alargenumberoffixupsdestroythecoherenceofa
message.
Correctnessalsogivesyoucredibility.Whatsyourreactionasyoureadadocumentwithmanygrammaticalandspellingmistakes?Besidesslowingyoudown,
theyprobablycauseyoutoquestionthewritersqualifications.
GrammarandCredibility
Areader'seyeisdrawntomistakesinawrittenmessage.
Usingagrammarcheckerasaguide,carefullyreadforgrammarandpunctuationmistakes.
Turnonthespellchecker.Butdontrelyonitcompletely.Proofreadyourwritingtopickupspellingandwordusemistakesthatthespellcheckermisses.For
example,ifyoumistakenlytype"there"whenyoumean"their",thespellcheckerwontcatchit.
Considerthesesuggestionsforcorrectingadocument:
Lookforwordsyoufrequentlymisspell.
UsetheFindandReplacefunctioninawordprocessingprogram.Typeinmisspellingsinthesearchboxandseeiftheyoccuranywhere.
Lookforpersonalgrammaticalmistakes.
Doyoumakethesamegrammarmistakesfrequently?Searchforthem,usingtheFindandReplacefunction.
Useonlineresources.
Forquickanswersaboutgrammar,punctuation,andmechanicssuchascapitalization,useonlineresources.OneofthebestisTheOwl,afreesitedevelopedby
PurdueUniversity.
Concentrateonproofreading.
Youmaystarteditingsentencesinsteadofreadingthemforcorrectness,makingtheprocesslongerandpotentiallymissingerrors.Onetrickforavoidingthisis
toproofreadstartingattheendofthedocumentandmovingbackwardparagraphbyparagraph.Anotherapproachistounderlinesentencesyouwanttoedit
andcontinueproofreading.Youcanthenedittheunderlinedsentences.

WhatIsGoodBusinessWriting?
WhatIsGoodBusinessWriting?
Thewritingprocessdescribeshowthoughtsbecomewrittencommunication.Butwhataboutthewritingitself?Whatqualitiesorcharacteristicssetgoodwritingapart
frombad?
Goodandbadwritingproducedifferentresults:

Qualities
Time
Effectonaudience
members
Action

GoodWriting
Bestuseofreaderstime
Informs,structures,and
stimulatestheirthinking
Facilitatesaction

BadWriting
Takesmoretimethannecessary
Confuses,frustrates,orantagonizesthem
Blocksorleadstomisguidedaction

Example:CostsofBadCommunication

Inthefollowingscenario,whichisbasedonarealsituation,poorwritingleadstomultipleproblems.
Someoneatcorporateheadquartersemailsamemotoalargelistofemployees.Thememoissupposedtoexplainhowcertaintypesofinformationaregoingtobe
communicatedtofieldoffices.Thememoissopoorlywrittenthatmostreadersdon'tunderstandit.
Whathappens?Theemailtriggersacascadeofwastedtime.Thetruecostwillneverbeknownbecausenoonewillmeasureit.Budgetsdonthaveacategorycalled
CostsofBadCommunication.

FourQualitiesofBusinessWriting
FourQualitiesofBusinessWriting
Inthiscourse,goodwritingisdefinedinrelationtoaudiencesusingAmericanEnglish,inpartbecauseitservesasthecommonlanguageofinternationalbusiness.
WhenusingEnglish,however,youmayhavetoadaptittolocalaudiences.
Audiencesfromdifferentcultureshavebasicneedsthatarentallthesame.Thecontrastsbetweenlowcontextandhighcontextcultureshavespecialsignificancefor
writtencommunication.Lowcontextcultures,likethoseinNorthAmericaandEurope,tendtovalueindividualism,logic,andaction.Highcontextcultures,likethose
inAsia,tendtovaluegroupmembership,personalrelationships,andthepreservationofconsensus.
Thesecharacteristicsaffectaudienceexpectationsforcommunication.Inlowcontextcultures,readerswantauthorstostateexplicitlywhattheythink,toproveit,
andtocontributetogettingthingsdone.Lowcontextwritingtendstobedirect,assertive,andconcise.
Inhighcontextcultures,readersexpectauthorstoimplymuchoftheirmeaning,todefertothegroup,andtofosterconsensus.Highcontextwritingtendstobe
oblique,deferential,andcircuitous.Onestyleisntsuperiortotheotherbecauseeachservesthenormsandneedsofdistinctaudiences.
Westernvs.AsianAudiences
HowaWesternaudiencecandifferfromanAsianone.
FourcharacteristicsdefinegoodbusinesswritinginAmericanEnglish.

BusinessAudienceNeed
Tellusyouropinion.
Respectourtime.
Donotmakeuswork
hardtounderstandyou.
Presentyourthinkingin

Quality
Direct
Concise

Definition
Saywhatyoumean
inthefewestwordspossible

Clear

inawaythatiseasilyunderstood

Logical

withalogicalorganization.

Presentyourthinkingin
aneasytofolloworder.

Logical

withalogicalorganization.

DirectWriting
DirectWriting
Statewhatyouthinkearlyinawrittencommunication.Theaudiencewantstoknowthatswhytheyrereading.
Directwritingtellstheaudiencetheanswerstothesetwoquestions:
Whatisthisabout?
WhyshouldIreadit?
Theelevatorpitchisanexerciseindirectness.Anindividualhas60secondstoconvincesomeone,forexample,theCEO.Withlittletimetospeak,shecantaffordto
delaythemainpoint.Ifshedoes,theCEOwillcutheroff.Agoodquestiontoaskwhenplanningawrittencommunicationis:
WhatwouldIsayifIhadonlyaminutetogetmypointacross?
Exercise:GettingtothePoint

ConciseWriting
ConciseWriting
Concisewritingmakeseconomicaluseofwords.Thinkofwordsasthepricetheaudiencehastopaytounderstandwhatthewriterhastosay.InAmericanbusiness
English,readerswanttopaythelowestprice.
Concisenessflowsfromrespectforreadersandfromtheknowledgethattheaimofwritingistoprovidethemwithsomethingvaluable.Writingshouldn'taimfor
anythingelsesuchasprovingthatthewriterisintelligent,canwritecomplicatedsentences,orisanexpertonthetopic.
ConcisenessatProcter&Gamble
AtProcter&Gambleconcisewritingispartofitsculture.

AvoidingVerbosityandGrandiosity
AvoidingVerbosityandGrandiosity
Amisconceptionaboutwritinggoessomethinglikethis:
Longandwordysentencesshowtheaudiencethatthewriteriswelleducatedandknowswhatshe'stalkingabout.
Youcanfindmanyexamplesofverbosewritinginbusinessandelsewheretheyseemtoconfirmtheequation:

Verbosity=intelligence+expertise
Theprevalenceofverbosewritingshowshowwidespreadthemisconceptionis.Wordywritingcomesfromawritersselfindulgence.Theaudiencepaysby
havingtoreadmorewordsandspendingmoretimetounderstandthewriting.
Goodwriterschoosesimplelanguagewhenitexpressesthemeaningtheywant,usinglesscommonwordsandtechnicaltermsonlywhenthemeaningofthose
wordsisessentialtothemessage.
Example:ConciseWriting

Readthefollowingsentence:
Asthefirstdecadeofthenewcenturyneareditsend,themiasmaofwidespreadmortgagemisfeasance,universallytaintedcreditratings,andcrippling
liquidityissuesseemedtodemonstratesomeofthesystemicweakpointsintheglobalizationoffinancialmarkets.
Despitetheimpressivelanguageanddramatictone,thissentencehastobereadslowly.Someofthewordsmaybeunfamiliar,andthewriterpilesmodifiers
onmostofthenouns.Also,thetermliquidityissuesisvague.
Aconciseversionofthesentenceeliminatessomeofthemeaningoftheoriginalbutstatesthecoreideamoreplainly:
The2008financialcrisisexposedseriousdisadvantagesoffinancialglobalization.
Exercise:WritingConcisely

ClearWriting
ClearWriting
Thedifferencebetweenclearandunclearwritingislikethedifferencebetweenacleanwindowandadirtyone.Acleanwindowallowsyoutoseewhatisbeyondit
clearwritingallowsyoutoseethemeaningofthewords.Adirtywindowhideswhateverisbeyonditunclearwritingobscurestheintendedmeaning.
Youcanachieveclearwritingbyexpressingyourideasincarefullyconstructedsentencesthatshowspecificconnectionsbetweenideas.
Notonlydoesplainlanguagesupportconciseexpression,italsobolsterstheclarityofwriting.Likeotheroccupationsandprofessions,businesshasavoluminous
vocabularyoftechnicaltermslikenetpresentvalueandSWOTanalysis.
Technicaltermsareusefulforunderstandingspecificbusinesssituations.Thethreetermsjustmentionedareindispensiblewhenwritingaboutcompany
valuation.
Nonetheless,businessbuzzwords,clichs,andothermisusesoflanguagedisruptclearexpressionbecausetheydeliverlittlemeaningandoftenmakesentences
ambiguous.
TheValueofClearCommunication
Clearcommunicationcanmakethedifferencebetweenahappyclient,boss,orcolleagueandanunhappyone.
Example:ClearWriting

Thefollowingparagraphillustrateshowsentencestructureandelaborateexpressionobscuremeaning.Passthecursoroverthesentenceforcomments.
Withoutthefullknowledgeofthereasontocentralizeprocurementofmaterials,Ideemthattheplantmanagersmayfeelthatthetrustallottedtothemintheir
independentprocurementproceduresisbeingstripped.
34words
Themeaningofthesentencecanbeexpressedinasimplersentencethatusesplainlanguage:
Notknowingwhymaterialsprocurementmustbecentralized,theplantmanagersmayfeelthatcorporatenolongertruststhemtobuyindependently.
22words
Editingforclarityoftenstrengthensanotherqualityofwriting:conciseness.Intheexample,editingcutsthenumberofwordsby35percent.Overthecourseofa
1,500wordreport,conciseexpressioncouldreducethelengthbyover500words.

Exercise:WritingwithClarity

LogicalWriting
LogicalWriting
Readingislinear,movingfromonesentencetothenext.Readersdependuponthelogicofsentencestoconstructmeaningintheirbrains.Whensentencesarenot
inanorderthatmakessensetoreaders,theystopandtrytorepairthelogic.Buttheymaynothavethepatiencetodoitandinsteadstopreading.
Example:TheFragilityofLogic

Forthereader,thecoherenceofawrittenmessagecandissolvequicklywhensentencesaren'tarrangedlogically.Readthefollowingparagraph.
First,customerswhorequestaSpanishspeakingrepaccountformorethanhalfoftheincreasedvolume.Second,twoyearsagothecompanydecidedtomarket
moreaggressivelytoSpanishspeakers,andthecampaignhasbeensuccessful.Forthelastfiveyears,theproportionofourcustomerswhospeakSpanishhasbeen
growing.Threefactorsexplainwhycallvolumehasrisen.Third,salestoothersegmentshaveincreasedaswell,althoughataslowerrate.
Example:TheFragilityofLogic(Continued)

Thewriterhasincorrectlyplacedonlytwosentences.Yet,theymakeconstructingmeaningfromtheparagraphdifficult.
1.Clicktoseethefirstincorrectlyplacedsentencehighlighted.
First,customerswhorequestaSpanishspeakingrepaccountformorethanhalfoftheincreasedvolume.Second,twoyearsagothecompanydecidedto
marketmoreaggressivelytoSpanishspeakers,andthecampaignhasbeensuccessful.Forthelastfiveyears,theproportionofourcustomerswhospeak
Spanishhasbeengrowing.Threefactorsexplainwhycallvolumehasrisen.Third,salestoothersegmentshaveincreasedaswell,althoughataslowerrate.
2.Nowclickheretomovethesentencetoamorelogicalposition.
Threefactorsexplainwhycallvolumehasrisen.First,customerswhorequestaSpanishspeakingrepaccountformorethanhalfoftheincreasedvolume.
Second,twoyearsagothecompanydecidedtomarketmoreaggressivelytoSpanishspeakers,andthecampaignhasbeensuccessful.Forthelastfiveyears,
theproportionofourcustomerswhospeakSpanishhasbeengrowing.Third,salestoothersegmentshaveincreasedaswell,althoughataslowerrate.
3.Doyouseetheothersentencethatisn'tintherightorder?Clickheretoseeithighlighted.
Threefactorsexplainwhycallvolumehasrisen.First,customerswhorequestaSpanishspeakingrepaccountformorethanhalfoftheincreasedvolume.
Second,twoyearsagothecompanydecidedtomarketmoreaggressivelytoSpanishspeakers,andthecampaignhasbeensuccessful.Forthelastfiveyears,
theproportionofourcustomerswhospeakSpanishhasbeengrowing.Third,salestoothersegmentshaveincreasedaswell,althoughataslowerrate.
4.Finally,clickheretomovethesentencetoamorelogicalposition.
Threefactorsexplainwhycallvolumehasrisen.First,customerswhorequestaSpanishspeakingrepaccountformorethanhalfoftheincreasedvolume.For
thelastfiveyears,theproportionofourcustomerswhospeakSpanishhasbeengrowing.Second,twoyearsagothecompanydecidedtomarketmore
aggressivelytoSpanishspeakers,andthecampaignhasbeensuccessful.Third,salestoothersegmentshaveincreasedaswell,althoughataslowerrate.

UsingVisualCues
UsingVisualCues
Gooddocumentdesignreinforcesthelogicalorganizationofamessageforthereader.Thevisualstyleofyourmessageshouldbethesameasthewritingstyle:
simple.Oneofthebiggestmistakesbusinesswritersmakeistodecorateamessagewithamultitudeofvisualdevices.Theirintention,toaidthereader,isgood.
Theresult,unfortunately,istheopposite:avisuallybusymessagethatdistractsthereader.
Herearemethodsofprovidingvisualcuestoreaders.

VisualCues
Paragraphs
Whitespace
Headings
Lists
Type

Functions
Makesvisiblemajorchunksofthecontent.
Separatesandsetsoffwords.
Signalthelogicaldivisionsofamessage.
Makemultipleitemseasiertoseeandunderstand.
Makestexteasiertoread.

Paragraphs
Paragraphs
Paragraphsandsentencesarethetwofundamentalunitsofcontentinamessage.Aparagraphisavisualelementofamessagesetapartthroughanindentedfirst
lineorwhitespaceaboveandbelowit.
Whenreadersseeaparagraph,theyexpectittocontainsentencesaboutacommontopic.Ifitdoesnt,itsvisualdistinctnessdeceivesthereader.
Longparagraphsaredifficultforreaderstoprocess.Themeaningofamessagebecomeseasiertodiscernwhenitisbrokenintosmallerunitsofmeaning.
Includingatopicsentenceinaparagraphalsofacilitatesreadingcomprehension.Atopicsentencesummarizesthemeaningcommontothegroupofsentences
makinguptheparagraph.
Exercise:WritingMeaningfulParagraphs

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WhiteSpace
WhiteSpace
Whitespaceinamessagehasafunctionitisn'tmerelytheunusedareasofapage.Imagineamessagethathadnowhitespace.Itwouldbenearlyimpossibleto
read.
Whitespaceisthemostcommonandeffectivemethodofgroupingwordsofamessageintodistinctunits.Whitespaceisusedbetweenandaroundparagraphs,
beforeandafterheadings,andaroundexhibitsandothervisualssuchascharts.
Inyourwrittenmessages,begenerouswithwhitespace.Acramped,claustrophobicdocumentdesignmakesreadingharder.
Example:ImportanceofWhiteSpace

Whitespaceiscriticaltothereadabilityofadocument.Comparethetwodocuments.Onehasnoextraspacetheotherhasspacebetweenparagraphsand
aroundheadings.Whichversionofthememowouldyouwanttoread?
Theabsenceofwhitespacemakesthetextlookimpenetrable.Thewhitespaceintheseconddocumentopensitupforreaders.

Headings

Headings
Headingsshouldsignalthelogicaldivisionsofawrittenmessage.Theyallowreaderstoskimadocumentbefore
readingitandformanimpressionofitsstructureandmeaning.Theyarealsonavigationalsignalsasthereader
worksthroughthemessage.Intheend,theyenhancethereader'sretentionofthemeaning.
Keepyourheadingstructuresimple.Amessagewithmanylevelsandstylesofheadingslookscomplex.Generally,
themorevisuallycomplexatextis,themorereluctantpeoplewillbetoreaditandthemoredifficultitwillbefor
themtocomprehendit.Twoorthreelevelsofheadingsshouldbeallyouneed.
Headingsshouldspecificallydescribethecontentunderneath,buttheyshouldbeveryconcise.

Clicktoenlargeimage.

Typographically,thedistinctionsamonglevelsofheadingsshouldbesimple.Usefontsboldfaceanditalicsandcapitalizationtomakeheadinglevelsdistinct.
Headingsshouldhaveextrawhitespaceaboveandbelow.
Example:LevelsofHeadings

Threelevelsofheadingsshouldsufficeforbusinessdocuments.Hereisanexampleofthreelevelsofheadingsdistinguishedbydifferentfontsandbyspacing
aboveandbelow.

FIRSTTYPEOFHEADING
SecondTypeofHeading
ThirdTypeofHeading

Lists
Lists
Listsservereadersbydisplayingaseriesofrelateditemsverticallyinsteadofhorizontallyinanormallineoftext.Thetechniquemakesforeasierreadingand
bettercomprehension.Bulletedlistssuitmostcontent.Usenumberedlistswhenthesequenceofitemsisimportant,suchasthestepsinaprocess.
Theguidelinesforusinglistsareasfollows:
Don'toverusethem.
Keepthelistsshort.
Keepthelistitemsshort.
Don'tusemultiplelevels(exceptinanoutline).
Usesimplebulletstomarkeachitem.
Anumberedlisttellsreadersthattheorderofitemsisanintegralpartoftheirmeaning.Here'sanumberedlistexplaininghowtotieashoe:
1. Crossthelaces.
2. Wraponestringaroundtheotherandtighten.
3. Formaloopinalaceinonehand.Wraptheotherlacearoundthelooponceandpullthatstringthroughtheloop,creatingtwoloops.Tightenboth
loops.
4. Createadoubleknotbycrisscrossingthetwoloopsandbringingoneloopthroughthe"hole"andtighten.

Type
Type
Typefaceisoftenoverlookedasavisualresource.Manywritersacceptthedefaultfontsoftheirwordprocessingprogramsormakeacasualchoicebasedon
theirpreferences.
Seriffontsaredistinguishedbyfinedetailsprojectingfromtheendsofstrokesthatmakeupthecharacters,likethedetailsatthebottomandtopofthese
characters:

Sansseriffontslacktheseendofstrokedetailsasthesecharactersdo:
Thereissomeevidencethatseriffontsareeasiertoreadonprintedpages,especiallywhenthedocumentislong.Sansseriftypeisusedextensivelyonweb
pagesbecauseittendstobebiggerandhavemorespacebetweenlettersthanseriftype.

Fonts
Fonts
Contemporarytypographyhasahugerangeoffontchoices,fromthetraditional(TimesNewRoman)tothenew(Verdana),andfromformal(Constantia)too
informal(ComicSansMS).Yourfreedomtochoosefontsmightdependonorganizationalculture,buttherearesomesafechoices.
FontslikeChalkboardthatimitatehandwritingmayseemlikeagoodchangeofpacefromstandardfonts,butwhenusedforlongmessages,theyarehardto
read.Herearesomefontrecommendationsforbusinesswriting.

PrintedorOnScreenDocuments WebDocuments
TimesNewRoman
Verdana
Garamond
Arial

Size
Size
Inbusinessdocuments,thesizeofthefontusedfortextisoftentoosmall.Afactoryoumaynotthinkof,particularlyifyou'reyoungwithgoodeyesight,isthat
olderreadersoftenhavetroublereadingsmalltype.Agoodchoiceforbusinessdocumentsisan11or12pointfontsize.
Example:FontSize

Imaginethatyouarechoosingafontsizefora2,000wordreport.Whichofthesizeswouldbemorereadableforalongdocument?
Inbusinessdocuments,thesizeofthefontusedfortextisoftentoosmall.
9point

Inbusinessdocuments,thesizeofthefontusedfortextisoftentoosmall.
10point

Inbusinessdocuments,alargersizeoffontiseasierontheeyes.
12point

Emphasis
Emphasis
Withthehelpofcomputers,writerscancreatetypographicemphasis.Emphasisincludestheuseoffaces,fonts,color,specialeffectssuchasshadows,anda

longlistofothertechniques.
Emphasisindocumentelementssuchasheadingsandexhibitsisusefulasameaningfulsignaltoreaders.Butrepeateduseofemphasis(forexample,boldor
italic)inthetextofabusinessdocumentisnotagoodideafortworeasons.Itpullstheeyearoundthetext,disruptingconcentration,anditimpliesthat
readerswon'trealizethesignificanceofwordsorphraseswithoutvisualhelp.
Example:UseofTypographicEmphasis

Noticehowthefrequentuseofboldanditalicattractyoureyesandcausesmallbreaksinyourreading.
Consideringherworkethic,Eriniscommittedtoresults,butshecanimproveherperformanceinotherways.Shereliestooheavilyonsubordinates
toprepherforclientmeetings.HerrelentlessfocusontheshorttermblindshertotheimportanceoflongtermplanninganddevelopmentthatCCGandits
clientsneed.Forexample,forsixmonthsshehasdelayedfulfillingChaseMorris'srequestforanupdateofthegroup'slongtermstrategy,despiterapid
changesintheindustrythatthegroupcovers.
Example:UseofTypographicEmphasis(Continued)

Thisversionoftheparagraphusestypographicemphasisoncetohighlightthetopic.
Consideringherworkethic,Eriniscommittedtoresults,butshecanimproveherperformanceinotherways.Shereliestooheavilyonsubordinatesto
prepherforclientmeetings.HerrelentlessfocusontheshorttermblindshertotheimportanceoflongtermplanninganddevelopmentthatCCGandits
clientsneed.ForsixmonthsshehasdelayedfulfillingChaseMorris'srequestforanupdateofthegroup'slongtermstrategy,despiterapidchangesinthe
industrythatthegroupcovers.

WritingStyle
WritingStyle
Writingstylereferstohowawriterbuildssentences.Everywriterhasdevelopedawritingstyleofsomekind.
Stylecanbedefinedbyanswerstoquestionslikethese:
Doesyourwritingtendtoincludeshortsentencesandactionverbs,orareyoumorecomfortablewithlongersentencesandfrequentuseofpassive
voice?
Doyouliketousewordsthatshowyouhavealargevocabulary?
Doyouwritefairlysimplesentencesorcomplicatedones?
IfyouarewritingEnglishasasecondlanguage,doesyourwritingstyleinyourfirstlanguagehaveanyeffect,negativeorpositive,onyourwritingstyle
inEnglish?
Exercise:WhatWritingStyleSuitstheAudienceandSituation?

AWritingStyleforBusiness
AWritingStyleforBusiness
Thefourqualitiesofgoodcommunicationdirectness,conciseness,clarity,andlogicdefineawritingstyleforbusiness.Rememberthatyouhavearestless,
easilydistracted,andofteninterruptedreadertosatisfy.Toachievethequalitiesofgoodcommunication,usetheWritingforActionStyle.
TheWritingforActionStylehasfivebuildingblocks:
1. Thesentencestructureclearlylinksideas.
2. Subjectsperformactions.
3. Verbsexpressaction.
4. Objectsfinishtheaction.
5. Eachsentenceusesplainlanguage.
Example:WritingforActionStyle

ThesetwosentencesusetheWritingforActionStyle.
1.Ourproductdominatesthemarket.

Subject
product

Verb
dominates

Object
market

2.Thenonprofitprovidesessentialservicestothecommunity.

Subject
nonprofit

Verb
provides

Object
essentialservices

UsingtheWritingforActionStyle
UsingtheWritingforActionStyle
Remindingyourselftouseaspecificstylewhilewritingadraftcaninterferewithselfexpression.Checkingthestyleofeachsentenceafteryouwriteputs
thinkingonhold.
UsetheeditingstagetostreamlinesentencesintheWritingforActionStyle.Overtime,yourdefaultwritingstylewillimprove,reducingtheamountofediting
youneedtodo.
ToeditsentencesusingtheWritingforActionStyle,usethefollowingfivestepprocess.

Step

1.Find
the
action.

2.Find
themain
idea.

EditingAction

Whatistheactionin
thesentence?Findthemainsubjectandverb.

Identifythekernel
sentenceallthewordsexpressingthemainaction:the
subjectperformingtheaction,theverbthatexpressesthe
action,andtheobjectthatreceivestheaction.

Example
Quiteafewservices,mostcritical,
wereprovidedtoalmosttheentire
communitybythenonprofit.
Thisseemstobethemainverbof
thesentence.
Thesubjectofthesentencesis
"services."However,thesubject
performingtheactionis
"nonprofits."
Quiteafewservices,mostcritical,
wereprovidedtoalmosttheentire
communitybythenonprofit.
Thisworddescribeswhatthe
nonprofitprovided.
Verb
"Community"completesthekernel

3.
Express
the
action.

Whenpossible,usean
actionverbtoexpresstheactioninthekernelsentence.

4.Assess
therest.

Inspectthesentencefor
wordsthataddessentialmeaning.

5.Addto
the
kernel.

Integratetheadditional
essentialmeaningintothesentence.

meaningbysayingwhoreceived
theservices.
Subject
Thenonprofitprovidedservicestothe
community.
Thesentenceexpressesthemain
ideausingtheactionverb
"provided."
Quiteafewservices,mostofthem
critical,wereprovidedtoalmostthe
entirecommunitybythenonprofit.
Thisworddefineswhatkindof
servicesareprovided.
"Entire"defineshowmuchofthe
communityreceivedservices.
Thenonprofitprovidedcriticalservices
totheentirecommunity.

PassiveVoice
PassiveVoice
Theconventionalwritingadviceonusingthepassivevoiceissimple:don't.Theadviceissoundmostofthetime.
Passivevoicehastwocharacteristicsthataren'tconducivetogoodbusinesswriting:
Itremovesthesubjectperformingtheaction.
Itinviteswordiness.
Example:NegativeEffectsofPassiveVoice

Thefollowingsentenceshowsthedownsidesofpassivevoice:
Quiteafewservices,mostcritical,wereprovidedtoalmosttheentirecommunitybythenonprofit.
17words
Thereadercantunderstandtheactionofthesentenceuntiltheend,wherethesentencerevealsthesubject.Theactionsubjectorderandthewordsbetween
theverbandthesubjectarereasonswhypassivevoicesentencesarehardertoreadthanactivevoicesentences.
Thesentencecanbeeditedintotheactivevoice:
Thenonprofitprovidedcriticalservicestotheentirecommunity.
9words
Notethattheactivevoicesentenceisnearly50percentshorterthanthepassivevoiceversion.
Sometimes,awriterhasgoodreasonsforusingpassivevoicetoremovethesubjectoftheactionfromasentence.Onesuchsituationisthedesireto
communicatetheconsequencesofanactionwithoutdrawingattentiontotheagentoftheaction.
Example:ShiftingEmphasiswithPassiveVoice

Youarewritinganemailaboutameetingyouhadwithagroupofmiddlemanagerstodiscussproposedchangestotheirincentivepackage.Themanagers
didntlikethechangesandwerevocalintheiroppositiontothem.
Youneedtotellhumanresourceshowthemeetingwent,butyouwanttostresstheoppositiontothechanges,notthemanagerswhoopposedthem.The
passivevoicegivesyouawaytodothat:
Thechangestotheincentivepackagewerenotwellreceived.
Example:UsingtheWritingforActionStyle

Apressreleasefromalargecompanyincludedthefollowingsentence:
Whiletheacquisitioncouldpotentiallyhaveprovidedsignificantbenefits,thecompanyhasconcludedthatitismoreimportantatthepresenttimeto
focusonitsimmediateliquiditychallengesand,accordingly,considerationsofsuchatransactionasaneartermpriorityhavebeensetaside.
41words
Thesentencecloudsmeaning.Itcanberevisedusingthefivestepmethod.
1.Findtheaction.
Whiletheacquisitioncouldpotentiallyhaveprovidedsignificantbenefits,thecompanyhasconcludedthatitismoreimportantatthepresenttimeto
focusonitsimmediateliquiditychallengesand,accordingly,considerationsofsuchatransactionasaneartermpriorityhavebeensetaside.
Subject
Verb
2.Findthemainidea.
Whiletheacquisitioncouldpotentiallyhaveprovidedsignificantbenefits,thecompanyhasconcludedthatitismoreimportantatthepresenttimeto
focusonitsimmediateliquiditychallengesand,accordingly,considerationsofsuchatransactionasaneartermpriorityhavebeensetaside.
Subject
Mainverb
Startheretodeterminetherestofthemainidea.
Thesewordsseemtocompletethemeaningofthesubjectandtheverb.Thecompanyhasa"liquiditychallenge."InplainEnglish,thatmeansthe
companyisshortofcash.
Thesewordsintroducetheideaofatransaction.
Finally,thesewordsfinishthemeaningofthetransactionreference.InplainEnglish,thecompanywon'tcompleteit.
Whatisthekernelsentence?
Thecompanyhasconcludedthatitissettingasideatransactionbecauseofcashflowproblems.
3.Expresstheaction.
Thecompanyhasconcludedthatitissettingasideatransactionbecauseofcashflowproblems.
Theexpressioniswordyandsettingasideisaeuphemismforthemoredirectword,cancelling.Theentirephrasecanbeshortenedto"is
cancelling."
4.Assesstherest.

Whiletheacquisitioncouldpotentiallyhaveprovidedsignificantbenefits,thecompanyhasconcludedthatitismoreimportantat
thepresenttimetofocusonitsimmediateliquiditychallengesand,accordingly,considerationsofsuchatransactionasanearterm
priorityhavebeensetaside.
Thesewordsaretheonlyonesleftthatsaysomethingsubstantive:theacquisitioncouldhavebenefits.Butwhenanacquisitionisbeingcancelled,
itdoesntmatterwhetherithasbenefits.However,"acquisition"ismorespecificthan"transaction."
5.Addtothekernel.
Thecompanyiscancellingtheacquisitionbecauseofcashflowproblems.
Thefinaladditionistosubstituteacquisitionfortransaction.Notetherevisedsentenceisshortenedto10words.

PlainLanguage
PlainLanguage
Earlierinthismodule,plainlanguagewasdiscussedasanaspectofconcisenessandclarity.It'salsoessentialtoagoodwritingstyle.
Intheearlierdiscussion,adistinctionwasmadebetweenlegitimatetechnicaltermsthatbolsterclarityandbuzzwordsthatweakenit.Clichs,euphemisms,
andhedgewordscanalsoreduceclarity.Herearedefinitions:
businessbuzzword
Abusinesstermthatmightoncehavehadmeaningbutisnowoverusedormisused.
clich
Atrite,overusedwordorphrasethatisn'tnecessarilyspecifictobusiness.
euphemism
Awordortermthatobscuresorunderstatesanegativeorsensitivemeaning.
hedgeword
Awordthatenablesawritertoavoidtakingaposition.

BusinessBuzzwords
BusinessBuzzwords
Businesshasalargeandeverchangingvocabularyofbuzzwords.Herearesomeexamples:

bestofbreed
deepdive
deliverable
digitalnative
granularity
incentivize
inthisspace
leverage
notenoughbandwidth
outsidethebox

resultsoriented
seamless
solutionprovider
synergysolutionprovider
synergy
thoughtleadership
timetomarket
valueadded
valuechain
valueproposition

Someoftheseterms,likevalueproposition,canbemeaningful.Butwhenusedlooselytheyarebledofmeaning.Otherterms,likesynergy,outsidethebox,
andbestofbreed,areusedindiscriminatelyandhavelittlemeaningleft.
Buzzwordsoftensubstitutevaguenessforclarity.Theycanbetheproductoflazywritingthewriterfindsiteasiertousebuzzwordsinsteadofmoreprecise
expressions.
Example:BeatingtheBuzzwordHabit

Here'sasentenceinanemailfromateamleader:
Team,weneedtothinkoutsidetheboxontheConnoraccount!
Althoughconcise,thesentencesaysnothingbecauseitreliesonthebuzzwordsoutsidethebox.Specificsrelevanttothesituationaremuchmore
meaningfultotheaudience.
Team,weknowtheConnoraccountthemehasgottenstale.Beforetheclientcomestothesameconclusion,letscomeupwithsomenewideas.Doyou
rememberJingsideaaboutusingcustomerstories?Let'sstartthere.
AvoidBuzzwords
Letyourcontentbeking,notbuzzwords.

Clichs
Clichs
Writersarefondofclichsbecausethey'reshortcutstomeaning.Clichsareprepackagedexpressionsthatcanbepluggedintoasentence.Besidesbeing
tiresometoreaders,clichscansubstituteforwordsthathavemoremeaningfortheintendedaudience.
Herearesomeclichsthatoftencropupinbusinesswriting:

attheendoftheday
drilldown
getourarmsaroundit
onyourplate

pickthelowhangingfruit
putthecartbeforethehorse
thewholenineyards
winwinsituation

Example:ClearingoutClichs

Seeifyoucanspottheclichsinthefollowingsentence.
Let'slookatthisproblemfrom30,000feetandseeifwe'reputtingthecartbeforethehorse.
Thesentencecanbeeditedtoriditoftheclichs,buteditingshouldreplacethemwithwordsthatmeansomethingtothereader.Here'sanedited
version:
Let'stakeabroaderlookattheproblemandaskourselveswhetherwehavetherightpriorities.

EuphemismsandHedgeWords
EuphemismsandHedgeWords

Whenwritershavetoexpressanegativeofsomekind,theycanbetemptedtobluntorsoftenitwitheuphemisms.Hedgewordsservewritersbyavoiding
commitmenttoapointofview.
Thetechniquescancomfortawriterafraidoftheaudiencesreactiontocandor.Buttheycanalsoleadtothebadhabitsofblurringthetruthandevading
responsibility.Andyouraudiencemaynottakeyouseriously.
Example:ExchangingEuphemismsforHonesty

Thefollowingsentencehaseuphemismsandahedgewordthatobstructmeaning.
Therightsizingseemstohaveimpactedcompanymorale.
Rewritten,thesentencehasmoremeaningandbite.
Thelayoffshurtcompanymorale.
Aeuphemismforlayingofforfiringemployees.
Ahedgeword.Didtheemployeecutshaveanimpactornot?
Thiswordisaclich.Hereit'saeuphemismbecauseitdoesnotsaywhatimpactthelayoffshad.
Ofcourse,intherealworld,writersmaychooseindirectexpressionforareason.
Example:PrudentUseofEuphemismsandHedgeWords

Youarewritingamemototopexecutivesaboutemployeeattitudes.Manyemployeesareupsetandfearfulafterseveralroundsofforcedretirementsand
layoffs.Theexecutivesneedtobeinformedofthat,butyouknowtheywillprobablybristleifyouareblunt.
Youcouldbejustifiedinusingaeuphemismforworkforcecuts.Thejustificationisthattheaudiencestillreceivesthecriticalinformationbutwithless
likelihoodthattheywilldirectangeratyou.
Thedownsizinghashurtemployeemorale.
Hedgewords,too,canbelegitimatewhenthecontentofasentenceinvolvesrealuncertainty:
Althoughwehaveonlypartialdata,theyseemtoindicatecustomersaremoresensitivetopricethantheyhavebeeninthepast.Tobecompletelyconfident
inthisconclusion,Ineedmoredata.
Exercise:UsingPlainLanguage

Tone
Tone
Toneisthewriter'sattitudetowardtheaudienceandthesubjectasconveyedthroughthemessage.Anyspeech,whetherwrittenorspoken,conveyssomekind
oftone.Youshouldcalibrateyourtoneaccordingtothepurpose,audience,andtopic.
Attitudehasalargeemotionalcomponent.Descriptionsoftoneusewordslikefriendly,hostile,courteous,detached,humble,confidence,andenthusiastic.We
don'tchooseourfeelingswehavethem.Butwecancontrolhowweexpressfeelingsinwriting.
Youwanttobeabletomodulateyourtonetohelpthecommunication.Also,toneitselfisanimportantcommunication.Tonecantelltheaudiencethatyoulike
themoraredisappointedinthem.
Exercise:InterpretingTone

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ToneinWriting
ToneinWriting
Oralcommunicationgivestheaudiencerichinformationtogaugetone:words,voice,andappearanceofthespeakersuchasfacialexpressionandbody
posture.Inwriting,theinformationismuchmorelimited.Evenso,tonecanbeaffectedbyalmostanyaspectofwriting,fromwordchoiceandsentence
structuretogrammarandpunctuation.
Variablesinacommunicationsituationsuchasyourrelationshipwiththeaudience,statusandpowerdifferences,age,organizationalculture,andnational
culturecanshapetone.
Inthemessage,thesubject,pointofview,writingstyle,andwordchoicecanaffecttone.

Example:BuildingTone

Thecultureofanorganizationcaninfluencethetoneofcommunication.Employeesofabiotechstartupwillprobablycommunicatewithamorepersonal
andinformaltonethanemployeesinagovernmentagencyoraninsurancecompany.
Clickheretoseewithouthighlightedwords.
Ihaveafantasticdoubleopportunity:tobeCEOofthebestcompanyintheworldandleadyou.JoiningthiscompanywasthebestdecisionIever
made(withtheexceptionofaskingmywifetomarryme).It'sbeenanhonortoworkforthiscompanyanditsfounder.
I'mincrediblyoptimisticaboutourfutureandwanttoassureyouthatwe'regoingtokeepdoingwhatwe'vebeendoingandwe'regoingtodoitinthe
samewaywe'vebeendoingit.Ihavenodesiretoputmystamponthecompany.Infactit'stheotherwayaround:Thecompanyhasputitsstampon
meandI'mproudofthat.
HeresanemailbasedononefromaCEOtoallemployeesafterhehadbeenpromotedtothetopjob.Afteryoureadtheemail,clickheretosee
highlightedwordsthathaveanimpactontone.
Ihaveafantasticdoubleopportunity:tobeCEOofthebestcompanyintheworldandleadyou.JoiningthiscompanywasthebestdecisionIever
made(withtheexceptionofaskingmywifetomarryme).It'sbeenanhonortoworkforthiscompanyanditsfounder.
I'mincrediblyoptimisticaboutourfutureandwanttoassureyouthatwe'regoingtokeepdoingwhatwe'vebeendoingandwe'regoingtodoitinthe
samewaywe'vebeendoingit.Ihavenodesiretoputmystamponthecompany.Infactit'stheotherwayaround:Thecompanyhasputitsstampon
meandI'mproudofthat.
Inthisorganization,personalcommunicationiswelcome.TheCEOusesthefirstperson(I)andfeelscomfortableexpressingfeelings(likefantastic).
Furthermore,thecompanycultureseemstovaluespiritandenthusiasm("bestcompanyintheworld").
Inbusiness,acalm,respectfultonesafelyfitsmostoccasions.Butgiventhevariables,therearenorules.Considertoneinyourwritingwiththesequestions:
Whattonebestsuitsmypurposeandaudience?
Whatotherfactorsabouttone,suchasstatusdifference,doIneedtotakeintoaccount?
DoesmywritingreflectthetoneIintend?
Youmayhavetroublegaugingthetoneofyourmessages.Youmayhavetheimpressionthatyourwritingalwayshasthesametonewhichisunlikely.
Readingallorpartofthemessageoutloudcanbeveryrevealing.Orasksomeonetoreadyourwritingandgiveyoufeedback.
Exercise:NamethatTone

CaseStudy:WritinginBusiness
CaseStudy:WritinginBusiness
ThePlanningCommunicationmoduleexplainshowtoplanforinformativeandpersuasivecommunication.Thismodulecoverswritingforbothofthese
purposes:toinformandtopersuade.
Itreviewsinformingandpersuadingandillustrateshowtocarrythemoutinwritingwitharealworldexample:ashortcasecalledThisWholeSystemSeems
Wrong:FelipeMontezandConcernsAbouttheGlobalSupplyChain.
MeetFelipe
FelipeisthePurchasingDirectorandProductDesignerataTechMusica,aSpanishelectronicscompanythatmakesfashionforwardpersonal
electronicssuchasMP3players.
Inthecase,FelipeisPurchasingDirectorandProductDesignerataSpanishelectronicscompany(TechMusica)thatmakesfashionforwardpersonal
electronicssuchasMP3players.FelipehasencounteredaseriousproblemandtoldhisbossHumbertoaboutit,butthebosshasrebuffedhim.
CaseStudy:ThisWholeSystemSeemsWrong

ThecaseendsasFelipeisdecidingwhethertoputtheproblemasideorcontinuetopursueit.Later,afteranotherconversationwithFelipe,Humberto,whois
vicepresidentofmanufacturing,haschangedhismind.
Felipe'sAssignment:TheInformativeMemo
HumbertodescribeswhyhehasgivenFelipepermissiontowriteamemoabouttheproblemsattheChinesefactory.

InformativeWriting
InformativeWriting
ThemodulecalledPlanningCommunicationdefinedthepurposeofinformativewritingasdescribingorexplaininganobject,location,process,andmanyother
similarsubjects.Descriptioncommunicatesthedetails,characteristics,parts,andqualitiesofaperson,object,orothersubject.Explanationcomplements
descriptionbystatinghoworwhysomethinghappens,iscreated,isperformed,isvalued,andsoforth.Inthebusinessworld,informativewritingoftencombines
descriptionandexplanation.
Example:InformativeWritinginBusiness

Hereareexamplesofinformativecommunicationthatdescribeandexplain.

SubjectofCommunication Description
Thephoneand
Cellphone
features
Inventorymanagement
Featuresand
software
functions

Explanation
Howtomakecalls,text,checktheweather,andsoon.
Howtoenterdata,createreports,interpretthereports,distribute
information,etc.

Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

Tobeginhisworkontheinformativememo,Felipethinksabouthispurposeandaudience.
Felipe'spurposeistodescribethelaborpracticesandworkingconditionsatTechMusica'sprincipalvendorinChina,afactoryinGuangdong.
PurposeofMyInformativeMemo

SubjectofCommunication Description
Factory
Workingconditionsinthefactory,theworkers,workplacehealthissues
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo(Continued)

FelipeiswritingforhisbossHumbertoandaskssomeaudiencerelatedquestionsabouthim.

AudienceofMyInformativeMemo

Question
MyAudience
Whoismyaudience?
Humberto,myboss
Whatdoaudiencemembers
Thatthefactoryconditionsarebadbutnotthedetails.
knowaboutthetopic?
Whatistheirattitude
Wantstoknowabouttheconditions,butuncomfortablewiththeproblem.
towardthetopic?Dotheyhaveany
Nobiastopreventhimfromacceptingthefactsinthememo.
biasesrelatedtothetopic?
Whatistheirattitude
Humbertorespectsme.Butdoeshetrustme?
towardme?
Whatismyattitude
HopefulthatHumbertohasanopenmind.
towardtheaudience?
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo(Continued)

Felipeneedstothinkaboutpossiblebarrierstocommunication.Heknowshehasasecondaryaudience,Estela,seniorvicepresidentofmanufacturing.
SheisHumberto'sboss.

BarriersandSecondaryAudienceofMyInformativeMemo

Question
Whoismy
audience?

FelipesAudience
Estela,Humbertosboss

Whatdo
audience
members
knowaboutthe
topic?
Whatistheir
attitude
towardthe
topic?Dothey
haveanybiases
relatedtothe
topic?
Whatistheir
attitude
towardme?
Whatismy
attitudetoward
theaudience?

Estelaknowsnothingabouttheconditionsunlessshesheardrumorsaboutthem.

Humbertowantstoknowabouttheconditions,butHumbertoisuncomfortablewiththefactory
problem.Idon'tknowifEstelahasanybiases.IcantalktopeopleIknowwelltoseeifthey
haveanyinformationaboutthis.Possiblebarriertocommunication:LikeHumberto,Estela
maybeuncomfortablewiththetopicandminimizetheseriousnessofthefacts.

IdontknowEstelawellandIdoubtsheknowsmuchaboutme.

ShehasareputationforbeingfairsoIamoptimisticshewillbereceptive.

Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo(Continued)

Felipethenmakesnotesabouttheimplicationsoftheaudienceanalysisforthememo.
AudienceAnalysisNotesforFelipesInformativeMemo

Question
ImplicationsforMemo
Whoismy
IamwritingtopeoplewithmorepowerandstatusthanIhave.IwantHumbertoandEstela
audience?
tounderstandthatmyprimarypurposeistohelpTechMusica.
Whatdoaudience
members
Ishoulddescribealltheimportantdetailsandrelatedfactslikethelegalissues.
knowaboutthe
topic?
Whatistheir
attitude
IdontthinkHumbertoorEstelawilldenythefacts.Buttheystillmaynotwanttodo
towardthetopic?
anythingaboutthem.Ineedtobeabsolutelysureofmyfacts.Illneedtoresearch
Dotheyhaveany
informationlikeanyChineselawsthatapplytoworkplaceconditions.
biasesrelatedto
thetopic?
Whatistheir
IhavecredibilitywithHumberto.IdonthavetogotogreatlengthstoproveImtruthful.
attitude
HumbertocanbackupmycredibilitywhentalkingtoEstela.
towardme?
Whatismy
Thetoneofthememocanbeseriousbutfriendlybecauseofmyworkingrelationshipwith
attitude
Humberto.ImightwanttoconveyempathyforHumbertobecausethisisatoughissuefor
towardthe
him.IshouldavoidanyhintthatIfeltletdownbyhisinitialreaction.ThetoneI'lltakewith
audience?
HumbertoworksforEstela,too.

ComposingtheInformativeMemo
ComposingtheInformativeMemo
Useyourpurposetodirectandguideyourcollectionofinformation.Tostart,putdownanythingyouthinkmightberelevantanduseful.
Ifyouhavesourcedocuments(oftenthecasewhenwritinganinformativemessage),digintothemandextractwhateverseemsconnectedandimportantto
yourpurpose.Erronthesideofincludingratherthanexcluding.Youmayneedtolookforsourcedocumentsinsideandoutsidetheorganization.Theweb
providesunparalleledaccesstotraditionalsourcesofinformation(newspapers,magazines,journals,referenceworks,governmentrecords)andwebonly
sourcessuchasblogsandwebsites.
Talktopeoplewhomayhavepertinentinformationwherevertheyareinyourworkgroupordepartment,elsewhereintheorganization,oroutsideit.
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

FelipetooknotesduringhistriptoChina.HealsoemailedrepresentativesofothercompanieswhohavevisitedtheGuangdongfactory.Theirimpressions
generallyconfirmedhis.
Heisreadytocreateawritingplanbasedonhisnotes.Ifhefindsheneedsmorecontent,hewilldoresearch.Hegroupssimilarfactstogetherintoarough
plan.
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo(Continued)

MyInitialWritingPlan:MyfactorytouratGuangdong
FactoryManager
Factorymanagerdidn'tanswermyquestionabouttheageoftheworkers.
Hesaidgirlswereslowerthanmachines,buteasiertorunandmaintain.Hewasnotjoking.
Girlsarevaluedforsmallhands,vision.
CircuitAssembly
Manyworkersareyounggirls,12to16yearsold.
Roomstheyworkinarenotairconditionedandtemperaturesinthefactoryoftenexceed100degrees.
Girlsarenotallowedtolookupforeighthours.Nobreaks.
Nomagnifyingglassestoeasethestrainontheireyes.
Onlyroomswithairconditioningareformachinesthatneedaconstanttemperature.
Dormitories
Employeesliveindormitoriesnexttothefactorythathavenowindowsorrunningwater.
MoldingandPainting
Villagerssaythatthepeoplewhoworkindangerousareasoftheplantmoldingandpaintingarepaidmorebecausetheexposurehascaused
seriousillnessand,possiblydeaths.
Someemployeesworkaroundmeltedleadorapplyleadpaint.

Theyhaveonlypapermasks.
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

Felipenowconsiderswhetherheshouldaddorsubtractanything.Hefindsthatseveralitemscouldbenefitfrommoredetail.Hewritesquestionsunder
theitemstoguidehisresearch.
MytourofthefactoryatGuangdong
CircuitAssembly
Manyworkersareyounggirls,12to16yearsold.
ArethereanyChineselawsagainstyoungchildrenworkinginafactory?Dotheymatter?
Becausethegirlsaresoyoung,Felipethinksthecompanyshouldknowifthefactoryisbreakinglaborlaws.
Roomstheyworkinarenotairconditionedtemperaturesinthefactoryoftenexceed100degrees.
Girlsarenotallowedtolookupforeighthours.Nobreaks.
Nomagnifyingglassestoeasethestrainontheireyes.
Onlyroomswithairconditioningareformachinesthatneedaconstanttemperature.
ArethereanylawsinChinaagainstpoorfactoryconditionsforworkers?Aretheyenforced?
Alongwithemployingunderageworkers,thefactorymightbebreakinglawsaboutworkingconditions.
Iknowothercompaniesfacedsituationslikethisone.Whataresomeexamples?
HavingworkedinAsia,FelipehasheardstoriesaboutsomeU.S.companiesthatgetintotroubleforusingsweatshops,buthedoesn'tknowthe
details.
Whatdidtheydo?
Iftheconsequencesweresevere,thenthecompaniesmusthavereacted.
MoldingandPainting
Villagerssaythatthepeoplewhoworkindangerousareasoftheplantmoldingandpaintingarepaidmorebecausetheexposurehascaused
seriousillnessand,possiblydeaths.
Someemployeesworkaroundmeltedleadorapplyleadpaint.
Theyhaveonlypapermasks.
Howdangerousisworkingaroundmeltedleadorleadpaint?
Felipeworriesthathiscompanyhastiestoavendorthatmaynotcareaboutpotentiallyfatalconditions.Thisistheethicalpointthattroubleshim
themost:thattheymightcomplicitinworkers'deaths.
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo(Continued)

Feliperesearchesanswerstohisquestions.Heusesavarietyofsources,includingChenfeiGuo,thecompanyssalesrepresentativeinEastAsia.Hewill
addwhathehaslearnedtohiswritingplan.
AnswerstoMyResearchQuestions
ArethereanyChineselawsagainstyoungchildrenworkinginafactory?Dotheymatter?
Bylaw,childrenyoungerthan16yearsoldarenotallowedtoworkinfactories.
Thelawisnotenforcedveryoften.However,thereisalwaysthepossibilitythatitwillbe,orthatacompanywillhavebadpublicityfortolerating
vendorswhotreattheirworkerspoorly.
ArethereanylawsinChinaagainstpoorfactoryconditionsforworkers?Aretheyenforced?
Chinahaslawsthatprohibitsweatshops.Thegovernmentdoesnotenforcetheregulationsconsistentlyformanyreasons,includingbriberyand
corruption.Thelawsaresometimesenforced,however,andbadpublicityusuallyfollows.
Iknowothercompaniesfacedsituationslikethisone.Whataresomeexamples?
Nike,Mattel,andmanyothercompanieshavereceivedbadpublicityfordoingbusinesswithsweatshops.
Didtheysufferanyconsequences?
Nikefacedconsumerboycottsinthe1990sandexperiencedlargesaleslossesintheyearafteritsuseofsweatshopswaspublicized.
PeoplestillrememberNike'sassociationwithsweatshopsmanyyearsafteritfirstcametolight.
QuotefromaNikeexecutive:"[Our]initialattitudewas,Hey,wedon'townthefactories.Wedon'tcontrolwhatgoesonthere.'Quitefrankly,
thatwasasortofirresponsiblewaytoapproachthis."2
Whatdidtheydo?
Mostofthecompaniesaccusedofusingsweatshopsstoppedusingthevendorsorinstitutedvendorcodesofconductandfactoryaudits.
Theseneweffortsoftencostmillionsofdollars.
MoldingandPainting
Howdangerousisworkingaroundmeltedleadorleadpaint?
Meltedleadproducesvapor.Ifitisinhaled,itentersthebody.Shorttermexposurecancauseslightchangesinnervoussystemfunctionand
muscleandjointpain.Longtermexposurecancausememoryandconcentrationproblems,extremefatigue,reproductiveproblems,kidney
failure,andevendeath.
Leadpaintalsoproducesvaporandhasthesamedangersasexposuretomeltedlead.

OrganizingtheMemo
OrganizingtheMemo
Businesswritersfaceatradeoff:Howmuchcontentisenough?Howmuchistoomuch?
Onebenchmarkistheaveragelengthofmemosinyourorganizationthathavecontentcomparabletoyours.Writingamemothatismuchlongerorshorter
thanthenormcanviolatetheaudience'sexpectationsandtriggernegativereactions.Gettoknowyourorganization'snormsaboutthelengthofdocuments
theymaybeunstated.Youcanpleaseaudiencesbywritingmessagesmoreconciselythanothers,butyoushouldn'tsacrificecriticalpointsornuances.Atthe
sametime,sometopicsneedmorewordstodothemjusticethanothers.Inthosecases,lettheaudienceknowwhyextralengthisnecessary.
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

Felipe'swritingplanhasabout600words,andhewillneedmoretoconverttheplanintoparagraphs.Heestimatesthememowillexceed1,000words
longerthancomparablememos.ButthetopicissovitaltoTechMusica'sintereststhathebelievestheextralengthwillbeacceptabletoHumberto.

OrganicandAnalyticalOrganizers
OrganicandAnalyticalOrganizers
Inthemodulecalled"PlanningCommunication,"youlearnedtwomethodsoforderinginformativecontent:organicandanalytical.
Toreviewthetwotypesoforganizers,theirdefinitions,andexamples,clickhere:

Briefcase:OrganicOrganizersofInformation
Briefcase:AnalyticOrganizersofInformation

Informativewritinginbusinessoftendescribesaprocess.Akeystepincreatingawritingplanforaprocessisarrangingthestepsinthecorrectorder.
Exercise:MappingtheStepsofaProcess
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

LookatFelipe'soutlineandrefertotheOrganicOrganizersofInformation.WhichonedoyouthinkisbestforFelipe'smemo?
Felipeistellingakindofstory,anarrativeofhisvisit,toputthereaderinhisshoes.Narrativeorderseemsbest.Hethoughtaboutusingorderof
importance,butseveralfactshavenearlyequalimportance.Andinthissituation,itisn'ttheindividualpointsthatmatter,butthecumulativeeffect.
Close
Previous
Next
ResetExercise
Example:Felipe'sFinalWritingPlan

Felipehasmadechangestohiswritingplan.HehasincludedthepointsfromhisresearchandeliminatedtheFactoryManagersection,movingthe
twoitemsinittoothersections.Hemovedthe"Dormitories"sectiontotheendbecauseitseemedlessimportantthantheothersections.
Felipehasputtheplanintooutlineformtomaketheplan'slogicalrelationshipsclear.
MyTouroftheFactoryatGuangdong
1.CircuitAssembly
1. Thefactoryemploysunderageworkers.
1. Manyworkersinthefactoryareyounggirls,12to16yearsold.
2. Factorymanagerdidn'tanswermyquestionabouttheageofthegirlsworkingoncircuitboards.
3. Girlsarevaluedfortheirsmallhandsandgoodvision.
4. Factorymanagersaidthat,althoughthegirlswereslowerthanmachines,theywereeasierto"run"and"maintain."Hewasnot
joking.
2. Bylaw,childrenyoungerthan16yearsoldarenotallowedtoworkinfactories.
1. Thelawisnotenforcedveryoften.However,thereisalwaysthepossibilitythatitwillbe,orthatacompanywillhavebadpublicity
fortoleratingvendorswhotreattheirworkerspoorly.
3. Thefactorysubjectsworkerstounhealthyconditions.
1. Roomsthegirlsworkinarenotairconditionedandtemperaturesinthefactoryoftenexceed100degrees.
2. Onlyroomswithairconditioningarethosewithmachinesthatneedaconstanttemperature.
3. Girlsnotallowedtolookupforeighthours,andtheyhavenobreaks.
4. Nomagnifyingglassesareavailabletoeasestrainontheireyes.
4. Chinahaslawsthatprohibitsweatshops.
1. Thegovernmentdoesnotenforcetheregulationsconsistentlyformanyreasons,includingbriberyandcorruption.Thelawsare
sometimesenforced,however,andbadpublicityusuallyfollows.
5. Nike,Mattel,andmanyothercompanieshavereceivedbadpublicityfordoingbusinesswithsweatshops.
1. Nikefacedconsumerboycottsinthe1990sandexperiencedlargesaleslossesintheyearafteritsuseofsweatshopswaspublicized.
PeoplestillrememberNike'sassociationwithsweatshopsmanyyearsafteritfirstcametolight.
2. QuotefromaNikeexecutive:"[Our]initialattitudewas,Hey,wedon'townthefactories.Wedon'tcontrolwhatgoesonthere.'
Quitefrankly,thatwasasortofirresponsiblewaytoapproachthis."[NikedirectorToddMcKean,2001]
3. Mostofthecompaniesaccusedofusingsweatshopsstoppedusingthevendorsorinstitutedvendorcodesofconductandfactory
audits.Theseneweffortsoftencostmillionsofdollars.
2.MoldingandPainting
1. Inareasoftheplantemployeesworkwithdangerousmaterials.
1. VillagerssaythatthepeoplewhoworkindangerousareasoftheplantmoldingandpaintingarethetwothatIsawarepaidmore
becausetheexposurehascausedseriousillnessand,itisrumored,deaths.
2. Someemployeesworkaroundmeltedleadorapplyleadpainttoplasticcases.
3. Theyhaveonlypapermasksasprotection.
2. Meltedleadproducesharmfulvapors.
1. Shorttermexposurecancauseslightchangesinnervoussystemfunctionandmuscleandjointpain.Longtermexposurecancause
memoryandconcentrationproblems,extremefatigue,reproductiveproblems,kidneyfailure,andevendeath.
2. Leadpaintalsoproducesvaporandhasthesamedangersasexposuretomeltedlead.
3.Dormitories
1. Employeesliveindormitorieswithbadconditions.
1. Theyhavenowindows.
2. Norunningwater.

Drafting
Drafting
Felipehastakenconsiderabletroubletodefineandrefineawritingplan.Areasonablysettledoutlineorwritingplanexpediteswritingadraft.Youdon'thave
tokeepallyourpointsinyourheadorworryaboutwhatpointwillfollowtheoneyou'rewriting.
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

Felipeusuallystartsadraftatthebeginning.Thedrawbackisthatitssometimeshardtowritetheintroductionbeforewritingthebodyofthememo.
Instead,hewillstartwiththebody.Becausehehasadetailedwritingplan,thewritingdoesnttakelong.

OpeningandConclusion
OpeningandConclusion
Withadraftinhand,youknowwhatyourmessageisandcanwritetheopeningandtheconclusion.
Openingsarethemostimportantpartofbusinesswritinginthissense:Youwanttoseizereadersattentionsotheyaremotivatedtocontinue.
Ininformativewriting,conclusionsusherthereaderoutofthedocument.Conclusionsletreadersgowithafinalthoughtorworthwhilepieceofinformation.

OpeninganInformativeMessage
OpeninganInformativeMessage
Youdon'thavetograbreaderswithverbalpyrotechnicscolorfullanguageanddaringorprovocativeclaims.Inbusiness,yougivetheaudienceareasonfor
reading.
Informativewritingdescribesandexplains.Soanopeningshouldtellthereaderwhatinformationwillbedelivered.Theopeningshouldaddressa
fundamentalaudienceneed:whyaudiencemembersneedtheinformation.
Openingsshouldalsoconnectthenewinformationwithinformationthereaderalreadyknows.Thisisntalwayspossiblebecauseyoumaynotknowwhatthe
audiencealreadyknowsaboutthetopic.Butwheneverthenewinformationcanbelinkedtoaudiencememberspriorknowledge,youshoulddoitbecauseit

improvesreadercomprehensionandretention.
Rememberthatgoodbusinesswritingspeakstothereaderdirectly,concisely,clearly,andlogically.Youropeningsshouldhavethosequalitiesoryourisk
losingreaders.
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

Felipe'sopeningwilldefinethetopicofthememo:informationabouttheemploymentpracticesandworkingconditionsoftheirmainChinesevendor.
TellingHumbertowhythetopicshouldinteresthimrequiresalittlemorethought.
DoesHumbertowanttoreadthememoonlybecausehepromisedFelipehewould?Doeshewanttolearnthefactsanddecideforhimselfhowbad
theyare?
CertainlyHumbertofeelsobligatedtoreadthememobecauseofhispromise.
ButhemaybeexperiencingsomegenuinedoubtabouthisinitialresponseofdismissingFelipe'sconcerns.Ifthesituationattheplantisbad,it
couldbecomeaproblemthatblindsidesthecompanyandhewouldbetheonemanagerwhoknewaboutit.Tobefair,Humbertomayalsohave
concernsabouttheplightoftheworkers.

ConcludinganInformativeMessage
ConcludinganInformativeMessage
Theconclusioncanservepurposessuchasthese:
Reinforcinganespeciallyimportantpieceofinformation
Pointingthereadertoothersourcesofsimilarinformation
Tellingthereaderhowtogetquestionsanswered
Sometimesyoudon'tneedaconclusion.Inadescriptionexplanationofaprocess,theprocesshasalaststepthatshouldbeobvioustothereader.A
conclusionshouldalwayshaveavaluefortheaudience.Itshouldnotbeacontrivedsummationinflowerylanguage.
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

Thememocouldendwithadramaticsummationofthemoreegregiousfacts.IfHumbertowerereadytomarchatFelipe'sside,thattypeofendingmight
beagoodmotivator.ButFelipehastoassumehisbossfeelsskittishandislookingforasmanysupportingfactsaspossibletotaketohisownbossif
Humbertotakestheproblemtoher.
Felipewritesaconclusionthatismodestandbrief.Itservesapurposemoreinformationfromrespectedsourcesbutdoesn'tbelaborthepoint.
FelipesInformativeMemo:FirstDraft

RevisingtheDraft
RevisingtheDraft
Thegoalofrevisingadraftistoimprovetheexpressionofyourideasformaximumeffectonreaders.Inthedraftstageyouengageyourideasandgivethema
voicewithaslittlefilteringaspossible.Intherevisingstage,youreadfromtheaudience'spointofview.Therevisingstageisthepivotalmomentinshifting
fromaprivatemessage(onethatmeanssomethingtoyou)toapublicmessage(onethatmeanssomethingtoothers).
Revisionconcentratesonthecontent,organization,andtoneofthedraft.Seeingyourthinkingonacomputerscreenorpieceofpapergreatlyimprovesyour
abilitytoworkwithit.
Setasidethefirstdraftforadayormoreifpossible.Ourbrainsneedsleeptoconsolidatememories,andthebreakhelpsuslookatthedraftwithmoreenergy
andobjectivity.
Toguiderevising,usetheRevisionQuestionschecklist.
Briefcase:RevisionQuestions
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

Afterputtingitasideforaday,Felipereviewsthefirstdraft.Henoteshisthoughtsashegoes,includingsentencesthatneedtobedeletedorrewritten.
ReadFelipe'snotesforrevisinghisfirstdraft.

FelipesInformativeMemo:RevisionNotes

EditingandCorrecting
EditingandCorrecting
Withtimepressing,awritercanfeelshemustfinishamessageasquicklyaspossible,andeditingsentencesandhuntingmistakescanseemlikean
unnecessarydelay.Nevertheless,somethingisatstake:Poorlywrittensentencesandmistakesingrammar,punctuation,andmechanicscausereadersto
questionthewriterscompetenceandcredibility.
Sodon'tskipthissteporcutitshort.Haveafriendorcolleaguewithgoodeditorialskillsassistyou,ortakeanotherbreak.Withjustanhourortwodoing
somethingelse,youcancomebacktoyourwritingandseestyleproblemsandmistakesthatyouwereoblivioustobeforeyoustoppedwork.

Editing
Editing
Thegoalofeditingistomakethewritingasreadableaspossible.TheWritingStylesectionofthismoduleexplainsthequalitiesofwellwrittensentences.
Thesectionincludesaprocessforeditingsentences.Itcanbethemaintoolforyoureditingwork.

Correcting
Correcting
Somereaderstolerateafewgrammar,spelling,andpunctuationerrorsandaregeneroustowritersworkinginalanguageotherthantheirfirst.Writingwell
inanonnativelanguageisverydifficult,andmostaudiencesrecognizethat.
However,don'tassumeyouraudiencewilloverlookasmallnumberofmistakesifyoudon'tknow,askpeopleyouworkwithhowstrictyourreadersare
aboutgrammar,spelling,punctuation,andmechanics.
Inanycase,numerousmistakesslowreadersdownandcanreducetheircomprehensionoftheoverallmessage.Whenareaderencountersamistake,she
performswhatreadingexpertscallafixup.Shedetermineswhatthewordorsentenceissupposedtomean.Ofcourse,eachfixupinterruptstheprocessof
buildingmeaningfromthemessage.Manyfixupsfragmentthemessageforthereaderandraisequestionsabouttheauthor'scompetence.
Example:Felipe'sInformativeMemo

Whileworkingonhismemo,Felipenoticedawkwardsoundingsentencesandmistakesyoumayhavespottedsomeofthemwhenreadingdrafts.
AlthoughFelipestoppedtoworkonsome,heleftmostofthemtoconcentrateoncontentandorganization.Nowheeditssentencesandcorrectsmistakes.


FelipesInformativeMemo

PersuasiveWriting
PersuasiveWriting
ThePlanningCommunicationmodulestatesthatpersuasivewritingmotivatesanaudiencetothink,feel,oractinthewaythecommunicatorintends.
Persuasionhaspower:Itcanchangepeoplesthinkingandcausethemtohavestrongemotionsanddothingstheymightnototherwisedo.
Butitisuptotheaudiencetodecidewhethertoallythemselveswiththecommunicatorspurpose.Persuasionoftenfails,butoneunsuccessfulattemptdoesnt
meanthecommunicatorwonthavemoreopportunitiestotryoreventuallyrealizeherpurpose.
Example:PersuasiveWritinginBusiness

Businesspeopleemploywrittenpersuasionformanydifferentpurposes.Theexamplesinthediagramillustratetheprimaryeffectsofaparticularuseof
persuasioninbusiness.
Example:PersuasiveWritinginBusiness(Continued)

Subject
Wheretogo
tolunch.
Sellanew
product.
Devisea
solutiontoadifficult
problem.
Brandour
organization.

Audience

Think

Peers

Salesstaff

Technical
staff

Agreewithsolution.

Feelconfidence.

Implementthe
solution.

Thinkaboutthe
organizationin
anewway.

Feelexcitementand
satisfaction.

Entire
organization

Feel

Feelenthusiasm
fortheproduct.

Act
Gotoaspecific
restaurant.
Sellto
customers.

PersuadingVersusInforming
PersuadingVersusInforming
Usingwritingtopersuadeanaudienceisamoredifficultandcomplextaskthanusingittoinform.Peoplewillusuallyacceptinformationoncetheyunderstand
itssignificancetothem.Ontheotherhand,persuasionaddressessubjectsaboutwhichpeopledisagree.Asyouknow,whenadultsthinkorfeelacertainway
aboutasubject,itcanbehardtochangetheirminds.
Changeentailsriskandriskoftenmakespeopleuncomfortableorafraid.Onepersuasivecommunicationoftenwontovercomeaudienceresistance,
particularlywhenthestakesarehigh.Sopersuasionbecomesaprocessconsistingofmultiplecommunications.
Frequently,persuasionrequirespersistence.Thesamemessageorvariationsofitmayhavetobesenttimeaftertime.(Infact,researchindicatesthat
persistenceisanessentialmeansforminoritiestoinfluencemajorities.)
Exercise:HowMuchPersuasion?
Example:Felipe'sNextAssignment

Felipe'sboss,Humberto,readhisinformativememoandithasledtoanewassignment.
Boss'sReactiontoFelipe'sInformativeMemo
HumbertodescribeshisreactiontoFelipe'sinformativememoontheChinesefactory.
FelipesinformativememocreatedabasisforpersuasionbecauseitalertedHumbertotoapotentiallyseriousproblem.Felipespersuasivememoisamove
towardsolvingit.Byitself,thememoisntlikelytoreachtheobjective.
UltimatelytheCEOwillhavetobeconvinced,anditsreasonabletoassumethatmorecommunication,thought,anddiscussionwillhavetooccurtoreach
thatgoalifitcanbereached.
Example:Felipe'sNextAssignment(Continued)

Felipestartsthenewprojectbydefininghispurposeandrevisitinghisaudience.Felipehasaboldgoalinmind.Hewantsthecompanytoimprove
conditionsintheGuangdongfactory.Hehasalongertermgoaltoo:toputaninternalprocessinplacesothatthesituationdoesntrecur.
Hecan'tmakeeitherpurposehappendirectlyorimmediately.Hehastoworkthroughothersinthecompanychainofcommand:fromHumbertotoEstela,
andfromEstelatotheCEO.
PurposeofthePersuasiveMemo

Subject
Labor
practicesandworking
conditionsatthe
Chinesefactory

Audience
Humberto,
myboss,and
Humberto's
boss,Estela

WhatIwantthe
audiencetothink
Understandthe
seriousrisksto
thecompany

WhatIwantthe
audiencetofeel
Troubledbythe
situationand
anxioustoaddress
it

WhatIwantthe
audiencetodo
Taketheissueto
theCEOand
advocateaction

Example:Felipe'sNextAssignment(Continued)

Whenplanningtheinformativememo,Felipegavealotofthoughttohisaudience,butherevisitsthequestionsheusedbecausehispurposehas
changedandEstelaisnowpartofhisprimaryaudience.Thistime,hehastosegmenttheaudiencebecauseHumbertoandEstelahavedifferent
positionsinthecompanyanddifferentrelationshipswithFelipe.
Humbertothinksthatthefactsjustifyconsideringsomekindofaction,whichmeansheisleaningtowardFelipesdesiredoutcome.Estelaneedstoknow
thefacts,tootherefore,hewillincludesomeofthefactualcontentoftheinformativememoinhispersuasivememo.Becauseshe,asaseniorexecutive,
hasabroadperspectiveaboutthecompany,Felipeshouldconsideranargumentthattakesherperspectiveintoaccount.
Felipesaudienceisheterogeneousintermsoftheirknowledgeandfeelings.Heterogeneousaudiencescanbeadvantageouswhenyouwanttopersuade
them.Amongaudiencememberswithdifferentpointsofview,youaremorelikelytofindsomeonewhoagreeswithyouthanyouwouldamong
audiencememberswhoarehomogeneousintheirthinking.Alliesintheaudiencecanamplifyyourmessageandpersuadeotheraudiencemembers.
AudienceofMyPersuasiveMemo

Question
Whoismyaudience?
Whatdoaudience

Audience
Humberto,andhisboss,Estela

membersknowaboutthe
topic?

Humbertoknowsthefactsofthefactoryproblem,butEsteladoesn't.
Humberto'sawarenessoftherealrisksforthecompanyhasmadehimuneasy.
HumbertoissupportingmyopinionnowandthatmaycauseEstelatobemore
openthanHumbertowasinitially.Shehastwogirlsandmayfeelstronglyabout
underagelabor.

Whatistheirattitude
towardthetopic?Dothey
haveanybiasesrelatedto
thetopic?

Possiblebarriertocommunication:Representativebias
BothHumbertoandEstelamightbelievethatsuggestionsforimprovementsatthe
factorymustbeexpensivebecauseupgradesinafactoryoftenare.
HumbertobelievesIamcredibleIhaveconcretefactstosupportmyconcern.

Whatistheirattitude
towardme?

Possiblebarriertocommunication:Estela'sattitudetowardme
ShemayfeelI'mtryingtosavetheworldatcompanyexpense.

Whatis
myattitudetowardthe
audience?

IrespectedHumbertobeforeandmoresonow.Idonthavestrongfeelingsabout
Estela,butshehasagoodreputationasamanagerwholistens.

Example:Felipe'sNextAssignment(Continued)

Ashedidbefore,Felipeconsiderswhetherthereareanybarrierstocommunicationorsecondaryaudiences?
BarriersandSecondaryAudienceofMyPersuasiveMemo

Question
Whoismyaudience?

Audience
Nosecondaryaudience
Possiblebarriertocommunication

Whatistheirattitudetoward
thetopic?Dotheyhaveany
biasesrelatedtothetopic?

Whatistheirattitudetoward
me?

BothHumbertoandEstelacouldhaveananchoringbias.Theymaythinkthatour
costnumbersafterwecutoutthemiddlemandefinesuccess,forgettingthatwe
weremakingagoodprofitwithsomewhathighercosts.
Possiblebarriertocommunication
EstelaknowsmelargelybyreputationandisverypleasedbythemoneyIhave
savedthecompanyrecently.

Example:Felipe'sNextAssignment(Continued)

Here'sFelipe'sthinkingthattakesintoaccounthisanalysisoftheaudience.
BarriersandSecondaryAudienceofMyPersuasiveMemo

Question
Whois
myaudience?
Whatdoaudiencemembers
knowaboutthetopic?

ImplicationsforMemo
ThetoneofthememoshouldbealittlemoreformalbecauseIdontknow
Estelawell,shesaseniormanager,andthetopicisserious.
IshouldincludefactstoshowEstelawhattheproblemis.
IhavetoshowthatHumberto'sconcernfortheissueiswellfounded.Thebest
waytodothatispresentanevidencebackedargument.

Whatistheirattitudetoward
thetopic?Dotheyhaveany
biasesrelatedtothetopic?

Whatistheirattitudetoward
me?
Whatis
myattitudetowardthe
audience?

Idontwanttoplayontheiremotionsinanobviousway,butIdowantto
includeevidencewithemotionalcontentsuchaschildlaborandthegrave
marketingproblemswecouldhave.
Toansweranyanchoringbias,Iwillremindthemthatveryrecentlywesaved
upto30%onourcostsandletthemknowthatfactoryimprovementsdonot
requirelargeoutlays.
EstelaknowsthesavingsIvemadepossible,whichmeansIalreadyhave
somegoodwillandcredibilitywithher.OnthisissueIllhavetobuildonthe
trustcapitalIveearnedandshowthatIknowthefacts.
IwanttogiveHumbertoamemothatputshimonsolidgroundwithEstela
andIwanthertothinkIvemadeastrongcase.

ComposingthePersuasiveMemo
ComposingthePersuasiveMemo
Creatingpersuasioninvolvesappealstoreason,emotion,andcharacter.Thegoalistotakethebestpossibleadvantageofthesethreeresourcesinamessage.
Reasonistheprimarytoolofpersuasioninbusinessbecausebusinesspeoplepreferrationalchoicesgroundedinfactualevidence.Emotionsplayastrongrole,
tooarolethatbusinessaudiencesveryoftenunderestimate.Muchworkindifferentdisciples,frompsychologyandneurosciencetoeconomics,hascometo
thesameconclusion:Ourrationalityisn'tasrationalasitiscommonlyassumedtobe.Nevertheless,tobeskilledatpersuasioninbusiness,youhavetobe
particularlyskilledinreasoning.

UsingArgumenttoPersuade
UsingArgumenttoPersuade
Argumentsusereasontoprovethataconclusionislikelytobetrue.Why"likelytobetrue"insteadof"true"?Eveninscience,proofofunequivocaltruthis
hardtocomeby.Inbusiness,dataareneverperfectorcomplete,andmanycontingenciesareinplay.
Adecision,forexample,isakindofpredictionaboutthefuture.Becausethefutureisalwaysuncertain,wecantsaythatthedecisionwillwithoutdoubthave
thedesiredresult.Thehistoryofbusinessislitteredwithchoicesthatseemedtobewellreasonedandturnedouttobecompletely,andoftenexpensively,
wrong.

Butwedonthaveabettertoolthanrationalargument,and,ifusedcarefullyandcritically,itcanhaveresultsthatarebetterthanrollingthediceorgoing
onlywithgutfeelings.
PlanningCommunicationexplainedthreetypesofargumentscommoninbusiness:
Diagnosis
Evaluation
Decision
Eachtypeofargumenthasacharacteristicorganizationthatcanbeusedforwriting.Thetemplatesdefinethepartsofdecision,evaluation,anddiagnosis
arguments.Youcanuseblanktemplatestoplanargumentsforawrittenmessageorapresentation.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Felipedevelopedasignificantamountoffactualcontentforhisinformativememothatispotentialevidence.First,however,hehastohavean
argumentthatcanusetheevidence.
ArgumentandFelipe'sPersuasiveMemo
Felipeshareshisthinkingaboutthemaincriteriaforhisdecisionargument.

Felipeusesthequestionsintroducedin"PlanningCommunication"tostartdevelopinganargument.Hisnotesareunderneaththequestions.
WhatargumentscanImaketoachievemypurpose?
Iwanttheaudience,HumbertoandEstela,toadvocateadecisiontoimproveconditionsintheGuangdongfactory.SoIllbewritinga
decisionargument.
Theheartofadecisionargumentiscriteriathatswhatyoubuildtheargumentaround.
Illtakeastabatcriteriaforthememo:
Ethics:Thiscriterionmeansthemosttomebutmaynottomembersoftheaudience.Itsapowerfulargumentbutnotenoughto
persuadeanexecutiveaudience.
Legalliability:Ilearnedaboutthiswritingthefirstmemo.
Marketing:Iknowthatothercompanieshavesufferedfromdisclosuresabouttheirsupplychain.Iwillaskourmarketingdepartment
whattheythinktheimpactwouldbeonus.
Costs:Productioncostsmaynotbeatthetopofmylistasacriterion,buttheyareforseniormanagers.Theyhavetotakeitveryseriously
toprotectemployeesandshareholdersIrespectthat.OfspecialconcernisourrelianceonChinesecompaniesforahighquality,lowcost
supplychain.Withoutitwecantcompeteinthehypercompetitiveconsumerelectronicsindustry.
WhatevidencedoIhaveorneedtosupportmyarguments?
Ihaveevidenceformostofthecriteriabutneedmoreonmarketingandcosts.
Ethics:UnderageworkersandtoxicexposureIhaveenoughevidenceforthiscriterion.
Legalliability:Icanusethefactsinmyinformativememoaboutunderagelaborandworkingconditions.
Marketing:IfitcanhappentoNike,itcanhappentous.Ihaveevidencetomakethatanalogywork.ButIneedevidencefromthe
marketingdepartmentbecauseImnotanexpert.
Costs:WhatIneedhereisanestimateofcostsformakingrelativelysmallchangestoconditionsintheshorttermandlargerchanges
downtheroad.Ineedtotalktoourmanufacturinggrouporpossiblysomeoneoutsidewhohastherightexpertise.Inaddition,Ineedto
showthatImnotsuggestinganythingthatwillundermineourcompetitiveness.
UsingaTemplateforaWritingPlan
Oneadvantageofknowingthetypeofargumentisthatyoucanusethetemplateearlyinthewritingprocessasthebasisforawritingplan.Felipeuses
"Template:DecisionArgument"tothinkaboutthefactoryissueasasubjectofpersuasion.
TemplateDefined:DecisionArgument

ResearchingandDevelopingaWritingPlan
ResearchingandDevelopingaWritingPlan
Businessargumentsneedtobebackedbyevidence.Anargumentisnobetterthantheevidencethatgroundsitinreality.Byprovidingfactsandconnecting
themtotheargument,youinvitetheaudiencetoverifyitforthemselves.
First,though,youneedtofindtheevidence.Neverbeforehastheindividualhadsucheasyaccesstoinformation,thankstotechnology.Butrememberthat
evidenceismorethaninformation:Itisinformationordatathatcanbeclearlylinkedtoanargumentthatbacksaconclusion.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Felipedidresearchtostrengthentheweakspotshefoundwhenmakingnotesonhisdecisioncriteria.
Hetalkedtotwomarketingmanagersandthentheseniorvicepresidentformarketing.TheVPwasalarmedbyFelipesaccountofthefactory.Henotedthat
demographicsandpsychographicsdontpredictsociallyconsciousbuyingverywell,buttheircustomerswereheavyusersoftheInternetandsocialmedia.It
washardtosaywhethernewsorganizationsoradvocacygroupswouldshowanyinterestinasingleChinesefactory.ButifthenewsmadeittotheInternet,it
wouldspreadquicklyontheweb.
Thevicepresidentalsonotedthatbadnewsaboutacompanysvaluesandbehaviorwasmoreinfluentialonbuyingdecisionsthangoodnews.Complicityin
badlaborpractices,especiallyignoringtheuseofchildlaboranddisregardingworkersafety,couldbedevastatingtothereputationofthecompany.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo(Continued)

Felipealsohadconversationswithamemberofthemanufacturinggroup.Shewasveryhelpful.ShefoundsomeChinesesuppliersonthewebandgot
estimatesforitemsthatcouldimprovetheworkingconditionsatthefactory:magnifyingglasses,masksandclothingforworkingaroundlead,andair
conditioning.Thecostoftheseitemswasmodest.
Withtheadditionalevidencegainedfromresearch,Felipecreatesaninitialwritingplan.
MyPersuasiveMemo:InitialWritingPlan
1.StatetheDecision
WeneedtorespondtothediscoveryofunderageworkersandpoorworkingconditionsattheGuangdongfactoryofourprincipalChinesevendor.
2.StatetheDecisionOptions

Takecorrectiveaction.
Donothing.
3.StateMyRecommendation
OurcompanyneedstoimprovelaborpracticesandworkingconditionsatthefactoryofourmainChinesevendor.
4.StatetheCriteria
Ethics
Legalliability
Marketing
Costs
5.ProvetheRecommendedDecision
Ethics
Descriptionoffactorylaborpracticesandpooranddangerousworkingconditions
Vendorviolatingourethicalvalues
Legalliability
Lawsagainstchildlabor,sweatshopconditions
Riskofenforcementandbadpublicity
Lawsuits
Marketing
Lossofsales
BadpublicityspreadsonInternet
Customerssensitivetoabuses
Ifcustomersabandonus,brandisdamaged
Analogy:Nike
Mentionthatmarketingdepartmentsupportsargument
Inthelongrun,useethicstoenhanceourbrand?
Costs
Havesavedupto30percentonoutsourcedmanufacturing
Usesomeofsavingsfromeliminatingmiddleman
Cankeepcostofimprovingconditionslow
Betterworkingconditionsshouldresultinbetterefficiency
6.RebuttheOtherOption
Donothing.
7.Conclusion
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Afterreviewingthewritingplan,Felipedoesn'tthinkheneedsmorefactualinformationbecausehecompiledsomuchforthefirstmemo.Thismay
notbethecaseformanypersuasivememosyouwrite.You'llaskquestionssimilartothoseFelipeaskedforthewritingplanoftheinformativememo.
Felipedidmakesomechangestotheplanduringhisreview,includinganideafortheconclusion,andhemadeafewnotesaboutwritingthedraft.
Herearethechangeshemadetotheplan.
MyPersuasiveMemo:WritingPlanRevisions
2.StatetheDecisionOptions
Takecorrectiveaction.
Donothing.
Changevendors
4.StatetheCriteria
Legalliability
Marketing
Costs
Ethics
5.ProvetheRecommendedDecision
Marketing
Lossofsales
Badpublicity>spreadsonInternet
Customersknowledgeable,sensitivetoabuses
Buyfromcompetitors
Ethics
Underageworkers
Pooranddangerousworkingconditions
Tomaketheethicspartoftheargumentconvincing,IhavetotellEstelaaboutthefactoryconditions,asIdidinmyfirstmemotoHumberto.
WhereinthememodoIputadescriptionofthefactory?
6.RebuttheOtherOptions
Changevendors.
Donothing.
7.Conclusion
Theresanotherpossibleoption:changevendors.
WhenIorganizethememo,Illhavetodecidetheorderofthecriteria.Icanseekeepingthisorder,whichIputdownwithoutalotof
thought.
TheargumentaboutlossofsalesakeyoneforconvincingEstelahasmorestepsthanI'veoutlined.IshouldwritethemalldownsoI
don'tforgetthem.
Tomaketheethicspartoftheargumentconvincing,IhavetotellEstelaaboutthefactoryconditions,asIdidinmyfirstmemoto
Humberto.WhereinthememodoIputadescriptionofthefactory?
AddtheChangevendorsoptionforrebuttal.
Fortheconclusion,IcanusethequoteoftheNikeexecutivefrommyfirstmemo.Itstheonethatmentionshownotrespondingtosupply
chainworkingconditionsisirresponsible.

Exercise:BuildinganEvaluationArgument

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BuildingArguments
BuildingArguments

Anargument'sessentialelementsareaconclusionandtheevidencethatbacksitup.
Theworkofbuildinganargumentlargelyconsistsofdevelopingtheevidencethatwillconvinceyouraudiencetoacceptyourconclusion.Thetemplatesfor
decision,evaluation,anddiagnosisargumentsguidethesearchforevidence.Forinstance,adecisioncriterionforaproposedprojectitsNetPresentValue
tellsyouthekindofevidenceyouneed.YouhavetocollectinformationrelevanttotheNPVformulaandmakethecalculation.
Theevidenceusedtobuildargumentscomesinseveralforms:
Facts
Inferences
Opinions
Assumptions

UsingFacts
UsingFacts
Businessargumentsrestonfacts,thegoldstandardofbusinesspersuasion.Foranargumenttobepersuasive,however,theaudiencemustbelievethe
factscanbetrusted.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

OnFelipesoutline,ethicsisthefirstcriterion.Felipecoulduseageneralization,sayingthathiscompanycouldbeethicallycompromisedbecauseits
vendorusesunderageworkersandmaintainsbadworkingconditions.However,thefacts,suchasagesofworkersintheplantandthedetailsofthe
conditionstheyworkunder,aremoreconvincingthanasummarystatement.

UsingInferences
UsingInferences
Anotherformofreasoningisinference,aconclusiondrawnfromfactsorreasoning.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

OneofFelipe'scriteriaismarketing,andhismajorargumentisthatlaborabusesinthesupplychaincanleadtoalossofsalesforthecompany.
Logically,though,it'salongwayfromlaborproblemstolossofsales.Toconvincehisaudience,heneedstoshowhowtheyconnect.
Helinksthemasfollows:
Criterion:Marketing
LaborabusesaroundtheworldarefrequentlyexposedinformationisdistributedviatheInternetandsocialmedialikeTwitter,Facebook,and
Tumblr.
OurcustomersareheavyusersoftheInternet,andsocialmedia.
Theylearnofabusesinourvendor'sfactory.Theymaybesensitiveenoughtolaborpracticeissuestochangetheirbuyingbehavior.
Theybuyfromanothercompany.
Welosesales.

UsingOpinions
UsingOpinions
Acommonformofevidenceinbusinessisopinions,usuallyofexperts.Anothertermforthisisargumentfromauthority.Dependingonthestatureofthe
experts,theiropinioncanbecompelling.(Ofcourse,expertscanbewrong.)
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Inhispersuasivememo,Felipewillstatethattheseniorvicepresidentformarketingagreesthatadisclosureaboutpoortreatmentofworkerscouldhurt
sales.Theseniorvicepresidentsstatementstrengthenstheargument.So,too,willtheNikeexecutive'squotation.Theexecutivehasauthoritybecauseof
hisexperiencedealingwithacomparablecrisis.

UsingAssumptions
UsingAssumptions
Everyargumentultimatelyrestsonassumptions,asthe"PlanningCommunication"moduleshows.Whenusedinpersuasion,argumentsmusthave
assumptionsacceptabletotheaudience.Otherwise,theargumentwillverylikelyfailtoconvince.It'swise,then,forwriterstoevaluatetheassumptionsof
theirmajorarguments.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Becausepeoplehavedifferentvalues,Feliperealizesthatheshouldunderstandtheassumptionsofhisethicalarguments.Hisethicsargumentsare:
EthicsArgument1
Ourvendoruseschildlabor.
Ourvendorisviolatingourethicalvalues.
Assumption
Anyvendorusingchildlaborviolatesourethicalvalues.
EthicsArgument2
Ourvendorexposesunprotectedworkerstotoxicmaterials.
Ourvendorisviolatingourethicalvalues.
Assumption
Anyvendorexposingunprotectedworkerstotoxicmaterialsviolatesourethicalvalues.
WillFelipesaudienceaccepttheseassumptions?Hethinksso.
Buthealsoknowsthatpeoplemayagreethatthevendorisviolatingtheirethicalvaluesbutdisagreeoverwhethertodoanythingaboutit.Forsome
people,theethicalargumentcouldbepersuasiveonitsown.Forothers,however,additionalargumentswillbeneeded.Fortunately,Felipehas
them:legalliability,marketing,andcost.

UsingEmotionstoPersuade
UsingEmotionstoPersuade
Skilledwritersstimulatefeelingsthatassistinpersuadingtheaudienceand,sometimes,inhibitfeelingsthatworkagainstpersuasion.
Becausepersuasioninbusinessreliesonrationalargument,thewriterattemptstoalignaudienceemotionwiththeargument.
Howdoesawriterevokeemotioninabusinessaudience?Factscancreatefeelingssuchaswhensomeoneyells"Fire!"(seethegraphic).Thesametypeof
reactioncanhappeninabusinessmeeting.
Everyoneinameetingislikelytohaveanemotionalreactiontothefactstatementaboutlosingcustomers(seethegraphic).Thewordsarentadirect
emotionalappeallike,"Weshouldallbeterrifiedthatourcustomersareleaving."Theindividualstatedafactafactthatregistersbothrationallyand

emotionally.
PersuadewithDataandEmotions
Proof,accordingtothismanager,speakstotheemotionsofanaudienceaswellastheirminds.

EmotionalProof
EmotionalProof
Sometimeswrittenlanguagedoeshaveaprimarilyemotionalfunction.Saythatamanagersendsamemotoanunderperformingteam.Attheend,she
writes,Youcandoit!Theprimaryfunctionistomaketeammembersfeelmoreconfident.
Peoplehavescientificallyprovenemotionallevers,andcommunicatorscanemploythemforpersuasion.
Inhisarticle,"HarnessingtheScienceofPersuasion,"RobertB.Cialdinihasidentifiedsixlevers:

Cialdini'sSixLeversofEmotionalInfluence

EmotionalInfluence
Liking

Reciprocity

Socialproof
Consistency
Authority
Scarcity

Definition

Example

Likingsomeone
wholikesus
Repayingwhatwe
havereceivedorgiving
whatwehopetoreceive
back
Influenceofothers
perceivedtobesimilarto
ourselves
Tendencytohonor
ourcommitments
Deference
(oftenexcessive)wegiveto
experts
Valuewegiveto
somethingthatisscarce

Youaskafriendtogiveajobinterviewtosomeoneyou
know.
Asaninducement,yousaythatyourorganizationwillprovide
neededservicestoapotentialbusinesspartner.
Yourhoteltellsgueststhat80%ofguestsdonotaskfornew
towelsduringtheirstay.
Youcitethelongtimecompanymissionstatementassupport
foryourpositiveevaluationofanewlineofbusiness.
Youusegovernmentsafetyresearchtohelpsellanautomobile.
Youtellloyalcustomersthattheyhaveonlyoneweektotake
advantageofspecialpricing.

Communicatorscanuseeveryoneofthesixemotionalinfluenceseffectivelyintheappropriatesituation.Socialproofandauthorityhaveparticularpower
forwrittenpersuasion.
Socialproofmaybetheenginethatpoweredsocialmediatotheheightsofpopularitytheynowenjoyand,inthecaseofFacebook,withsomeassistance
fromliking.Anentiregenerationofyoungpeopleflockedtosocialsitesinpartbecausetheirfriendsdid.
Businessesliberallyusesocialproof.Amazon's"CustomersWhoBoughtThisItemAlsoBought"sectionofproductpagesandcustomerreviewsbothseekto
takeadvantageofpeerinfluence.
Peoplesdeferencetoauthorityisusedincountlessways.Intelevisioncommercials,doctorsrecommendhealthrelatedproductsandathletesendorse
sportsproducts,forexample.
Sometimesloweringthetemperatureoffeelingsconstitutesanemotionalproof.SaythataCEOhasinvestedmanymillionsinaprojectthathasproduced
nothingthecompanycansell.Hecaninvestseveralmoremillionsinthisprojectorinanewprojectthathasafarbetterchanceofbeingprofitable.
Ifyouwererecommendingadecisiontoinvestinthenewproject,youmightsaythattheoldprojecttaughtthecompanyworthwhilelessonsthatitcan
applytothenewone.Byfindingvalueintheoldprojectandavoidinganycriticismofit,yousteerfeelingsinapositivedirectionthatisfavorabletoyour
recommendation.
Exercise:ElicitingFeelingsinWritingthePersuasiveMemo
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Felipehasseveralsourcesofemotionalproofthathecanuseinhispersuasivemessage:
1.ThedescriptionofchildlaborandtheworkersexposedtodangerousmaterialsandtheanalogytoNikehavegreatpotentialtoevokedistress,anger,
andanxietyfeelingsfavorabletoFelipe'spurpose.Felipehasotherargumentswithemotionalpotential.Arguingthepossibilityoflegalliabilityandthe
erosionofcustomers,sales,andbrandintegrityshouldhaveemotionalrepercussions,possiblyquitestrongones,foraudiencemembers.Again,thelikely
emotionsshouldcauseFelipe'saudiencetobemoreresponsivetohisrecommendation.
2.FelipehasauthoritynooneelseinTechMusicapossesses:HespenttimeintheGuangdongfactory.
3.CitingNikeandAppleinvokessocialproof.TechMusicaisafarsmallercompany,butitcompeteswithAppleand,likebothNikeandApple,isa
westerncompanytakingadvantageoflowmanufacturingcostsinChina.Theiractionstoprotectworkerwelfareare"proof"thatothercompaniesshould
dothesame.
Exercise:UsingCialdini'sEmotionalLevers

UsingCharactertoPersuade
UsingCharactertoPersuade
Characterinpersuasionmeanstheaudience'sattitudetowardthecommunicator.
Persuasioncandependoncharactertoproveaconclusion.Atelevisionpublicserviceannouncementusedaseriesofcelebritiesmovieactresses,
musicians,famouschefs,andathletestopersuadeviewerstojoinanenvironmentalcampaign.Theannouncementsaidverylittleaboutthepurposeor
benefitsofthecampaign,bankinginsteadontheaudience'sfavorableattitudestowardthecelebritiestowinrecruits.
Whenputtingforwardabusinessrelatedopinion,communicatorshavebeenknowntodependprimarilyoncharactertopersuadeanaudience.InFebruary
2008,BenS.Bernanke,chairoftheFederalReserveSystem,providedasomewhatgrimpictureoftheU.S.economy,butcametothefollowingconclusion:
thebaselineoutlookenvisionsanimprovingpicture...2 Theaudiencewasreassuredbytheconclusionnotbecauseoftheargumentlaidoutinthewritten
statement,butbecauseoftheirconfidenceinthecommunicatorandhisauthority.
ThemodulecalledPlanningCommunicationidentifiestwocomponentsofcharacterinbusinesscommunication:knowledgeandcredibility.

Knowledge
Knowledge
Theaudience'sconvictionthatthewriterisknowledgeableaboutthetopicismandatoryforpersuasion.Ithelpstohaveahaloapreexistingaudience
beliefthatthewriterhastherequiredknowledge.Butthehalocanbeperishable.Eachmessagemustconfirmthatthecommunicatorcanaddressthetopic
withauthority.
Writersreinforcetheirauthoritythroughthefollowing:

Highqualityargument
Asoundargumentandtransparentevidencegiveanaudienceconfidenceinthewriter.
Relevantknowledge
Asasignofcompetence,audiencespayattentiontothewriter'scommandofrelevantknowledge.Ifyouwanttobetakenseriously,youmusthavethe
knowledgethattheaudienceconsidersnecessarytodrawconclusionsaboutthesubject.
Highqualitywriting
Wellwrittenpersuasionhasmultipleeffects,andoneeffectisthefavorableresponseitelicitsfromaudiences.Audiencesmaynotbeconsciousofit,
butastheyread,theyevaluatethewriterbehindthemessage.Awriterdoesn'tneedbrilliantinsighttoimpressreaders.Amessagethatisdirect,
concise,clear,andlogicalreflectswellonthewriter.

ComplexityUndercutsAuthority
Thereisaninterplaybetweentheclarityofyourwritingandtheaudience'sperceptionofyourcharacter.

Credibility
Credibility
Awritersubstantiatescredibilityinnumerousways.Herearejustafewofthem:
Transparentevidence
Transparencyofevidencemeansthatreadersknowwhereyourevidencecomesfromandcanconfirmor,inthecaseofcalculations,duplicateit.
Useoftrustedsources
Yourevidencecomesfromorisbasedonsourcestheaudiencetrusts,suchascompanydocumentsorexternalsourcessuchaswellknownbusiness
databases.
Endorsementbyatrustedindividualorgroup
Someonetheaudiencerespectssupportsyourpointofviewortheusefulnessofcommunicatingit.
Objectivity
Youdon'tbetrayabiastowardaparticularpointofview.Youearnitwithaconvincingargument.

Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Felipehasacrucialcharacterasset:HehassavedTechMusicaagreatdealofmoney.Everyoneknowsthatandhasesteemforhim.
Hecanbuildonthatstrongbasewithastrongargument,knowledgerelevanttothesituationthecompanyfindsitselfin,andskilledwriting.
Felipeisn'tanexpertonmarketingordealingwithtroublesinthesupplychain.Tocompensate,hecan"borrow"theexpertiseoftheseniorvice
presidentofmarketingandtheNikeexecutive.

OrganizingtheMemo
OrganizingtheMemo
Thetemplatesfororganizingpersuasiveargumentshelpplanthecontentandorganizationofamessage.
Asaplanningtool,thetemplatestellthewriterthetypesofcontentneededforanargument.Asanorganizingtool,templatesguidethewriterinarranging
theargumentinalogicalorder.
Readerslikepredictabilityintheorganizationofawrittenmessageanddislikeunpredictability.Structurehelpsreadersmakepredictionsaboutwhatwill
comenextinthetext,tolocatekeyideas,andtorememberwhattheyhavereadastheyprogressthroughamessage.

Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Felipetakesafinallookatthewritingplanandmakeschoicesaboutthecriteriaandtheconclusion.
MyPersuasiveMemo:Criteria
StatetheCriteria
NowIhavetomakeafinaldecisionontheorderofthecriteria.I'mwonderingwhethertoputcostsfirstbecauseit'sgoingtobethefirstthingonEstela's
mindandtheCEO'sifthisissuegetsthatfar.ButIcan'tmakeastrongargumentaboutcostwithoutfirstshowingthemarketingconsequencesofthe
problemwewillpayahighfinancialcostforlostcustomersandbrandintegrity.
Themarketingargumenthastocomebeforethecostsargument.Theargumentaboutlegalliabilitycancomeaftermarketingbecauseit'slesslikelyto
occurandwouldprobablyhavelessfinancialimpactonthecompanythanthemarketingproblem.
IhaveethicsasthefirstcriterionandI'mgoingtokeepitthere.First,itprovidestheplatformfordescribingthefactorylaborpracticesandworking
conditions,whichhavetobeestablishedtomaketheotherargumentswork.Second,itmaybetheeasiestargumenttomake.I'mnearlycertainthat
HumbertoandEstelawillbothagreewiththeassumptionsaboutethicsIteasedoutearlier.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo(Continued)

Here'shiscompletewritingplan.Atthispoint,ithasalotofdetail,whichshouldallowFelipetowritethedraftquickly.
MyPersuasiveMemo:FinalWritingPlan
1.StatetheDecision
WeneedtorespondtothediscoveryofunderageworkersandpoorworkingconditionsattheGuangdongfactoryofourprincipalChinesevendor.
2.StatetheDecisionOptions
Takecorrectiveaction.
Donothing.
Changevendors.
3.StateMyRecommendation
OurcompanyneedstoimprovelaborpracticesandworkingconditionsatthefactoryofourmainChinesevendor.
4.StatetheCriteria

Ethics
Marketing
Legalliability
Costs
5.ProvetheRecommendedDecision
Ethics
Descriptionoffactorylaborpracticesandpooranddangerousworkingconditions
Vendorviolatingourethicalvalues
Marketing
Lossofsales
LaborabusesaroundtheworldarefrequentlyexposedinformationisdistributedontheInternetandsocialmedialike
Twitter,Facebook,andTumblr.
OurcustomersareheavyusersoftheInternet,andsocialmedia.
Theylearnofabusesinourvendor'sfactory.Theymaybesensitiveenoughtolaborpracticeissuestochangetheirbuying
behavior.
Iftheybuyfromcompetitors,ourbrandisdamaged.
Welosesales.
Analogy:Nike
Marketingdepartmentsupportsargument
Inlongrun,useethicstoenhanceourbrand?
Legalliability
Lawsagainstchildlabor,sweatshopconditions
Riskofenforcementandbadpublicity
Lawsuits
Costs
Havesavedupto30percentonoutsourcedmanufacturing
Usesomeofsavingsfromeliminatingmiddleman
Cankeepcostofimprovingconditionslow
Betterworkingconditionsshouldresultinbetterefficiency
6.RebuttheOtherOptions
Changevendors.
Donothing.
7.Conclusion
QuoteoftheNikeexecutive:Notrespondingtopoorworkingconditionsinsupplychainisirresponsible.

Drafting
Drafting
Whenyouwriteadraftofapersuasivemessage,attendingtologicalargument,audiencefeelings,andtherepresentationofyourcharacteristoomuchtodo
atthesametime.Thesolutionistoseparatethesetasks.
First,writetheargument.Letitbethefocusinthefirstdraft.Second,asyourevise,lookforopportunitiestoembedinthemessageemotionandpositive
impressionsofyou.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

ReadthefirstdraftofFelipe'spersuasivememo.
FelipesPersuasiveMemo:FirstDraft

OpeningofaPersuasiveMessage
OpeningofaPersuasiveMessage
Likeaninformativemessage,apersuasivemessageshouldopenwithabriefdescriptionoftheissueandwhyit'simportant.Inaddition,atornearthe
beginning,thewriter'sconclusionabouttheissueshouldbestated.Thetypeofconclusiondependsontheargumenttemplateused:
Diagnosis:adefinitionoftheproblemandsummaryofthemajorcauses
Evaluation:astatementoftheoverallevaluation
Decision:astatementoftherecommendeddecision
Businessaudiencesinlowcontextcultureswanttoknowwhatthewriterthinksassoonaspossible.Anaudiencethatdoesntknowthepointofa
persuasivemessagecantbeginbuildingamentalpictureforunderstandingit.
Nevertheless,culturalfactorscantrumpstatingtheconclusionfirst.AgivenculturemightnotfollowthenormsofU.S.businessEnglish.
Theculturemightfavorgraduallyleadingthereadertotheconclusionornotwantthewritertostateitexplicitlyanywhereinthemessage,leavingthe
readertoinferit.Youmustworkwiththenormsoftheaudience,nottrytoimposenormsonthem.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Felipethinksthattheopeningparagraphhewroteforthedraftintroducestheissueclearlyandconcisely.Hemullsoveraddingasecondparagraphto
theopeningabouttheNikesituation.
Aprincipleofreadingisthatexplicitconnectionstoreaders'priorknowledgeaidtheircomprehensionandretention.Relatingyourmessagetowhat
readersalreadyknowenhancestheeasewithwhichtheyunderstanditandhelpsthemtorememberitforlongerperiodsoftime.
Aprincipleofreadingisthatexplicitconnectionstoreaderspriorknowledgeaidtheircomprehensionandretention.Relatingyourmessagetowhat
readersalreadyknowenhancestheeasewithwhichtheyunderstanditandhelpsthemtorememberitforlongerperiodsoftime.EstelaandHumberto
shouldbothremembertheNikesituationandsimilarrecentexperiencessuchasApples.
Readthedraftofthememosopening.
FelipesPersuasiveMemo:Opening

ConclusionofaPersuasiveMessage
ConclusionofaPersuasiveMessage
Thequestiontoaskabouttheconclusionofapersuasivemessageisthis:
Whatisthefinalthoughtyouwanttoleavewiththereader?
Thereaderisntgoingtoremembermanyofthedetailsofyourmessage,whichiswhyawrittenmessagecanbesouseful.Writingwasthefirstportable
memorydevice,apermanentrecordthattheaudiencecanconsultwhenevernecessary.Evenso,theendofamessageisachancetobookmarkitinthe
audience'smemory.
Avividrestatementoftheconclusioncancomeintheformofaquotation,apositivecommentaboutthefuture,ananalogyormetaphortheseareafew
ideasforendingapersuasivemessageonamemorablenote.
Aconclusioncanbeusedtosummarizethemessage.Thetraditionaladviceaboutbusinesscommunicationis:

Tellthemwhatyou'regoingtodo,doit,andtellthemwhatyoujustdid.
Thisformulacanyieldboringmessages,butthefinalpartofitisusefulwhenapersuasivemessageislongorcomplicated.Conciselysummarizingan
argumenthelpsthereaderretainamemoryofit.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Fortheconclusion,FelipehassavedaquotationfromaNikeexecutivethatheusedintheinformativememo.ThequotationsayswhatFelipecan't:that
disavowinganyconnectiontotheproblemisirresponsible.SayingitwouldmakeFelipelookarrogantandpresumptuous.Thewordsofamanagerwho
dealtwithasimilarsituationhaveimmediateauthorityandcredibility.

FelipesPersuasiveMemo:Conclusion

AsFelipewaspreparingtofinishtheseconddraft,hereceivestwomorecommunications.
AnassistanttothefactoryownerwhospeaksEnglishsendsFelipeanemailonbehalfoftheowner.TheownerhasheardthatFelipehadconcernsabout
hisfactory.HeinsiststhatFelipedoesnotunderstandChinaorChineseworkers.Theworkersdon'tmindthefactoryconditionsorneedtobecoddled
likewesternworkers.TheowneriscontactingtheCEOofTechMusicatodemandthatsomeonemoreexperiencedthanFelipemanagetherelationship
withthefactory.
Felipehasn'ttalkedabouthisconcernswithanyoneatthevendorandhadnoideahowtheownerhadlearnedaboutthem.Iftheownercontactsthe
CEO,FelipeisafraidtheCEOwillthinkthatheispursuingtheissueonhisown,withoutauthorizationfromTechMusicamanagement.Toavoidahitto
hiscredibility,hewillhavetosaysomethinginthememotomakeclearthathehasn'ttakenmattersintohisownhands.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo(Continued)

AnagentforanotherChinesefactoryownerschedulesaSkypeconference.Felipehasvisitedthisfactory,whichmakespartsforsomeoftheirMP3
players.TheagentsaystheownerisbuildinganewplantandwantsallofTechMusicasmanufacturingbusiness.Hecanguaranteealowerpricethan
anyoftheirotherChinesevendorsandanicefactorywithmanyworkercomforts.Feliperemembersthattheconditionsatthisplantweresomewhat
betterthanthoseatGuangdong.
TheownersemailmessagediscouragesFelipe.TheownerscomplaintsmightmaketheCEOhardertoconvince.TheSkypepresentationsuggeststo
FelipethatothersalsoknowhisworriesaboutthevendorinChina.ThatcouldleadtomoreattemptstocontactTechMusicasseniorexecutivesbefore
Felipefinishesthememo.
Andsoonhehearsfromanotherindividual,afriendofhisinTechMusicasmanufacturinggroup.HetextsthefollowingmessagetoFelipe:
Bettertostartwithnewvendor.Easier,maybecheaperthantryingtochangeGuangdongfactory.
Felipewondersabouthisfriendsmotivation.Isheworriedthatwranglingwiththecurrentvendorwilldisruptproductionschedulesandcausedelays?
Feliperealizeshenolongercontrolstheissueandneedstofinishhismemosoontoavoidbeingdrownedoutorpreempted.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo(Continued)

Felipe'srevisionnotescallformanychangesinthedraftfarmorethanheanticipated.Theprocessofsiftingthroughpotentialrevisionsandusing
someofthemtoguidetherewritingentailedalotofworknevertheless,hebelievesthememoisbetterforit.
ReadtheseconddraftofFelipe'spersuasivememo.Whenyoufinish,explorethechangesthathavebeenmade.Themostnoteworthyrevisionsare
highlighted.
FelipesPersuasiveMemo:SecondDraft

RevisingtheDraft
RevisingtheDraft
Herearekeypointsaboutrevisingpresentedpreviouslyinthecourse:
Readthedraftfromtheaudience'spointofview.
Concentrateonthecontent,organization,andtoneofthedraft.
Bewillingtomakemajorchangesifnecessary.
Setasidethefirstdraftforadayormoreifpossible.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Felipe'smemoisveryimportanttohimandtothefutureofTechMusica.Feedbackfromotherscanbeveryinstructiveinputforrevising.Itcanbe
frustratingifthefeedbackiscursory,unconstructive,orrequiresamajorreworkingofthedraft.
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo(Continued)

Felipesendshisdrafttoafriendinthecompany,ChenfeiGuo,theTechMusicasalesrepresentativewhocoversEastAsia.Eventhoughsheisn'tpartof
theintendedaudience,Felipethinksshecanprovideknowledgeablefeedback.Sherepliesinanemail.

To:Felipe
From:Chenfei
Subject:Feedbackonyourmemo
AtoughissueIthinkyoumakeaprettygoodcase.Idonotliketosee12yearoldgirlsworkinginafactoryorworkers'healthendangered.
Weshoulddosomethingagreed.Buttakealookattheissuefromtheotherside.Wetellthefactoryownersthatwewantlowcostswesaycut,cut,cut.
Whatdotheownersdo?Cutcorners.Idonotlikethecornerstheycut,butIunderstandwhytheydoit.
SuppliersinChinacompetehardtokeepcustomers.CompaniesoutsourcingtoChinawalkawayfromvendorswhentheygetslightlylowercosts
somewhereelse.Nosuchthingasloyalty!Soagain,ownersbelievetheyhavetolowercostsanywaytheycan.
Hopethishelps.Sendmequestionsanytime.
Chenfei
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo(Continued)

Chenfei'sFeedbackonFelipe'sDraft
FelipehaswrittenwhathethinksisagooddraftbutnowhasinputfromChenfeithathethinkscantbeignored.
WhenFelipesentthedrafttoChenfei,hedidntexpecthertochangehisviewoftheissue.Now,inadditiontoherfeedback,hehasanangryfactory
owner,anagentpossiblytryingtotakeadvantageofthesituation,andafriendwithadifferentopinionaboutwhattodo.
ReadFelipesnotesforrevisinghisfirstdraft.
FelipesPersuasiveMemo:RevisionNotes
Exercise:ConsideringNewInformationBeforeRevising

EditingandCorrecting

EditingandCorrecting
Editingsentencesandcorrectingmistakesarethefinalstepsinmakingawrittenmessagereadyfortheaudience.Thisworkcanbetediousandwritersoften
hurrythroughitbecauseofaloomingdeadline.
Buteditingandcorrectingareworthdoingright.Confusedsentencesslowthereaderdown,andgrammarmistakesandothererrorssuchasmisspellings
rapidlyerodeyourcredibility.

Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

Felipepaidsomeattentiontosentenceeditingwhenhewasrevising,butheisgoingtotakealastlookatsentencestomakesuretheyareclear,concise,and
grammatical.Onemistakehewillbealertforishistendencytoputacommabetweentwosentencesinsteadofaperiodorsemicolon.
He'llrunthespellchecktoolandthencarefullyreadthefinaldraftformistakesspellcheckdoesn'tflag,punctuation,andmechanicssuchascorrect
capitalization.
Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo:NotesforEditingandCorrecting
Example:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo

ResponsetoFelipe'sPersuasiveMemo
FelipetalksaboutHumberto'sandEstela'sreactiontohispersuasivememoandthenextstepheneedstotake.
Lookingback,Felipeisamazedattheamountofworkhe'sputintothememo.Heanticipatedmakingaquickoutlineandlargelyrecyclingthecontentof
theinformativememo.Thefactsaccumulatedforthefirstmemowerecrucialtothesecondmemo,too,butoutliningtheargument,fillingitin,and
makingthemanyadjustmentstoittookfarmoretimethanheexpected.
Hischangingsenseofthetopicandaudiencedrovemostoftheunanticipatedwork.HiscolleagueChenfeiopenedthedoortoanotherdimensionofthe
problemthelongtermeffectsofrelentlesscostcuttingthathewasunawareof.Thefactoryowner,agent,andhiscolleaguefrommanufacturinghadless
impactthanChenfei,buttheymadeFeliperealizethatthesituationhewaswritingaboutwaschangingevenashewroteaboutit.Thatspurredhimto
finishthememoquickly.
Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo:FinalDraft

WritingActionPlans
WritingActionPlans
Anactionplantranslatesthoughtintoaction.Itisacoordinatedsetofactionsdesignedtoachieveadesiredendstate.Anargumentforadecision,an
evaluation,oradiagnosisusuallyrequiressomekindoffollowupaction.
Asimpleactionplaninvolvingonlyafewstepsmightnotbewrittendown,butforalongerplan,writingisnecessarysothattheaudiencecanvetitandpeople
canfollowitaccurately.
ActionPlans
Anexecutivecallsanactionplan"anextremelypowerfulalignmenttool."
Example:ActionPlanforSafety

Inthelate1990s,theU.S.ConsumerProductSafetyCommissionannouncedanewsafetystandardforallterrainvehicles(ATVs)tocutthenumberof
childreninjuredorkilledwhileoperatingthem.ManufacturerslikeHondahadtowriteactionplanslayingoutthestepstheywouldtaketocomplywiththe
newregulation.
Withoutmanufactureractionplans,thenewsafetystandardwouldhavenoeffectontheproblemitwasdesignedtosolve.

InformativeCommunicationasActionPlans
InformativeCommunicationasActionPlans
Twotypesofinformativecommunicationcanbeactionplans:informationorganizedasachronologyorasaprocess.Hereareexamplesofchronologicaland
processcommunicationthatdeliveractionplans.

Organization
Chronology
Process

Definition
Timesequence
Orderofsteps
leadingtoan
outcome

Example
Areportthatdescribeseachstepofaprojectschedule
Trainingsoftwarethatdescribesandexplainsthestepsofanaudit
process

Example:FromInformationtoAction

LetssaythatyouareaprojectmanagerandyouarewritinganactionplanforcomplyingwiththeATVstandardsmentionedearlier.Thegoaloftheplanis
tomeetthenewsafetystandards.Itwillconsistofaseriesofactionsinchronologicalorder.
February12
1.Setsafetystandardsforenginesizeandageofoperator.
July1
2.Beginmonitoringdealersforcompliancewithsafetystandards.
Bothstepswillneedadditionaldetail.
Anexampleofaprocessisaninternalaudit.Acompanymanualoutlinestheprocess,beginningwiththesesteps:
1. Theauditorsendsadocumentinformingadepartmentoftheaudit.
2. Theauditorplanstheprocess.
3. Theauditorholdsameetingwithpeopleinthedepartmenttodiscusstheprocess.
Thesestepswillneedtobefilledoutwithmoredetails.

ArgumentDrivenActionPlans
ArgumentDrivenActionPlans
Businessargumentshaveconsequencesforaction.Thethreetypesofargumentdiagnosis,decision,andevaluationprovidethebasisfordifferenttypesof
actions.

Typeof
Argument

ActionPlanGoal

ActionPlanExample

Diagnosis

Correctaproblem.

Fixchronicoutagesinthecompanycomputernetwork.

Evaluation

Capitalizeon
positiveseliminateorreduce
negatives.

Improveanindividualscapabilitiesbasedona
performanceevaluation.

Decision

Implementdecision.

Detailhowacompanywillinstallthenewmachineryithas
decidedtobuy.

Example:FromDiagnosistoAction

Trafficengineersmonitortheaccidentratesofroadsandintersections,andperformsafetyanalysesofintersectionswhereanunusualnumberofaccidents
occur.Iftheyfindthattheincreaseinaccidentsisntrandom,theywriteadiagnosisofthecauses.
Whentheengineersunderstandthecauses,theycancorrectthem.Theiractionwillimprovesafety.Thepriorityworkisaimedatthecausesmost
responsiblefortheelevatedaccidentrate,forexample,removingobstructionsthatblocktheviewofatrafficsign.Alongertermactionisaredesignofthe
intersectionrequiringsignificantconstructionwork.
Example:Felipe'sActionPlan

FelipespersuasivememoconvincedHumbertoandEstela.NeitherFelipenorHumbertoknewthatEstelahadstartedtoworrytwoyearsearlieraboutthe
factory.Shehadaskedthecompanysformermiddlemanquestionsaboutfactoryconditionsandreceivedonlyvagueassurancesthattherewereno
problems.
BeforesheturnsthememoovertotheCEO,Miguel,andmeetswithhim,EstelaasksFelipetowriteanactionplanthatimplementsthedecision.
Intheabsenceofaformalplan,thecompanywouldbelesslikelytoimprovethesituationbecauseactionswouldn'tbetargetedatspecificgoalsormight
duplicateorinterferewitheachother.Inaworstcasescenario,thecompanymightnotactatallwithoutablueprinttofollow.

BasicElementsofanActionPlan
BasicElementsofanActionPlan
Anactionplanhasthesefourelements:
Goals
Relevantcontent
Specificactions
Chronologicalorder

Goals
Goals
Anactionplanislikeanyothercommunication:Itneedsapurpose.Actionplangoalssummarizeitspurpose.Awaytothinkaboutthegoalsistoimagine
themajorfeaturesoftheoutcomeorendstateyouwanttoachieve.
Actionplangoalsshouldaddressalloftheimportantissuesintheargument.Afewbroadergoalsarebetterthanalargenumberofnarrowerones.Many
smallgoalsmakeanactionplanhardertowriteandcausetheplantobecomeunfocused.
Example:Felipe'sActionPlan

Felipewritesdownthecharacteristicsoftheendstatehewants:
Stopchildlaborassoonaspossible.
Lookforothervendors.
Stopexposuretotoxicchemicals.
Improveotherworkingconditions.
Protectourcompanyfrombadpublicity.
Keepcoststoourcompanylow.
Createavendorcodeofconduct.
Example:Felipe'sActionPlan(Continued)

Thelistincludesactionsaswellasgoals,andFelipecrossesofftheactions,leavingthesegoals:
Stopchildlaborassoonaspossible.
Stopexposuretotoxicchemicals.
Improveotherworkingconditions.
Keepcoststoourcompanylow.
Createavendorcodeofconduct.
Stoppingexposuretotoxicmaterialsandstoppingtheuseofchildlaborarethemosturgentgoals.Improvingotherworkingconditionscantakeplace
gradually,andcreatingavendorcodeofconductrequirestimetowrite,receiveapprovalfromseniormanagement,andimplement.
Felipethenwriteshisgoals:
1. Stopexposuretotoxicchemicalsandtheuseofchildlabor.
2. Improvetheplantworkingconditionsatreasonablecost.
3. Establishavendorcodeofconductandauditprocess.

RelevantContent
RelevantContent
Eachstepofanactionplanconsistsofrelevantcontent.Relevanceisdeterminedbythecontentoftheargument.
Example:RelevanceinanActionPlan

Letsreturntotheexampleofthetrafficsafetyengineers.Asmentionedpreviously,oneoftheirjobsismonitoringaccidentratesatintersectionsand
diagnosingcauseswhentheyfindanabnormallyhighnumberofaccidents.
Anactionplanprovidesthepathtofixingthecausesofadangerousintersection.Theplanshouldcorrectthecauses,suchasthehedgethatblocksthe
viewofnorthbounddriversturningleft.Ontheotherhand,itshouldnotincludeactionsthathavenothingtodowiththecauses,suchasreplacing
cementcurbswithgranite.
Example:Felipe'sActionPlan

Felipesdecisionargumenthasfourcriteria:ethics,marketing,legalliability,andcost.Thecontentofhisargumentprovidesafoundationforaction:
Ethics
AllowingavendortousechildlaborandexposeworkerstopotentiallyfatalmaterialsisethicallyrepellenttoFelipeandhisaudience.Therefore,the
actionplanshouldhavestepstoeliminatebothpracticesassoonaspossible.
Marketing

AssociationwithchildlaboranddangerousworkingconditionsaddsuptoapotentialmarketingdisasterintheInternetage.Thisreinforcesthe
needtoeliminateorimprovetheconditions.
LegalLiability
UsingchildlaborisagainstthelawinChina.Evenifthelocalauthoritieschoosenottoenforcethelaw,thecompanycanbeseenascomplicitinlegal
violations.TechMusicaneedstotellthefactoryownerthathemustreplaceunderageemployees.
Cost
Despitethepoweroftheargumentsdevelopedwiththeothercriteria,thecompanycan'tspendhugesums.Felipe'sactionplanhastoberealistic
aboutthecoststhecompanycanbearandproposelowcost,highimpactchanges.

SpecificActions
SpecificActions
Theactionplanstepsdescribeactions.Eachstepanswersthesethreequestions:
1.Whatneedstobeaccomplished?
Theendresultofthestep.
2.Whowilldoit?
Theindividualswhowilldothework.
3.Whatarethenecessarytasks?
Theworktheindividualshavetodotocompletethestep.
Anactionplanisn'thelpfulifthestepsarevaguelywritten.Astepshouldtellanaudiencewhattheyneedtoknowinordertocarryitout.
Example:Felipe'sActionPlan

Felipecouldwriteanactionplansteplikethis:
Eliminateworkers'exposuretotoxicmaterials.
Butthisstatementdoesn'tsayhowthehazardwillbeeliminated.Tomakethestatementmoremeaningful,heshouldprovidedetailslikethese:
Weneedtotellthefactoryownerthatcertainpracticeshavetobechangedassoonaspossibletokeepourbusiness.EstelaandIshouldmeet
withhimtodeliverthatmessageandexplainthatourethicalvaluesarebeingviolatedandweareriskingamarketingdisasterthatcoulddo
greatdamagetoourbusiness.
Wealsoneedtotellhimthatourmosturgentpriorityisprovidingtheproperprotectiontoeveryonewhoworksaroundmoltenleadandlead
paint.Wecanprovidefinancialassistancetobuythenecessaryequipment.

SpecificActions:WritingProcess
SpecificActions:WritingProcess
Writingadraftofanactionplaninvolvestwodistinctdimensions:
Creatingacomprehensivesetofactionsthatachievesthegoals
Arrangingtheactionsinalogicalorder
Toeasethedraftingofaplan,don'ttrytodobothatthesametime.Breaktheworkintoaseriesofsteps:
1. Listactionstepsintheorderyouthinkofthem.
2. Reviewthelistandaddmissingstepsanddeletesuperfluousones.
3. Arrangetheminalogicalsequence.
4. Editthedescriptionsoftheactions,clarifyingthem,expandingvagueones,andpruningoverlydetailedones.
Example:Felipe'sActionPlan

HerearesomestepsthatFelipewritesdownrelatedtothefirstgoal:Stopexposuretotoxicchemicalsandtheuseofchildlabor.
Note:whenFelipewriteshisfinaldraft,hewillusethethirdperson("Felipe")insteadofthefirstperson("I")becausetheplaniswrittenforall
oftheparticipantsincludedintheplan.Forexample,themembersoftheteamwritingavendorcodeofconductmightbeconfusedaboutwho"I"
is.
Estelanotifiestheplantownerthatweurgentlyneedtomeetwithhimaboutfactoryworkingconditions.
Iwillmakealistoffactoryproblemsthatcanbecorrectedquicklywithoutmajorexpense.Iwillaskmanufacturingtohelpestimatecoststobe
suretheyarereasonable.
IwilltraveltoGuangdongandmeetwiththeownerathisoffice.Estelacan'ttakethetimetotraveltoChina,soshecanparticipatethrough
Skype.
Telltheownerthatcertainpracticesmustbechangedassoonaspossibletokeepourbusiness.Ourethicalvaluesarebeingviolated,andweriska
marketingdisaster.Also,wecan'tbecomplicitinbreakingChineselaws.
Ourmosturgentpriorityisprovidingtheproperprotectiontoeveryonewhoworksaroundmoltenleadandleadpaint.Wearewillingtosubsidize
protectivegearforendangeredworkers.(Ineedcostestimatesfrommanufacturingoravendorofprotectiveequipment.)
Ournextpriorityistophaseoutunderagelabor.

ChronologicalOrder
ChronologicalOrder
Actionplansarecalledplansinsteadoflistsforareason:Theyprovidestepbystepdirectionsthatpeoplecanfollow.Thatmeansargumentbasedaction
plansmustbeinchronologicalorder.
Splittingtheplanintoshorttermandlongtermstepsassistsincoordinatingthestepsintime,promptingthewritertodecidewhichstepsshouldbe
completedsoonandwhichshouldbecompletedlater.
Shorttermstepsare:
Urgent
Easy
Necessaryforlongtermsteps
Longtermstepsare:
Hardtoachieveand/orcomplex
Timeconsumingtocomplete
Dependentonpriorsteps
Exercise:RecognizingShortTermandLongTermSteps
Example:Felipe'sActionPlan

Felipeseesthathisgoalsshouldindicatewhentheycanbeachieved.Herearehisthoughtsontiming.
1. Stopexposuretotoxicchemicalsandtheuseofchildlabor.
Eliminatingtoxicexposurehastohappenquickly.Makingsuretheplantusesworkersoflegalagewilltakesignificanttime.Wedontwantto
throwthechildrenoutofworksuddenly.Planningwillberequiredtomakethetransitiongosmoothly.Thisisalongtermgoal.
2. Improvetheplantworkingconditionsatreasonablecost.
Wecanmaketheimprovementsoverseveralmonths,sothisisashorttermstep.
3. Establishavendorcodeofconductandimplementanauditprocess.
Thisisdefinitelyalongtermstep.Thecodeofconductwilltakesometimetowriteandimplementingitwilltakelonger.
NowFelipearrangesthestepsinhisactionplandraftinchronologicalorder.Hestartswiththemosturgentactionsandendswiththosethatwilltake
themosttimetoaccomplish.
Felipe'sActionPlan

Epilogue:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo
Epilogue:Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo
Felipe'smemoandactionplanwenttotheCEO,whoagreedthattheproblemwasrealandconsequential.ButFelipefearsthatheisdragginghisfeet
conversationsamongtheseniorexecutivescontinue,butnothinghasbeenannounced.ThemarketinggrouphasbeentellingtheCEOthatmediareports
aboutthefactorycouldappearatanytime.
Nevertheless,Felipe'scommunicationhasputtheissueonthetableandshapedthediscussionaboutit.Thetraditionalviewofpersuasionmeasuresitas
eithersucceedingorfailingtogaintheintendedaudienceeffect.Bythatmeasure,Felipe'smemohasnotsucceededbecauseithasn'tyetwonoverthe
ultimatedecisionmakerinthesituation,theCEO.Butintherealworldofbusiness,Felipeunderstandsthatpersuasionoftenworksslowlyand
incrementally.
Hehashighhopesbutcan'tbesurethecompanywillaccepthisconclusionabouttheGuangdongfactory.Nevertheless,he'sdonesomethingimportantfor
TechMusicasimplybybringingtheissueintotheopenand,throughhismemo,givinghiscolleaguesabasisfortalkingaboutit.

ShortFormWriting
ShortFormWriting
Shortformcommunicationincludesalltypesoftextbaseddigitalcommunicationsuchas:

Email
Wikis
Blogs

Texting
Instant
Messaging
Twitter

Facebook
Tumblr

Theuseofthesemediahasexploded.Accordingtorecentestimates4,eachdaythedigitalcommunicationofanaverageuserincludes:
115businessemails(notincludingspammessages)receivedeachday
53instantmessages(IMs)sentorreceivedeachday
10textsreceivedorsenteachday
3Facebookupdateseachday
Lessthan1Tweeteachday
Thesenumbersdon'tcompletelyrepresentthevolumeofdigitalcommunication.In2012,400millionpeopleusedFacebookeachday.Socialnetworking
sitessuchasFacebook,Twitter,LinkedIn,andsimilarwebservicescontinuetoattractusers,sousageshouldgrow.Businessuseofsocialmediaisafactorin
theirgrowth.

Email
Email
Emailhasbecomethebasicmediumofbusinesscommunicationworldwide.By2013,anestimated1.9billionpeoplewilluseemail.Inaglobalized
businessworld,emailisindispensibleforcommunicatingacrosstimezones.
EmailsandGlobalAudiences
EntrepreneurandexecutiveElisabethBentelCarpentersharesherthoughtsonemailcommunicationandfarflungteams.

Strengths
Strengths
Emailhasfiveessentialstrengthsforbusinessesitisfast,simple,asynchronous,portable,andefficient.
Fast
Messagescanbesentandreceivedquickly,essentiallyinstantaneously.Becausemessagesareoftenshort,recipientscanreadthemquickly.
Simple
Emailapplicationsareeasytouse.
Asynchronous
Amessagecanbesentanywhereintheworld,nomatterhowlargethetimedifferenceis.
Portable
Cellphones,tablets,andotherportabledevicescanrunemailapplications,makingemailcommunicationpossibleanywhere,anytime.
Efficient
Manyemailmessagesareshortanddoawaywithtelephonetag,allowingpeopletocommunicatewhentheyaren'tinthesameroomatthesame
time.Withemail,itisasthoughpeoplearealwaysinthesameroom!

Weaknesses
Weaknesses
Emailhasweaknessesthatcompaniesarenowstartingtorecognize.Forsenders,theweaknesseshaveimplicationsforwriting.
LimitedMessageLength
Sometopicsneedlongermessages.Theshortformmediumcanencourageawritertocondensethemessage,leavingoutcrucialcontent.
HastyWriting
Emailstimulatesafeelingofurgencyinusers,encouragingthemtowritehastily.Thatmaybewhysomanyemailsarebadlywrittenandfullof
errors.
DigitalDisinhibition

Psychologistshaveconfirmedthatpeoplearevulnerabletowhattheycalldigitaldisinhibitionwhenusingemail.Thetermmeanssayingthingsin
anemailthatthewriterwouldneversayiftherecipientwerephysicallypresent.
Peoplearewiredtomonitoroneanother'sreactionsandtoadjustfacialexpression,body,gestures,andspeech.Peoplereceivenoneofthat
informationwhencomposinganemailmessage.Asaresultit'seasyforwriterstosaythingstheylaterregret.
Example:FastandUnfortunate

Thewriterofthefollowingmessagewasinahurry.HeneededthehelpofhiscolleagueLorainavitalmeetinglaterthatday.Imaginethatyou
receivedtheemail.Howwouldyoureadit?
To:Lora
From:Jon
Subject:Teammeetingtoday
Pleasedonotbelateforthemeetingthisafternoon.
LoracouldreadtheterseemailasimplyingJondidnttrusthertobeontime.Withalittleforethought,Joncouldhavewrittenamessagewithno
potentialformisunderstanding.
To:Lora
From:Jon
Subject:Teammeetingtoday
Ireallyneedyouattodaysmeeting.Youllbethemostknowledgeablepersonintheroom.Thankyouverymuchfortakingthetimetobepresent.
Example:DigitalDisaster

ThefollowingemailmessageisbasedonarealmessagethataCEOsenttoallmanagersinacompany.Themessagewasleakedtothemediaandthe
companybecameembroiledinapubliccontroversythatincludedadeclineinsharepriceandunhappyshareholders.
Rollovermessagehighlightsforcomments.
Wearegettinglessthan40hoursofworkfromalargenumberofourEMPLOYEES.Theparkinglotissparselyusedat8a.m.likewiseat5p.m.As
managers,youeitherdonotknowwhatyourEMPLOYEESaredoingoryoudonotCARE.Ineithercase,youhaveaproblemandyouwillfixitorI
willreplaceyou.
Thefirstsentenceofthemessagemakesanaccusation.Itisalsotheconclusionofanargument.Thesecondsentencestatestheevidenceforthe
conclusion.
Capitallettersinanemailarethewrittenequivalentofshouting.
Thissentenceistheevidencefortheargument.TheCEOassumesthatiffewcarsareintheparkinglotatthetimeshecites,employeesarenot
workingfulldays.Doyouagreewithhislogic?
Themessageendswithanaccusationandthreat.TheCEOwouldprobablyfindithardertoaccuseandthreatenifheweremeetingwiththe
managers.

WritingEmailsandSocialMediaPosts
WritingEmailsandSocialMediaPosts
Emailsshouldhavethequalitiesofanybusinesswriting:directness,conciseness,clarity,andlogic.Ashortformmediumheightenstheimportanceof
thequalities.
Thiscoursehasemphasizedthestrongcompetitioninbusinessforpeople'stimeandattention.Yourrecipientmayreceiveahundredormorebusiness
relatedmessagesaday,butyouwantyourstoberead.
HereareGuidelinesforWritingSuccessfulEmails:
1. Writeashortsubjectlinestatingthemainpointofthemessage.Thinkofthesubjectlineasaheadline.
2. Stateyourpurposeorconclusionimmediately.
3. Writeconcisely.
4. Useshortsentencesandparagraphs.
5. Createemphasisthroughcontent,notvisualdevices.
6. Checkthetoneofthemessage.
Ifyourmessageisgoingtobelong,youarebetteroffputtingitinadocumentandsendingitasanattachment,usingtheemailtodescribethe
attachmentandencouragetherecipienttoopenit.
CheckYourCommunication
AvniPatelThompsonasksherselfaseriesofquestionsbeforesheclicks"Send."
Resisttheurgetowriteanimportantmessageandsenditimmediately.Emailapplicationsarepoortoolsforcomposingbecausetheinterfaceisfullof
distractionsandthelonglistofmessagescreatespressuretoworkasfastaspossible.Instead,writethemessageinawordprocessingapplication.You're
likelytotakemoretimewithit,includingrevising,editingsentences,andmakingcorrections.
TheGuidelinesforWritingSuccessfulEmailsapplytothebusinessuseofsocialmedia,withtheexceptionofwritingasubjectline.Adifferenceisthat
anemailmessageissenttospecificindividuals,butsocialmediapostscanbeseenbyanyonewithaccessprivileges.
Whenusingsocialmediaforbusiness,readersassumeyourepresentthecompany.Poorwritingnotonlyreflectspoorlyonyoubutalsoonthecompany.
Andmessagescanbecirculatedonothersocialmedia,spreadingtheeffectsofpoorwriting.
Example:WinningtheWarofAttention

Aharriedandstressedmanagerwrotetheemailbelowaboutacriticalmeeting.
To:Distribution
From:ReyUtley
Subject:READTHISEMAILASSOONASPOSSIBLE!
Sincesomeofyoudidnotreadthepreliminarymemocirculatedforcommentlastweek.Iwanttoremindyouthatthedecisionaboutwhethertogo
withthenewprogramisEXTREMELYIMPORTANT.YoumaynotrealizethatwearemakingadecisionforTHECURRENTYEAR,NOTNEXTYEAR!
Idon'tknowhowthewronginformationgotspreadaroundlikethefertilizerIuseonmylawnbutIguessit'sjustanotherexampleofhowour
grapevineismoreefficientthanourofficialchannelsofcommunication.Iwanttonipthingsinthebud.Ifwedon'thandlethisright,wemayhavebig
problemswiththeproductmanagers.ThistimeIwouldlikeEVERYONEtoPLEASEreadtheattachment.Wewillbehavingthemeetingtomorrow,
andwedon'thavetimetogooveralltheinformationinthememo.
Example:WinningtheWarofAttention

Writteninhaste,theemailisdisorganized,hasadisparagingtone(madeworsebytheuseofcapitalletters),anddoesntcommunicatethekey
messagewell.Hereisarevisionthatfollowstheguidelinesforasuccessfulemail.
To:Distribution
From:ReyUtley
Subject:PreparationforTomorrow'sImportantMeeting
Soonwe'llbemakingthedecisionabouttheZornprojectforthecurrentyear.Iwanttohelpyouprepareforitwithoutconsumingalotofyour
time.
Thedecisionwillhavealargeimpactontheproductmanagersandus.We'vebeenbuttingheadswiththeproductmanagers.Asyouknow,they
understandablyhavestrongfeelingsaboutthedecision.Sodowe.Weneedtodoourparttomakesureemotionsdon'truletheroom.Idliketo

keepthediscussionfirmlytiedtothefacts.
Theattacheddocumentbriefsyouonthekeyissuesofthedecision.I'vekeptitshortoutofrespectforyourtime.Pleaseletmeknowifyouhaveany
questions.
Thesubjectlinesaysexactlywhattheemailisabout.
Thenewopeningtellsrecipientsthepurposeofthemessage.
Thesentencesareshortandconciseandsoaretheparagraphs.
Theshortsentenceemphasizesthatbothsideshaveanemotionalinvestment.
Thematteroffactlanguagekeepsthetonefirmbutpositive.Theword"understandably"intheparagraphsignalsthewriter'srespectforthe
otherside.
Exercise:EvaluatinganEmailMessage1

UltraShortForms
UltraShortForms
Innovationsintechnologyhavemadeavailableanincreasingnumberofdigitalcommunicationmediathatdrasticallyrestrictthelengthofmessages.Chat,
texting,instantmessaging,andTwitterarejustafewexamples.
Someoftheseformsgivebusinesspeopletheabilitytoexchangemessagesquicklywithnothingmorethanahandhelddevice.Thecapabilitymakesthese
formsusefulwhenimmediateresponsesareneeded.
Example:BusinessUseofTexting

Canyouthinkofausefortextingineachofthesebusinesses?

Realestate
Chemicalsupply
Drycleaning
Consumerproducts
Couriercompanies

Informclientthatahousehasbeenlistedforsale
Checkinventoryofachemicalinthewarehouse
Notifycustomerthatclothesareready
Informcustomersofspecialoffers
Notifyrecipientofdeliverytime

OtherformslikeTwittercanquicklyputabriefmessageinfrontofmanypeople.Somebusinessexecutivesinprominentcompanieshavehundredsof
thousandsofTwitterfollowers,whichmayincludebothcompanyemployeesandpeopleoutside.Lesswellknownbusinesspeoplecancommunicatewith
colleagues,clients,suppliers,andmanyotherbusinessaudiences.
Companiesmonitormentionsofthemandtheirproductsandservicesonsocialmediaandrespondtopraise,criticism,orquestions.
Ultrashortformsforceconciseness,whichcanmakecommunicationefficient.ThedisadvantageofthemorepublicmediasuchasTwitterandFacebookis
thatmistakesinmessagingcanbereadbyalargeaudience.

WritingUltraShortFormMessages
WritingUltraShortFormMessages
Textinglanguagereducesmessagelengthbyomittingwords,abbreviatingwords(b4handforbeforehand),substitutinglettersforphrases(IDK
forIdon'tknow),andsubstitutingnumbersandsymbolsforwords(2fortoortoo).Withfewsharedconventions,thelanguageofultrashort
formscanvaryfromindividualtoindividual.Thatcarriesthepotentialformiscommunication.
Oftenmessagecondensingpracticesactuallysavefewcharacters.Usingthemmayhavelesstodowithconcisenessthanconfirmingtheuser'sgroup
identityassomeonewhoknowsthecode.Businesspeopleusetextingandotherultrashortformsforsocialpurposesatwork,sharingnews,jokes,
thoughts,andfeelings,butwhenusedforbusinesscontent,themessagesshouldfollowthestandardsofgoodcommunication.
HereareGuidelinesforUltraShortFormCommunication:
1. Stateyourpointsimply.
2. Completesentencesaren'tnecessary,butincludeenoughofasentencetomakethemeaningeasytounderstand.
3. Don'tomitpunctuationandcapitallettersnecessarytounderstandthemessage.
4. Useformatspecificabbreviations(likethosefortexting)onlywhenyouknowtherecipientwillunderstandthem.
5. Don'tforceamessagethatneedsmorethanasentenceortwointoanultrashortform.
Example:WritingUltraShortFormMessageswithClarity

Canyouunderstandthefollowingtextmessage?Typewhatyouthinkthemessagemeansandthenclickthebuttontocomparewiththeanswer.
IMOwshdhldstktilnomoreabtLTWDYT?
Readthemessagewithoutabbreviations.
Inmyopinionweshouldholdthestockuntilweknowmoreaboutthelongterm.Whatdoyouthink?
Thecondensedtextmessageisabouthalfaslongasthefulltextmessage.Iftherecipientunderstandsthecondensedwordsandabbreviations,they
savetimeforthesenderandtherecipient.Iftherecipientdoesntunderstand,textingabbreviationswastethereaderstime.

BlogsandWikis
BlogsandWikis
Therearemillionsofblogsontheweb,rangingfrompersonaldiariestoexpertcommentary.Businessblogsaddressinternalorexternalaudiences.They
areusuallywrittenbyasingleauthorandtendtobepersonalandinformal,withthewriterusingthefirstperson(I).However,theyareoftenusedfor
serioustopicsandcancommunicateahighvolumeofcontent.
Blogstendtobeonewaycommunicationthewriterandaudiencehaveseparateroles.Wikisareonlineplatformsforcollaborativeexchanges.Business
wikiscanberesourcesfordisseminatinginformation,askingquestionsandreceivinganswers,exploringideas,andpersuadingparticipants.Some
corporatewikisallowcustomerstoparticipatewithemployeesintaskssuchascreatingsoftwareusermanuals.
Tobeuseful,abusinessblogshouldhaveawelldefinedpurposeandtargetaudience.Ablogpostshouldbeaswellorganized,concise,andcorrectasa
businessmemoorreport.Wellwrittenblogsmotivatereaderstoreturn.
Emailguidelinesapplytowikiwriting.Thepurposeofawikirequiresefficientandaccuratemessagesandresponsesthatdirectlyaddressthequestions
asked.Likemostsocialmedia,wikisusuallydon'thaveeditorsanddependonuserstomaintainthequalityofcommunication.Theirvaluecanbe
diminishedifuserswritedisorganizedandsloppyentries.

UltraShortForms:InformativeandPersuasive
ShortForms:InformativeandPersuasive
Asaprimarymeansofbusinesscommunication,emailisusedforthesamepurposesotherwrittencommunicationis:informingandpersuading
audiences.
Shortmessagessentandreceivedthroughmobiledevicescandeliversmallamountsofcriticalinformationwhereandwhenneeded.Theycanbeusedto
expressideasandsolicitbriefreactions.Theseformsofcommunicationcanpreventideasfrombeinglostandgettheminfrontofanaudiencefor
feedback.
Shortmessagescanbeusedforpersuasiontoocompactarguments,emotionalappeals,andcharacterplays.Forexample,somerecentresearchinpublic

healthindicatesthattextmessagingraisedparticipationratesinahealthrelatedactivity.Appliedinabusinessorganization,textingmightbeusedto
persuademoreemployeestojoinacompanysponsored401kprogram.
Examples:TextingtoPersuade

Shortmessagescanmakepersuasiveappealsusingreason,emotion,andcharacter.

TextMessage
PrimaryPersuasiveAppeal
XYZInc:flawedbizmodel,
Reason
awful$flow,p/emultiple1000=shortthisstock
Neverbettertimeto
Emotion
shortXYZInc!
Myfirmstillhasbuyon
Character
XYZInc.Badcall.Don'twantyouthrowing$away.
Exercise:WritingMeaningfulShortMessages

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LongFormWriting
LongFormWriting
Shortformcommunicationmaybethedominantformofwrittenbusinesscommunication,butlongerformspersistforgoodreason.Audiencesoften
demandlongmessages.Investorsexpectsubstantialannualreportsandclientswantdetailedproposalsforlargeprojects.
Hereareexamplesoflongformbusinessdocuments.

Informative
Technicalreport
Surveyresultsreport
Constructionstatusreport
10Kreport(filingto
U.S.SecuritiesandExchangeCommission)

Persuasive
Annualreport
Analystreport
Businessproposal
Businessplan

Inbusiness,longformcommunicationmeetsoneormoreoffourconditions:
1. Thesubjectiscomplex.
2. Thestakesarehigh.
3. Theissueiscontroversial.
4. Theaudienceexpectsalargeamountofdetail.
Longbusinessdocumentscanbeinformativeorpersuasive.Theirauthorsfacetwospecialchallenges:
Sustainalogicalorganizationthroughoutalongmessage.
Putlimitsontheamountofdetail.
Thebestpracticesofwritingshortformsapplytolongforms.Goodwritingisgoodwritingnomatterhowmanywordsareinvolved.Themethodsforcreating
andorganizinginformativeandpersuasivemessagesarelikewisethesame.
Longformcommunicationpresentsatradeoff.Itgiveswriterstheopportunitytocoveratopiccomprehensively,butthelongerthedocument,theharderitis
tokeeptheattentionofbusinessaudiences.
Thiscanbeasignificantproblemforlongformpersuasion.Eachpartofwellwrittenpersuasioncontributestothestrengthoftheargument,sothe
persuasiveeffectonthereadercanbeweakenedifthereaderskipsorskimspartsofthemessage.

EngagingYourAudience
EngagingYourAudience
Onoccasion,youwillhavehighlymotivatedreaders,butyourlongermessagescompeteforattentionlikeanyothercommunication.Muchofthat
competitionlikelycomesfromshortformmessages.
Thecompetitionbetweenlongandshortmessagesistiltedtowardthelatter.Recipientsoftencandealwithmanyshortmessagesfairlyrapidly,giving
themasenseofaccomplishment(evenwhenthatsenseismistaken).Thiscanintroduceanaudiencebiasagainstlongermessages,whichobviously
requiremoretimetoreadandthinkaboutandthereforeseemtoreducereaders'productivity.
Asaresult,thewritermustpulltheaudienceintoandthroughalongmessage.Astrongpullatthebeginninggenerallymeanslessneedforitlateron.
Nevertheless,throughoutthemessage,writersneeddowhattheycantoprolongaudienceengagement.

StartwithanOverview
StartwithanOverview
Beginalongdocumentbydescribingthetopic,purpose,andorganizationofthereport.Makingthereaderguessthetopicandpurposeormakingthem
wadethroughpreliminaryremarkstogettothemcreatesabadfirstimpression.Readersdon'toweyoutheirtime.Givethemareasonforreading.
Experimentwithopeningsthatintrigueanddrawinreaders.Forexample,youcanexpressthetopicasapuzzlethatneedsasolutionandintroducethe
majorpieces.Oryoucanuseacontraryopening:Stateaconclusionopposedtoyoursandthensaythatyouaregoingtoshowwhyitiswrong.
Anotherapproachfortheopeningofalongmessageisanexecutivesummary.Anexecutivesummaryprovidesmoreinformationthanthetopic,
purpose,andorganizationitsummarizesthemajorpointsofthewholedocument.
Itslikeanelevatorpitchforalongwrittenmessage.Readersappreciateexecutivesummarieswhentheyarentsureoftheirinterestinthetopic,wanta
detailedpreview,ordonthavetimetoreadthedocumentinfull.Becarefulwhenyouwriteasummary.Anythinglongerthanonesubstantialparagraph
defeatsthepurpose.
Example:ExecutiveSummaryofaReport

ThisistheexecutivesummaryofaneightpagereportthatevaluatespossibleforeigninvestmentinFrance.Ateamofindividualsfromseveral
countrieswrotethedocument.Thesummaryincludesthemajorpointsoftheargumentanditsordermirrorstheorganizationofthereport.
Rolloverthesummaryhighlightsforspecificcomments.
Francehasmanystrengthsandwillremaincompetitiveintheglobalmarket.Indeed,thecountrybenefitsfromalargemarketsize,accesstoother
Europeanmarkets,astrongeducationsystem,significantspendinginresearchanddevelopment,fastandefficienttransportation,andabusiness
friendlytaxationpolicy.DespitetheEuropeandebtcrisis,manyofthecountry'sindustriesareexcelling.Theyincludeenergyproduction,
agriculture,luxurygoods,automobiles,andtourism.Thisreportfocusesonenergyproduction,specificallyrenewableandnuclearenergy,and

agriculture.BothindustriesareagoodfitwithFrance'scurrentbusinessclimatebecauseoftheirresilienceinthefaceofeconomicuncertainty,use
ofnaturalandhumanresources,andbenefitsfromFrance'sgovernmentandbusinesspolicies.
Thissentencespecifiesthecriteriatheteamusedtoevaluatetheoveralleconomy.
Thisstatementletsreadersknowthatthereportconcentratesontwoindustries.
Thepartofthesentencestartingwith'because'makesclearthecriteriausedtoevaluatethetwofavoredindustries.

JustifytheLength
JustifytheLength
Makethecasewhytheaudienceshouldcommittoreadingthedocument.Ineffectyou'repersuadingthereadertoread.Makeanargumentwith
whateverappealsyouthinkwillmotivatereaders.
Exercise:JustifyingLength

WriteConcisely
WriteConcisely
Itmayseemparadoxicaltosaythatalongdocumentshouldbewrittenconcisely,butinefficientwritingandhighwordcountsmakepoorpartners.The
combinationwearsoutreadersthemoretiredtheybecome,themorelikelytheirattentionwillwander.
Conciseandcontentrichwritingallowsreaderstobuildmomentum,pullingthemthroughthetext.
Onceyoucompleteadraft,setitasideforatleastadayandpreferablylonger.Thencutasmuchasyoucanfromitwithoutremovingessentialcontent.
Whenrevising,prunecontenttojustabovetheminimumnecessarytoachieveyourpurposewiththeaudience.Whenediting,takeoutinessential
wordsandsentencesanduseactionverbswheneverpossible.
Youmaybereluctanttocutamessageonwhichyouveworkedsohard.Youmaybeconcernedthattheaudiencewontseewhatyouhavetakenoutand
thereforewontappreciatethefullextentofyoureffort.Buttheaudiencewillappreciatetheworkyouputintomakingalongreportasshortaspossible
andeasytoread.

UseVariety
UseVariety
Longmessagessuchasreportsdonthavetobeformal,stodgyreading.Useyourcreativitytokeepreadersinterested.Lookforrelevantstoriesyoucan
tell.Usevisuals.Findstrikingfacts(besuretheyarerelevanttothetopicandpurpose).Useawidevarietyofsources,includingquotations.
Youmaywanttotryinvolvingtheaudiencemoreactively.Herearesomeways:
Puthyperlinksinthedocumenttowebcontentbutmakecertainthecontentisrelevant.
Insertaudiofilesinthedocument.Youcanrecordagreetingtothereaderoruseaudiotogivemoredetailoncertainpointsforthose
interestedinit.
Askifreadershavequestionsandinvitethemtorespondtoyouwithanemail(whichcanbeembeddedinthetext)orbytexting.
Createa"secret"Facebookgroup(onethatisopentoinvitedmembersonlyanddoesnotshowupinsearches)andhavereaderspostquestions
andresponsesthere.

ProvideVisualizationsofData
ProvideVisualizationsofData
Businesshasmanyconventionsforthedisplayofquantitativeinformation.Thebalancesheet,cashflowstatement,andincomestatement,for
example,allhavespecificformatsforcommunicatingfinancialdata.Readerswhounderstandtheconventionsknowexactlywhatinformationis
includedandwheretofindit.
Whennoconventionexists,however,presentquantitativerelationshipsgraphicallywhenpossible.Formostaudiences,thevisualizationofthese
relationshipsiseasiertocomprehendthantablesofnumbers.Thesameprincipalappliestononquantitativegraphicssuchasflowchartsand
pictures.Visualsattracttheeyeofthereaderandareanothersourceforholdingreaderattention.
Makeyourgraphicsasvisuallyunclutteredaspossible.Simplegraphicssuchastables,charts,andgraphsconveylessinformationthancomplex
ones,buttheycancommunicatetheessentialmeaningofthenumberssothatreadersunderstanditquickly.Simplegraphicsforceyoutodecide
whatmeaningismostimportantforyourreaderstoknow.
Exhibits,includingquantitativegraphicsandothertypesofvisuals,arebestdisplayedclosetothetextthatdiscussesthem.Itseasierforthewriter
toputallexhibitsattheendofthedocument,butthatplacementislessconvenientforreaders.Eachexhibitshouldhaveaconcise,informativetitle.
Inadocumentwithmanyexhibits,theyshouldalsobenumbered.Youshouldrefertoeachexhibitinthetext.Besuretotellreadersthe
significanceofeveryexhibittothetopicyou'rediscussing.Don'tassumetheywillmaketheconnectionthemselves.
Example:VisualizingInformation

ThefollowingtableshowsvaluesfortheannualpercentagechangeinthebookvalueofBerkshireHathawayandintheS&P500overan
elevenyearperiod5.Afteralittlestudy,youcanseethatBerkshirehasconsistentlyoutperformedtheS&P,particularlyindownyearsforthe
S&P.

Year
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011

AnnualPercentageChange
inPerShareBookValueofBerkshire inS&P500withDividendsIncluded RelativeResults
(6.20)
(11.90)
5.70
10.00
(22.10)
32.10
21.00
28.70
(7.70)
10.50
10.90
(0.40)
6.40
4.90
1.50
18.40
15.80
2.60
11.00
5.50
5.50
(9.60)
(37.00)
27.40
19.80
26.50
(6.70)
13.00
15.10
(2.10)
4.60
2.10
2.50

Clickheretoseethesesamenumbersexpressedinalinegraph.
Thegraphmakesthepointmuchfasterthanthetableanditdoessowithoutoverloadingthereadersworkingmemorywithnumbers.

ProvideSignposts
ProvideSignposts

Headingspullreadersthroughalongtextbyallowingthemtotrackthetext'sorganizationandtheirprogressthroughit.Forlongerdocuments,
headingsarecrucial.Theheadingsshouldcorrespondtotheroadmapyouprovidedthereaderatthebeginning.
Evenwithlongdocuments,youshouldusenomorethanthreelevelsofheadings.Alengthyreportmayseemtocallforadeephierarchyofheadings,
sectionnumberingschemes(forexample,numberingparagraphs1,1.1,1.2,andsoon),orboth.
However,themorefrequentlyyoudivideandsubdividethetext,theharderitisforthereadertousethedivisionstounderstandthecontent.The
brainhaslimitedworkingmemory.Largeamountsofcontentandcomplicatedorganizationalschemesputtoomuchstressonit.
Dontforgettwosimplesignposts:pagenumbersandrunningheads.Anybusinessdocumentmorethanapageshouldhavepagenumbers.
Runningheadsareusedinnonfictionbooks,buttheyworkwellinlongerbusinessdocuments.Theyaresmallheadingsintheuppercornerofeach
pagethatcanstatethenameofthesection.

AdditionalElementsofLongMessages
AdditionalElementsofLongMessages
Theaudienceofalongreportcannavigatebetterwhenyouprovideadditionalinformationaboutthedocument.Theinformationincludes:
Titlepage
Thefirstpageofalongdocumentprovidingthedocumenttitle,theauthors,andthedate
Tableofcontents
Givesallmajorsectionsofthedocumentandthepagesonwhichtheybegin
Listofexhibits
Providesthenumbersandtitlesofallexhibitsandthepagesonwhichtheyappear
References
Asectionattheendofthedocumentthatlists,inorder,alloftheinformationsourcesyouhaveused.Therearemanydifferentstylesforcitations,
andorganizationsoftendesignateoneofthemastheirstandard.
Example:ExploringaReport

HereyoucanexploretheinitialpagesofareportontheeffectsofglobalizationonthestateofHawaii.Placeyourcursoroverhighlightedpartsofthe
reportforcomments.
LongFormReport:TheImpactofGlobalizationonHawaii

WritinginTeams
WritinginTeams
Becauseteamsdosomuchoftheworkofmodernorganizations,moreandmorewritingisteambased.Multipleauthorsenrichadocumentwiththeir
differentknowledge,experience,andskills,buttheyalsocomplicatethewritingprocess.
Whenateamtakesresponsibilityforwriting,theymustagreeonandunderstandthepurpose.Aswithanyworkdoneinteams,thewritingofa
documentcandivergeswiftlywhentheauthorsdon'tagreeonthepurposeorhavevaryingunderstandingsofit.
Mostteamsneedaleaderandwhentheyhaveawrittendeliverable,theneedismorepronounced.Aleadercanfacilitateagreementonawritingplan,
setuproles,coordinateandmonitorwork,andmakesuredeadlinesaremet.Theleaderalsoneedstokeepaneyeoutforfreeriders:individualswho
letothersdothework.
Withwritingtasks,thisdangerisacute.Thepersonperceivedtobethe"goodwriter"canbestuckwithaheavierworkloadthanotherteammembers.
Herearesuggestionsforadaptingthewritingprocesstoteams.
1. UseaWritingPlan.
Ateamneedsawritingplantoestablishacommonpurpose,layouttheorganizationofthemessage,anddividetasks.Onceateam
hasaplan,memberscanagreeontheirroles.Themoststraightforwarddivisionoflaborisforeachindividualtoresearchandwrite
apartofthedocument.
Theteamshoulddecidewritingconventionstobeusedsuchasthepointofview(firstorthirdperson),levelsandstylesofheadings,
andcitationform.Thesedecisionscanbemadelater,butsomeonewillthenhavetoeditthereportforconsistency.Especiallyfora
longreport,itsbettertominimizetheinconsistenciesfromthestart.
2. WriteaFirstDraft.
Dividingtheteamintoresearchersandwritershassomeadvantagesbutusuallyleadstoproblems.Thewritersdontunderstandthe
contentaswellastheresearchers,andthewritingoftentakeslongerthantheresearch,raisingworkloadissues.Forthesereasons,it's
betterthateveryoneontheteamberesponsibleforresearchingandcomposingapartofthedocument.
Whenallteammemberswrite,theyallhaveastakeintheproject.Someindividualsmightnotwritewell,butiftheyduckchancesto
write(orareallowedtobytheteam),theywillnotimprove.Writinginteamscanbeagoodlearningexperienceandraisetheskill
leveloftheweakerwriters.
3. RevisetheDraft.
Authorsshouldprovidefeedbackontheothersections.Theforemostconcernshouldbethateachsectioncontributestothewhole.
Othermattersforattentionincludedepth,clarity,organization,transitions,redundancies,andconsistencyamongthesections.
Sentencestyle,grammar,punctuation,spelling,andmechanicsshouldbesecondaryatthispoint.Authorsshouldthenrevisetheir
sections.
4. ReviewtheSecondDraft.
Everyoneshouldreadtheseconddraftandgiveanyadditionalfeedback.Eachofthewritersshouldmakefinalrevisionsandreview
hisorhersectionforconciseandclearwritingstyle,logicalorganizationofparagraphs,andcorrectness.
5. EditandCorrecttheFinalDraft.
Asalaststep,onepersonshouldreviewtheentiredocumentforconsistencyinandtransitionsbetweensectionsaswellasstyle,
organizationofparagraphs,correctness,headings,andsourcecitations.
Technologycanfacilitatethewritingprocess.Numerouswebservicesallowyoutopostadocumentinthecloud,editit,addcomments,andmonitor
versions.Ateamneedstobecarefulaboutsettinguprulesforaccesstoandeditingofthedocument.Manypeopleeditingthesamedocumentcanlead
toconfusion.
Mostoftheonlineserviceshaveeditingtoolsthatkeeptrackofchanges.Nevertheless,ateammembershouldcoordinateonlinework,setting
deadlinesfordocumentchanges,controllingversions,andprotectingthefinalversionfromfurtherediting.
Briefcase:WritingProcessforTeams

WritinginBusiness:Memos
WritinginBusiness:Memos
FelipesInformativeMemo:FirstDraft
FelipesInformativeMemo:RevisionNotes
FelipesInformativeMemo:Draft2
FelipesInformativeMemo:FinalDraft
FelipesPersuasiveMemo:Opening
FelipesPersuasiveMemo:Conclusion
FelipesPersuasiveMemo:NotesforEditingandCorrecting
FelipesPersuasiveMemo:FinalDraft
FelipesActionPlan

TemplatesandChecklists
TemplatesandChecklists
TheWritingProcess:QuestionsforPlanninganArgument
TheWritingProcess:QuestionsforPlanningaMessage
Guide:HowtoOrganizeaWrittenArgument
Template:OrganicOrganizersofInformation
Template:AnalyticOrganizersofInformation
Checklist:RevisionQuestions
Guide:WritingProcessforTeams

WritinginBusiness:ExamIntroduction
WritinginBusiness:ExamIntroduction
ThistestwillallowyoutoassessyourknowledgeofWritinginBusiness.
Allquestionsmustbeansweredforyourexamtobescored.
Navigation:
Toadvancefromonequestiontothenext,selectoneoftheanswerchoicesor,ifapplicable,completewithyourownchoiceandclickthe"Submit"button.
Aftersubmittingyouranswer,youwillnotbeabletochangeit,somakesureyouaresatisfiedwithyourselectionbeforeyousubmiteachanswer.You
mayalsoskipaquestionbypressingtheforwardadvancearrow.Pleasenotethatyoucanreturnto"skipped"questionsusingthe"Jumptounanswered
question"selectionmenuorthenavigationalarrowsatanytime.Althoughyoucanskipaquestion,youmustnavigatebacktoitandansweritall
questionsmustbeansweredfortheexamtobescored.
Yourresultswillbedisplayedimmediatelyuponcompletionoftheexam.
Aftercompletion,youcanreviewyouranswersatanytimebyreturningtotheexam.
GoodLuck!

PresentinginBusiness
Theideaofmakingapresentationinpublic
istheNo.1fearreportedbypeopleintheU.S.
PaulL.Witt,PhD,assistantprofessor
ofcommunicationstudiesatTexas
ChristianUniversity,FortWorth
"WhereshallIbegin,pleaseyour
majesty?sheasked.Beginatthe
beginning,thekingsaid,very
gravely,andgoontillyoucometo
theend.Thenstop."
LewisCarroll,AliceinWonderland

Introduction
Introduction
Managersspendmostoftheirtimetalking.
Muchofitisspontaneousandinformal,suchashavingaconversationwithacolleagueortalkingonthephone.Someofthetalkisdifferent:Itisthe
primarymediumofpresentations.Apresentationconsistsofasetofideasspokentoanaudience.Theideasarepreparedinadvancealongwith
supportingmaterialsuchasslides.
Itishardtooverestimatetheusefulnessofpresentationskillsinbusiness.Eachdayaroundtheworld,managersgivemanymillionsofpresentations.By
someestimates,30,000,000PowerPointslidesaredisplayedperday.
EmployersandrecruiterswantMBAgraduateswithsuperiorcommunicationskills.Formanyyears,employershavebeenputtingcommunicationskills
atthetopoftheirlistofessentialskillsforhiringmanagerstheymakehiringdecisionsbasedonthem.
Thismoduleteachesprinciplesandpracticesforthefollowing:
Organizingandpreparingpresentationcontent
Creatingeffectivevisuals
Deliveringthepresentationsuccessfully
Answeringquestions
Dealingwithfearofspeaking
Preparingteampresentations

LeadingPeople
LeadingPeople
Thispartofthecoursefocusesonpersuasivepresentations.Persuasionhasbecomemorevaluableasworkhasshiftedawayfromthecommandand
controlmodeltooneofcooperationandcollaboration.Leadersandmanagersmustshape,guide,facilitate,andsupporttheworkofemployees.
Theymustpersuadetomotivatepeople,toalignthemwithorganizationalgoals,andtohavethemacceptnewideasandpractices.
Example:PersuadingNewHiresatNordstrom

Nordstrom,anupscaledepartmentstore,valuesextraordinarycustomerservice.Butmanyofthepeopletheyhirehaveworkedforothercompanies
thatdonttakecustomerserviceasseriously.
Nordstromhastopersuadenewhirestodeliverserviceinlinewiththecompanysstrategy.Onepersuasivetacticistellingstoriesabouthowfar
Nordstromemployeesgotosatisfycustomers.Forexample:
Awardrobeconsultantfitamanforasuitwhohadforgottenanimportantbusinessmeeting.Hehadthesuittailoredandpressedinacoupleof
hours.Thecustomercamebacktothestoreanddressedthereforthemeeting.1
AcustomercameintoNordstromwithtwowatches.Hispuppyhadchewedthewristbandsoffboth.Hehadboughtonlyoneofthewatchesat
Nordstrom.WhenhepurchasedanewbandfortheNordstromwatch,theassociateandmanagernoticedthesecondwatch.Theytoldhimtopicka
newonefreeofcharge.2

ResolvingDifferencesofOpinion
ResolvingDifferencesofOpinion
Inevitably,peoplewilldisagreeaboutbusinessissues.Leadersandmanagersneedtobeabletoprobe,question,andnegotiate,buttheyalsoneedto
knowhowtousepersuasiontoresolvedifferencesofopinion.

HarmonizingDifferentOpinions
Anexecutivetellshowpersuasionresolvedadifferencebetweenacautiousleadershipgroupandhisproductteam.
Example:PersuadingaResistantBoss

Themanagerofanonlineunitofanelectronicsresellerwantedtoextendtheunit'shoursofoperationandholdontoatalentedsupervisorwhowas
commutinglongdistances.
Humanresourcesexecutivesrecommendedthatthemanagertryaresultsonlyworkenvironment(ROWE)employeesworkanytimeand
anywhereaslongastheymeetperformancegoals.Butthemanagersbossflatlyrefusedtoauthorizetheexperiment.
Themanagerdidntletthedisagreementdiscouragehim.HepersuadedthebosstolethimtryROWEbypromisingtomonitorproductivityeach
dayandhalttheexperimentimmediatelyifitfell.Productivityswiftlyclimbedandmeasuresofemployeeengagementwentup,too.Inthis
instance,persuasionresolvedaconflictandbenefitedthecompanyandeveryoneinvolved.
Themanagerfoundacreativesolutiontoaccomplishseveralgoalshisboss'sresistancemotivatedhimtofindawaytoevaluatethesolution's
results.3

ObstaclestoPersuasivePresentations
ObstaclestoPersuasivePresentations
Howoftendoyouexperienceexcellentpresentations?Notveryoftenisacommonresponse.
Mostpeoplecancarryonintelligentconversations.Nevertheless,whentheystandinfrontofanaudience,manytimesthatabilityseemstovanish.Their
speechdoesntflow,theystopsmiling,andtheydonotmakeeyecontact.Alittlelater,theyaresmilingagainandcarryingonproductiveconversations
withoutdifficulty.
Whydoesthisstrikingtransformationhappentosomanypeople?Someofthereasonsinclude:
Fearofspeaking
Overrelianceonslides
Afailuretoengage
Amisconceptionaboutpersuasion

FearofSpeaking
FearofSpeaking
TheideaofmakingapresentationinpublicistheNo.1fearreportedbypeopleintheU.S.
PaulL.Witt,PhD,assistantprofessorofcommunicationstudiesatTexasChristianUniversity,FortWorth4
Themajorityofpeoplefearspeaking.Communicationapprehensionisnormal,butitcanbeaproblemwhenitisintenseandchronic.Thereiseven
amedicaltermforextremecases:glossophobia.
Beingthefocusofattentioninaroomandhavingsoleresponsibilityformakingsomethinghappencanstimulatefear.Thefearcreatesavicious
circle.Youfearspeakingandavoidit,butthemoreyouavoidit,themoreyoufearitandthelesslikelyyouaretoacquiretheskillsyouneedthat
willhelpreducethefear.
Fortunately,youcanlearntomanagefearofspeaking.Scholarshavefoundmanytechniquesforlimitingitsnegativeeffects.Notetheuseofthe
wordnegative.Nervousnesshasvalue,too.Aslongasitisnotextreme,itisanaturalstimulantthatenhancesperformance.
FemaleManagers:JustSayIt
Anexecutiveandmentorhasadviceforfemalemanagersuncomfortablewithspeaking.

OverrelianceonSlides
OverrelianceonSlides
PowerPointmakesusstupid.
GeneralJamesN.Mattis,U.S.MarineCorps5
PowerPointandotherpresentationsoftwarecanproducearrestingresults.Theycanalsocrankoutcopiousamountsofvisualpollution.
Theproblemisnotthesoftware.Quiteafewspeakershavecometoregardslidesasthepresentation,notasacomplementtothepresentation.And
whentheattitudethatmoreisbetterencountersfeaturerichpresentationsoftware,speakerscansaturateaudienceswithinformation:slideafter
slideofbulletpoints,charts,tables,andgraphsfilledwithsomuchcontentandformattingclutterthattheyareunreadable.
Slidesthatconveytoomuchcreateadilemmaforaudiencemembers.Dotheytrytoreadtheslidetextorlistentothepresenter?Mostaudiencestry
todoboth,splittingtheirattentionandlesseningtheamountofinformationtheycantakein.
UsingPowerPointtoShiftResponsibility
Speakerscanuseslidepresentationstopassinformationtoanaudiencebutavoiddrawingconclusions.
Example:UsingPowerPointtoBefuddle

Theslidebelowwasusedinamilitarybriefing.TheslidewasintendedtogiveanoverviewoftheU.S.militarystrategyinAfghanistan.
Doyouthinktheaudience,ahighrankingofficerandhisstaff,foundtheslidehelpfulinunderstandingthestrategy?
GeneralStanleyA.McChrystal,thencommanderofAmericanandNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)forcesinAfghanistan,said,When
weunderstandthatslide,wellhavewonthewar.6
PresenterscanunwittinglyusePowerPointasameansofcopingwithstagefright.Slidescanshiftattentionawayfromthem.Nolongerarethey
speakersconnectingwithanaudiencetheyarenarratorsofaslideshow.Eventheirposturecanprotectthemfromcontactwiththeaudience.Toread
theslides,theyturntheirbackstothelisteners.
Mostbusinessaudienceshavesatthroughscoresofpresentationsinschoolandonthejob,andtheoddsarethatmanyofthemwereboringand
deliveredtoomuchinformation.Presentationfatigueisthereforeacharacteristicofbusinessaudiences.Veryquickly,audiencememberscanentera
stateofminimalattentionahabitformedfrommanydisappointingexperiences.
AtApple,SteveJobsbannedPowerPointfrommeetingsheattended.AmazondoesnotallowPowerPointtobeusedinanymeetings.Gettingridof
slidesisonesolutiontodeathbyPowerPoint.
Makingbetteruseofpresentationtoolsisanother.Thiscoursetakesthelatterapproach.

TheRealitiesofAttention
TheRealitiesofAttention
Thefirstproblemofcommunicationisgettingpeoplesattention.
ChipandDanHeath,MadetoStick,ArrowBooks(paperbackedition),2008,page64.7
Answerthequestionafterthelistoftimesbelow.

Howlongdoyouthinktheaverageadultcanconcentratecompletely?
Thecorrectanswerislessthan1minute.Thatmaybesurprising,butitbecomeslesssowhenyouconsiderallthethingsgoingoninsideandaround
youatanygivenmoment.Theexternalenvironmentteemswithdistractions,andaconstantstreamofthoughts,emotions,memories,datafromthe
senses,andotherphysicalsensationsflowsthroughyourmind.
Thebrevityofconcentrationseemstodoomanyhopeofholdingaudiencemembersattention.Fortunately,youcanregaintheirattention.
Presentingisntaboutseizingandholdingpeoplesattentioncontinuouslyforlongperiods.Presentersmustconstantlyreengagetheaudience.

ManagingDistraction
ManagingDistraction
Humansdonothaveasinglecapacityforattention.Wehavethree:
Alerting
Alertingmeansawarenessofoursurroundings,particularlychangesinthemsuchasthesuddenappearanceofagrizzlybear.
Orienting
Orientingorfocusallowsustoconcentrateonsomethingsuchastheintentionsofanearbygrizzly.
Executive
Executiveattentionhelpsusplanandmakejudgmentssuchasneverhikingaloneagaininnationalparkswheregrizzlybearslive.
Thethreeexistasseparatenetworks,buttheyworktogether.Theycanalsoworkatcrosspurposes.Whenyoupresenttoabusinessaudience,you
contendwitharunningconflictbetweenalertingandfocus.
Noisesandmovementsattractaudiencemembersattentionbecausewearehardwiredtopayattentiontoourenvironment.Whensomeoneinthe
roomcoughsorleaves,everyonenotices,ifonlyforamoment.Duringthatmoment,theylosefocusonwhatyouaresaying.
Thentherearedigitaldisruptions.Abuzzingorvibratingcellphonetriggersalerting,asdosoundsandchangesonacomputerscreenwhenanemail
arrives.
Asapresenteryouhavetoaccepttherealityofdistractionsandrealizeyoucompetewithmanyotherstimuliintheenvironment.Thechallengeisto
standoutfromthebackgroundnoise.ThemostrobustsourceofengagementandreengagementisnotPowerPointorothermedia.Itisyouandyour
engagementwithpeopleintheaudience.
Example:SourcesofDistraction

Thinkaboutpresentationsyouhaveattendedandwhetheryouhavebeendistractedbyanyofthesecircumstances:
PhysicalEnvironment
Uncomfortableroomtemperature
Poorlighting
Noiseoutsidetheroomsuchaspeopletalkinginthehallwayoraleafbloweroutdoors
Slidesnotvisibletopartoftheaudience
Audience
Audiencememberswhisperingtoeachother
Audiencememberstexting
Audiencemembersnoddingoff
Speaker
Speakerusingexaggeratedgestures
Speakersayingawordorphraserepetitively(suchasokay)aftermakingapoint
Speakerconstantlyusingverbalfillersuchasuhorum
Thegoodnewsaboutdistractionsisthatyoucancontrolmanyofthem.Youcangettotheroominwhichyouarepresentingearly,forinstance,
andcheckconditionssuchastemperatureandlightingandadjustthem.Youcanaskpeopletopowerdowntheircellphones.Youcanworkonany
annoyingverbalhabitsyoumayhave.

MisconceptionAboutPersuasion
MisconceptionAboutPersuasion
AmazingSecretsDiscoveredUsingCuttingEdgeResearch!GuaranteedtoPutMoneyinYourPockets,MeltAwaySalesResistance...AndSlash
Buyers'RemorseAlmostOvernight!
Promotionalblurb8
Muchwritingaboutpersuasionemphasizeswinning.Thesubtitleofonerecentbookproclaims,HowtoGetAnyonetoSayYesin8MinutesorLess!
AnotherbooktitlepromisesWinningWhenItReallyCounts.
Persuasionalwaysinvolvesadegreeofcompetition.Whenyoumakeasalespitch,youcompeteagainsttheclientsotherchoices.Youtrytoconvince
anangelinvestortofinanceyourbusinessbecauseshehasotherstartupsshecanback.Youargueforadiagnosisofanoperationsproblembecause
othersintheorganizationseetheproblemdifferently.
Thereisanotherwayoflookingatpersuasion.Thesalespitchproposesasolutiontoaclientneedthattheclientcannotsatisfyhimself.Yougivethe
angelinvestoranopportunitytoputhermoneywhereitwillbeproductiveandprofitable.Yougivethepeoplewhodisagreewithyourdiagnosis
anotherwayoflookingattheproblem.

PersuasionasCollaboration
PersuasionasCollaboration
Youcanbeabettercommunicatorbythinkingofpersuasionascollaboratingwiththeaudiencetoaccomplishgoalsthatneitherpartycansecure
entirelyontheirown.Definingpersuasionintermsofwinningorlosingcanlimityourthinkingandthwartpositiveoutcomes.
Themanagerattheelectronicsresellerlostthefirsttimehetriedtoconvincehisboss.Butthebosssresistanceturnedouttobeinvaluable
becauseitforcedtheunitmanagertodeviseamethodformeasuringthenewwayagainsttheold.Themanagerdidnotachievehisendbygetting
aroundbarriersthathisbossthrewinhisway.Theyachievedittogether.
BusinessPersuasionisNotOneWay
Theinteractionbetweenthespeakerandtheaudienceoftenmakesagoodideabetter.
Example:PersuadingfortheFuture

AlanMulallybecamechiefexecutiveoftheFordMotorCompanyin2006.Thecompanywasabouttolosenearly$13billion.Nooneknewitatthe
time,butthenextyear,theU.S.andworldeconomyweregoingtosinkintorecession,pushingtheU.S.autoindustrytothebrinkofextinction.
Fordsproductswerenotsellinganditsculturefeaturedinsularity,ruthlesspolitics,andtopdownmanagement.Mulallywasnotgoingtoput
togetherafewpersuasivewinsthatwouldfixthecompany.Norwashegoingtotell280,000employeeshowtodoeachoftheirjobsbetter.

HehadtoformulatecoremessagesandsellthemrelentlesslyCommunicate,communicate,communicate,ashesaidinaninterview.Andhe
dependeduponexecutivesandmanagersallovertheglobetocreateacascadeofpersuasion:toadoptthemessagesastheirownandsellthemto
employees.Oneofhispersuasiveappealswasgroundedinthecompanyshistory:EveryoneatFordwasresponsibleforsavinganAmericanicon.
Afewyearslater,FordwasbeingcalledoneofthegreatestturnaroundsinthehistoryofU.S.business.9

TheDarkSideofWinning
TheDarkSideofWinning
Theideathatpersuasionisaboutwinningorlosinghasapotentialdarkside.Towin,peoplecanbelievethattheendjustifiesthemeansandtake
shortcutssuchasmanipulation,deception,andoutrightlies.
Nevertheless,theunethicaluseofpersuasionseemstohaveanaturallimit.AsAbrahamLincolnfamouslysaid,Youcanfoolallofthepeoplesome
ofthetime,andsomeofthepeopleallofthetime,butyoucannotfoolallofthepeopleallthetime.

AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation
AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation
ThePlanningCommunicationmoduleinthiscourseteachesaprocessforanalyzingacommunicationsituation.Thismodulewillbemuchmore
meaningfulifyoustudyPlanningCommunicationfirst.
Analyzingacommunicationsituationincludesunderstandingthepurposeofapresentationandaudiencecharacteristicsrelevanttoit,andthenusing
theresourcesofreason,emotion,andcharactertocreatethemessage.Whatyoulearnfromtheanalysisinformsboththemessagethecontentofthe
presentationandthedeliverythemannerinwhichyoucommunicateittotheaudience.
ThreeFactorsofEffectiveCommunication
Anexecutiveexplainshowheapproachesacommunicationsituation.

PersuasivePresentations
PersuasivePresentations
Persuasivepresentingisnotaboutthepresenter.Itisabouttheaudience.Whencommunicatorspersuade,theywantsomethingfromtheiraudiences
toadoptadesiredbelieforanattitude,togaintheirconsentorsupport.Presenterspreoccupiedwiththemselvestheirownthoughtsandfeelings
losesightofthefactthattosatisfytheirneedstheymustsatisfytheaudiencesneeds.
Thefirstquestiontoaskwhenyouarethinkingaboutapresentationis:Whatisinitfortheaudience?Keepthisquestioninmindfromtheinitial
planningtothelastmomentofthepresentationitself.
FocusontheEssentials
Themoresenioryouraudience,themoreimportantitistopresentonlythemostcriticalcontent.

ArgumentsandPersuasivePresentations
ArgumentsandPersuasivePresentations
Thecoreofpersuasivebusinesspresentationsisargument.Anargumentistheprocessofreachingaconclusionbyusingevidence.Inthemodule
calledPlanningCommunication,youlearnedthreetypesofargumentcommoninbusiness:
Decision
Evaluation
Diagnosis
Youllfinddetailedexplanationsoftheargumentsandtheirmajorpartsinthatmodule.Youcandoaquickreviewofargumenttemplateswiththe
OrganizingArgumentsChecklist.
Checklist:OrganizingArguments

Argumentsinapresentationneedtobeefficient.Inbusiness,presentershaveatendencytofloodtheaudiencewithdataandotherinformation.
Butthemoreisbetterapproachcompletelyignorestheneedsoftheaudience.Speakers,guidedbythelessismoreprinciple,mustmakehard
choicesaboutthecontentoftheirarguments.
LogicFirst,DetailsSecond
Agoodpresentationwillbeclean.Itwillbestrippeddowntotheessenceofwhat'srequired.

EmotionsandPersuasivePresentations
EmotionsandPersuasivePresentations
Persuasionconsistsofmorethanreason.Contemporaryresearchintoourresponsestopersuasiveappealsrevealsthestronginfluenceofemotion.
Inapersuasivepresentation,thecommunicatorwantstoalignaudiencemembersfeelingswithherpurposesothatboththeargumentssheusesand
theemotionssheevokespulltheaudiencetowardthesamedestination:acceptingthepresentersconclusion.
Emotionstheaudiencesandyourscanbehardtounderstandandevenhardertoinfluence,buttheyhaveakeyroleinpersuasion.
Example:RaisinganAlarm

SaythatyouworkforReplex,acompanythatisgrowingrapidlysorapidlythatyouthinkthecompanyhasgivenupcarefulhiring,adequate
staffing,andtalentdevelopment.Yougiveameticulouslyarguedpresentationtoagroupofinfluentialmanagersonwhythecompanyshouldpay
attentiontotheproblem.
Yourreward:Theaudiencebarelylistens.Oneindividualmuttersthatyouareanalarmist.
Yourargumentmayhavefallenvictimtotheavailabilityorrecencybias,whichoccurswhenpeoplerelyontheirmostrecentexperiencestolookata
situationratherthanconsiderabroadrangeofexperiences.Inyourcompany,theaudiencehasseenonlyunqualifiedsuccesslately,makingthem
unreceptivetoyourcautionaryargument.
Awarenessoftheinterplaybetweenaudiencemembersthoughtsandfeelingscanhelpyoucalibratepersuasion.Theaudiencemembersforthe
Replexpresentationthinktheyarebeingrationalbecausetheyseenoevidenceofdecliningbusinessresults.Thattriggersafeelingofdispleasureat
beingtoldthattheydonotrecognizeaproblem.
Youcanbeupsetatyourcolleaguesfornotappreciatingwhatyouaretryingtodo.Oryoucanacceptthattheydonotlikebadnews.
Canyouthinkofideastomuteorredirecttheaudience'sfeelings?
Assurecolleaguesthatyouonlywantthecompanytostayhealthyinthelongrun.
Tracktheperformanceofnewhires.
Surveymanagersonthequalificationsandperformanceofnewhires.

CharacterandPersuasivePresentations
CharacterandPersuasivePresentations
Toimproveyourpersuasionabilities,youneedtolearnhowtoshapeaudiencemembersattitudetowardyou.Anaudiencealwayshasanattitude
towardaspeaker.Youwanttofosterafavorableattitudetowardyou.
Forpersuasioninbusiness,characterhastwoessentialcomponents:knowledgeandcredibility.
Exercise:WhomDoYouBelieve?

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TheHaloEffectandItsOpposite
TheHaloEffectandItsOpposite
Audiencesperceiveyoubasedonwhattheyalreadyknowandfeelaboutyou.SteveJobsdidnothavetroublegainingtheaudiencesrespectand
trustwhenheappearedonstageattheMosconeCenterinSanFranciscotounveilnewAppleproducts.
Beforehesaidaword,theaudiencewasreadytobelieve,trust,andapplaudhim.Thisisanexampleofthehaloeffect:Theaudiencehadmadea
globalevaluationSteveJobswasatechgeniusandassumedthatwhateverhesaidordidwasconsistentwiththatevaluation.
Areversehaloeffectcanbedetrimentaltoaspeaker.AunionofficialaddressingaconferenceoftheUnitedStatesChamberofCommercemight
wellencounteranegativeattitudebasedontheaudiencesassumptionthatsheishostiletomanagement.
Whentheaudiencedoesnotknowyou,theirfirstimpressionscanfunctionlikeahaloeffect.Accordingtoresearchers,peoplemakeaglobal
evaluationofastrangerinatenthofasecond.Theyobviouslymakethatjudgmentbasedonverylimitedinformation:yourfacialexpression,
posture,clothes,andmovement.
Studieshaveshownthatfirstimpressionsareremarkablydurableandhardtochange.Apositivefirstimpressioncanbealonglastingassetfora
speaker,whileanegativeonecanbeaseriousliability.

FacingaHostileAudience
FacingaHostileAudience
Provocativeaudiencememberscanleadyoutoresponsesthatsourtheattitudesofallaudiencememberstowardyou.Forinstance,someone
interruptsyouacoupleoftimeswithuninformedcommentsandyousarcasticallypointoutthatthepersondoesnotknowwhatheistalkingabout.
Whileotheraudiencemembersmightnotappreciatethecommentsthepersonmade,yourresponsemightoffendthem.
Trytokeepinmindthatnegativefeelingstowardsomeoneintheaudiencewilldistractyoufromwhatyouaretherefor:toaddresseveryoneinthe
room,notsparwithonemember.Youmaynotbeabletopersuadeeveryone.Doyourbest,butyoushouldnothaltyourpresentationtotryto
convinceoneperson.
Herearesomepracticalsuggestionsforrespondingtohostileaudiencebehavior:
Disagreement
Someoneinterruptsyoutodisputewhatyouaresaying.Ifthepersonhasalegitimatepoint,acknowledgeit(forexample,Youhavea
pointandthanksforsharingit)andresumeyourpresentation.Whenyouthinktheobjectionisnotvalid,acknowledgeitbysaying
somethinginnocuous(forexample,Thatisaninterestingpoint)andmoveon.
Interruptions
Anindividualeitherstartstalkingandwillnotstoporfrequentlyinterrupts.Askthepersontotalktoyouafterthepresentation.Ifthat
doesnotsolvetheproblem,saysomethinglike:Iwanteveryonetohearmyideasanddecideforthemselveswhethertheymakesense.Id
likeyoutolistentotherestofmypresentationandthenwecantalkafterward.
Arguments
Anaudiencememberbecomesargumentative.Granthertherighttoanopinion,recognizethedifferencebetweenthetwoofyou,and
moveon.Iftheindividualpersistsinarguing,trytheapproachdescribedintheprevioussuggestion.
SideConversation
Twopeopleintheaudiencetalktoeachotherduringyourpresentation.Ignorebriefconversations,butwhenindividualspersistin
talking,walktowardthemandmakeandholdeyecontact.
Exercise:FacingaHostileAudience

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CaseStudy:PresentinginBusiness
CaseStudy:PresentinginBusiness
ThismoduleusesThisWholeSystemSeemsWrong:FelipeMontezandConcernsAbouttheGlobalSupplyChainasthefeaturedcase.Youllfollow
themaincharacterofthecase,FelipeMontez.
Pleasereadthecasenowandthenlistentotheaudio.
CaseStudy:ThisWholeSystemSeemsWrong

Felipe'sPresentationontheChineseFactory
FelipehasbeenaskedtomakeapresentationtotheCEOofhiscompanybasedonapersuasivememohewroteaboutaproblematanoffshore
vendor.

TheMessage:OrganizingtheContent
TheMessage:OrganizingtheContent
TheICAAorganizer,ortemplate,standsforIssueConclusionArgumentAction.Itisdesignedforpersuasivepresentationsandprovidesashortcutfor
creatingideasandarrangingthem.
Thisorganizeriscompatiblewiththeargumenttemplatesfordiagnosis,inthePlanningCommunicationmodule.Rememberthatspokenarguments
havetobeveryefficient,withthemostconvincingconclusionsandthemostcompellingevidenceyouhaveatyourdisposal.
TheICAAorganizerhasfourparts:
1. Issue
2. Conclusion
3. Argument
4. Action

Example:ExpandingtoMexico

LetssaythatyouhaveapersuasivepresentationtomakeaboutwhethertoexpandyourcompanysbusinesstoMexico.Theissueisadecision,soyou
willuseadecisionargument.Theorganizerworksaswellwiththeothertwotypesofargument,evaluationanddiagnosis.
Issue
Definition
Theissueneedsresolutionandyoushouldbeabletoexpressitinoneortwosentences.Statingitasaquestioncanoftenbehelpfultothe
audience.
Example
ShouldweexpandourbusinessintoMexico?
Conclusion
Definition
Theconclusionisyouranswerregardingtheissue.Youshouldbeabletostateitinoneorafewsentences.
Example
WeshouldexpandintoMexico,startingwithafewstorestotestthebusinessclimate.
Argument
Definition
Theargumentconsistsofthereasoningandevidencethatbackuptheconclusion.
Example

Thedecisioncriteriaare:
ThepotentialofthedomesticandMexicanmarkets
Factorsaffectingthemarketinthenextfiveyears
Hereissomeoftheevidencethatcouldbeusedwiththetwocriteria:
Minimalcurrentgrowthinthehomemarket
Intensecompetitioninthehomemarket
MarketingresearchshowsalargeunmetneedinMexico
LittlecompetitioninMexico
Action
Definition
Theactionportionofthepresentationspecifieshowtoimplementtheconclusion.Itcorrespondstoawrittenactionplan,exceptthatitisnotas
detailed.Youcanoffertheaudienceawrittenplanasahandout.
Example
RecruitstoremanagersinMexicowhoknowtheirlocalmarketswellandcanscoutstorelocations.
Exercise:UsingtheICAAFramework:Criteria
Exercise:UsingtheICAAFramework:Evidence

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WhyNotStartwithPowerPoint?
WhyNotStartwithPowerPoint?
Notethatthedevelopmentofapresentationbeginswithcreatingandorganizingideas,notwithPowerPointorotherpresentationsoftware.
Whenusedwell,slidesvisuallyreinforcetheessentialideasofapresentation.ApresentationbeguninPowerPointstartswiththereinforcement
ratherthantheideasandfosterstheviewthattheslidesarethepresentation.Thatviewmayencourageapresentertobuildalargeslidedeck
crammedwithinformation.Anditmayundercutapresentersmotivationtoengagewiththepeopleintheroom.
Alargebodyofresearchdemonstratesthatpeoplelearnmorethroughacombinationofsightandhearingthanthroughoneortheotheralone.Slides
thereforehaveanessentialfunctionasalearningchannelparalleltospeechbutnotsuperiortoit.

PuttingtheConclusionLast
PuttingtheConclusionLast
Insomecultures,speakersareexpectedtorevealtheirthinkinggraduallyanddeferaconclusionuntiltheendorimplyaconclusionbutneverstateit
insomanywords.
Presenterscanalsoemploytheconclusionlastorganizationasaninductiveapproachtoproof:
Issue:First,theystatetheissue.
Argument:Second,theyargueagainstthemajoropposingopinions.
Argument:Third,theyarguefortheirconclusion.
Conclusion:Fourth,theystatetheconclusion.
Action:Finally,theydiscussactionsbasedontheconclusion.
Thisorderofpresentationcanseemmoreobjectivethanaconclusionfirstargument.AsyoucanseetheorderoftheICAAchangestoIssue
ArgumentConclusionAction.
Ifyoudecidetoputyourconclusionattheendofapresentation,theessentialcontentoftheargumentremainsthesameastheconclusionfirst
presentation.However,TheICAAorganizerhasaslightlydifferentorder.

HowMuchEvidence?
HowMuchEvidence?
Businesspresentersoftenimmerseaudiencesinlargebodiesofdata.However,anoralpresentation,evenonethatusesvisuals,isnotaneffective
mediumforlargeamountsofdata.
Atthesametime,anorallydeliveredargumentstillrequiresproof,justasoneinwritingdoes.Sohowmuchevidencedoyouincludeina
presentation?

Theanswertothatquestiondependsontheaudience.Ateamofconsultantsmightincludeagreatdealofdataandotherinformationbecausethe
clientexpectsit.Ontheotherhand,busyCEOstypicallywanttohearthemostcriticalpointsofanargumentonly.
Theburdenisonyou,thepresenter,todevelopaconcisepersuasiveargument.Butpresentersoftentrytoshifttheburdentotheaudience,giving
themabarrageofevidencethemoreisbetterapproachtopersuasion.Makingmattersworse,theydonotexplainclearlyhowtheevidencesupports
theconclusion.
Example:FelipesPresentation

Felipewroteareportforhisboss,givingadetailedargumentforadecisiontoimproveconditionsintheChineseplant.
Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo:FinalDraft

Felipeknowshecantpossiblydelivertheentirereportin20minutesanddoesntwanttobecausetheaudiencewillgetlostinthedetail.He
hastoselectthepointsofutmostimportanceforthepresentation.
TheICAAorganizerassistshimincreatinganinitialpresentationplan.Heincludesthebigideasonlyhelldealwiththedetailslater.
Issue
TakeactionontheChinesefactory?
Decisionoptions:
Donothing.
Improveconditions.
Changevendors.
Conclusion
Improveconditions,acknowledgebeingpartoftheproblem,anddosomethingpositiveforboththecompanyandthevendorsworkforce.
Argument
Criteria:
Ethics
Marketing
Legalliability
Costs
Rebutotheroptions
Donothing:ethicallywrong,toorisky
Changevendors:premature,toodisruptive
Action
Shortterm
Negotiateimmediateimprovements.
Starttoreducethenumberofchildlaborers.
Longterm
Setupacodeofconductforvendors.
Beginaregularauditingprocess.

Openings
Openings
Arealworldaudienceisnotcaptive.Theymaynotgetupandleave,buttheycanrefusewhateveryouareaskingofthem.Inacustomersconference
room,youhavetoengagetheaudience.
Forthecontentoftheopening,askwhatyouthinktheaudiencemostwantstotalkabout,themostcommonquestiontheyhaveinmind,orthemost
seriousreservationtheyhaveaboutyourtopic.
Earlieryoureadaboutthemanagerwhowantedtotryaresultsonlyworkenvironment.Hisbosssaidno.Hisbosssmostseriousproblemwiththe
resultsonlyapproachwas,ironically,resultshowcouldhemakesurepeoplewereactuallydoingtheirjobwhentheywerenotintheoffice?The
firstthingthemanagertalkedaboutinhissecondattemptatpersuasionwashisbosssreservationhowthemanagerwouldmeasureproductivity
andrespondtoslippage.
Atsomepointintheopeningofthepresentation,youshouldalsostatetheissueandyourconclusionandfurnishasimpleroadmapofthe
presentationthemajorpointsofinterestonthetriptothedestination.
HowtoOpenaPresentation
Mercedes,vicepresidentofEmporiumConsulting,beginsapresentationwithsomethingsheknowsisontheaudience'sminds:Emporium's
lastprojectwiththemdidnotgowell.

Closings
Closings
Attheendofthepresentation,leavetheaudiencewithaconcisememoryofthepointsyoumostwantthemtoremember.
Avisualcanbeusedforthispurpose.Astrikingimage,abriefstory,andanemotionalappealconnectedtothekeypointsarejustafewwaystofix
yourcoremessageinthelistenersmemories.
Speakingpastthescheduledendofthepresentationviolatesanimplicitcontractwithaudiencemembers.Thespeakeragreedtoapresentationofa
certainlengthandtheaudiencemembersplannedaccordinglythenthespeakerchangesthecontractwithouttheirconsent.Audiencesdonot
appreciateaspeakerunwillingtoletgoofthem.
HowtoCloseaPresentation
Mercedesendsherpresentationwiththreepointsshewantstheaudiencetoremember.
Example:FelipesPresentation

FelipehasmulledovertheopeningofhispresentationtotheCEOandhashadtroubledecidingwhattodo.Hedoesnotwanttocomeacrossas
confrontational,buthedoesnotwanttostatetheissueandconclusiondryly,asifheweregoingtodiscussthemonthlyproductionof
wristwatches.
FelipeasksEstelawhattheaudiencemembersknowaboutthesituation.ShetellshimthattheyareawareofaproblemwiththeirAsian
productionandhaveasensethatitcouldbeatoughone.ShealsosaysthattheCEOgetsnervouswheneverhethinkstheirproductioncostsare
underanykindofpressure.
Felipethusplansanopeningthatputsaudiencemembersworstfearsfrontandcenter.Herearenoteshewilluseforpractice:
Wehaveabigproblem.Wearevulnerabletothefollowingissues:
Potentialbadpublicity
Lossofsales

Legalliability
Ethicallycompromised
Felipewillthenreassureaudiencemembersthatthesituationcanbesalvagedwithoutharmtothecompany:
Solution
Marketingstrengthened
Liabilityremoved
Ethicalproblemsolved
Costsstaylow
Withthisopening,hestatestheissue.Hewillfollowwitharoadmapslideofthepresentation:
1. TroubleinChina
2. WhatShouldWeDoAboutIt?
3. WhyWeShouldAct
4. StepsWeCanTake
Felipewantstoendonanoteofurgencyacalltoaction.Hewillencouragequickactionand,insteadofdwellingonthenegatives,pointout
thebenefitsthatwillresult.

TheMessage:PreparingthePlan
TheMessage:PreparingthePlan
Althoughthelengthofapresentationdependsonmanyvariables,suchasaudienceinterestinthetopicandthenatureofthecontent,keepitasshortas
possible.Youcanuseatargetof18minutes.Rarelydoaudiencescomplainaboutpresentationsbeingtooshort.
Whyshouldyoubesosensitivetolength?Foronething,auditorymemoryismorelimitedthanvisualmemory.Althoughagoodpresentationhas
visuals,youcommunicatemostofitthroughspeech.
Presentersalsohavetocontendwiththetimeanaudiencecanconcentrate.Asyouhavelearned,everyspeakerisengagedinacontinuouscompetition
foraudiencemembers'attention,attractingit,losingit,andbringingitback.Nomatterhowgoodapresenteryouare,youcanonlyexpecttodraw
listenersbacksomanytimes.Thelongeryoutalk,themorelikelyyouaretolosethestruggleforattention.
Onceyouhaveanideaofthetimeyouwillhave,youarereadytostartplanning.
Hereisasevenstepprocessforplanningandcreatingapresentation:
1.Generateideasandtakenotes.
2.Groupcontent.
3.Createthepresentationplan.
4.Planslidesandothermedia.
5.Prepareslidesandothermedia.
6.Editthepresentation.
7.Practicethepresentation.

GenerateIdeasandTakeNotes
GenerateIdeasandTakeNotes
Inwhatevermediumyouarecomfortablepaper,wordprocessing,ormindmappingsoftwarelistideasforthecontentofthepresentation.Dont
worryabouttheorderofthenotescaptureideaswhenevertheycometomind.Beasdetailedasyouwant.Forinstance,youcanincludespecific
quantitativeevidenceornotewhereyoucanfindit.
Ifyouarestartingfromadocument,takenotesonthekeypointsyouthinkshouldbepartofthepresentation.Oryoucanmarkupthedocumentitself,
circlingkeyideasandwritingnotesonit.However,youshouldcreateawrittenpresentationplanseparatefromthedocument.
Keepinmindthisquestion:Whatsinitfortheaudience?UsingtheIssueConclusionArgumentActionframework(ICAA)andatemplateforthe
appropriatetypeofargumentwillspeedyourprogressthroughthelatersteps.
Now,setasideyournotesandtakeabreak.Whenyoureturntothem,youllbringafreshperspective.Waituntilthenextdayifpossible.Thephrase
"sleeponit"isgoodadvice,accordingtoneuroscience.Whenwesleep,weseemtoconsolidateandstabilizememories.
Example:FelipesPresentation

FelipealreadystartedhisplanningbyreviewinghispersuasivememoandidentifyingpointsfortheIssueConclusionArgumentActionframework.
FelipesPresentation:SampleNotes

GroupContent
GroupContent
Asyoureviewyournotes,thinkaboutyourpurposeforpresenting.Writeitdownyoushouldbeabletoexpressyourpurposeinoneortwosentences.
Lookforchunksofcontentrelatedtoeachotherandputthemtogether.Drawarrowsandlinesandotherhelpfulvisualdevicesonyournotesto
connectideas.Ifyouwrotenotesusingacomputer,rearrangethemorpasteintoanewdocument.Youarebuildingastoryline.Anargumentisa
vehicleforthestoryyouwanttotell.
Ifyouareworkingfromadocumentthatyoualreadymarkedupinstep1,youcanskipthisstep.
CommunicatingtheStoryline
Takeastepbackandaskhowyoucanbestuseslidestocommunicatethepresentation'sstoryline.
Exercise:GroupingContentforaPresentation

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CreatethePresentationPlan
CreatethePresentationPlan
Createasimpleoutlinefromthenotes.Thegroupsofrelatedcontentyouidentifiedinthelaststepwillbethemajorpartsofthepresentation.Put
themintheordertheywillbepresented.Theplanshouldbesufficientlydetailedtoremindyouofthekeypoints.Youshouldnotwriteawordfor
wordscriptbecauseapresentationisnotaspeech.
Ifthecontentcomesfromadocument,reviewtheorganizationcarefully.Youmayfindthatitneedstobeinadifferentorderfororalcommunication.

Forexample,adocumentmayhavealongintroductorysectionbeforeitgetsdowntothebusinessofstatinganissueandtakingaposition.Forthe
presentation,youneedtogettothepointsoyoucuttheintroductorysectionfromtheplan.
Again,takeabreakorsetasidetheplanuntilthenextday.Checkitandrearrangeasnecessary.Youmayneedtofillingapsthattheplanhasexposed.
Nowthinkabouthowyouwillopenandclose,includinganymediaelements.Addtheideastotheplan.
Example:FelipesPresentation

FelipeinitiallymappedouthispresentationwiththeICAAframework.Next,hereviewedhismemoabouttheChinesefactoryforcontenttofillout
theICAA.Finally,hearrangedthecontentinapresentationplan.
Felipe'sInitialPresentationPlan

PlanSlidesandOtherMedia
PlanSlidesandOtherMedia
Reviewthenotesyouhavemadeaboutmediaandaddorsubtractvisualsorotherreinforcementthatyouthinkwillhelp.Donotlimityourthinking
aboutmediatoslides.Considervideo,webcontent,pictures,props,andflipcharts.
Useastoryboardtocaptureyourideasforslidesandothervisuals.Stickynotesareahandywaytocreateone.Writeideasforslidesorvisualsonnotes
andstickthemonapieceofpaperintheorderyouwillusethem.Youcanreplacenotes,removethem,andrearrangethem.
YoucanalsocreateastoryboardforminPowerPointorsimilarprograms.CreateanewslideshowwithblankslidesandprintitusingtheHandouts
option.
PlanningSlidesforaPresentation
Anexperiencedpresenterdescribeshowsheusesastoryboardapproachtoplanningslides.
Example:FelipesPresentation

Felipehasgonethroughhispresentationplanandnotedplaceswherehethinksaslide,someothervisual,oranactivityshouldgo.Hethinkshehas
toomanyslidesbutwillgoaheadwithstoryboarding.Laterhecanedittheslidedeck.Healsoplanstouseapropandanactivityforaudience
participation.
FelipesPresentationPlanwithSlides

Felipethenbeganastoryboardforhisslidesbasedontheplan.

PrepareSlidesandOtherMedia
PrepareSlidesandOtherMedia
Whenyouresatisfiedwiththestoryboard,usePowerPoint,Keynote,Prezi,orasimilarapplicationtocopythekeypointofeachstickynoteintoanew
slidefile.Oneachslide,typethemainidea,suchasanimage,text,orachart,andthenbuildit.
Mostpresentationsoftwareusesthesingleslideformat.TheonlineapplicationPrezitakesadifferentapproach,givingyouavisualspacewithwhich
towork.Youfillindifferentareasofthespacewithgroupsofcontent.Forthepresentation,youmovefromonegroupingtoanother.
Gobacktothestoryboardandstartworkonanyothermediayouwilluse.Forinstance,saythatyouwillbepresentingaseriesofinnovativeideas
generatedinternallytointerestdepartmentheadsinfundingthem.Youcoulddescribeeachonewithbulletpointslides.Butyouthinkthepeople
behindtheideasareasimportantastheideas.Havingthemeachpresentintheroomwouldbeunwieldy.Instead,youcanmakeshortvideosofeach
personexplainingherorhisidea.Youhavetodecidewheninthepresentationtoshowthevideosandplantheirproduction.

EditthePresentation
EditthePresentation
Tostarttheeditingprocess,estimatethetimeofeachpartofthepresentation.Talkthepresentationfrombeginningtoend.Thatmeansspeaking
outloud.
Inyourestimateofthetime,includethetimeneededforthediscussionofeachslide,audienceparticipation,useofprops,andanyinsessionlogistics
suchastellingtheaudiencehowtooperateahandhelddevicetheywilluseforapoll.
Yourtimeestimateswillhelpyoudeterminewhetheryouhavetoomuchortoolittlematerial.Edityourwrittenpresentationplanfirst,thentheslides
andothermedia,makingthemasleanaspossible.Presenterstypicallyoverestimatetheamountofcontenttheycandelivercomfortablyinagiven
periodoftimesometimesbyalargemargin.
Walktrustedcolleaguesorfriendsthroughthepresentationandtheslidesandaskiftheythinkanythingismissingorcanbedropped.Listentothem
carefully.Aslidefilledwithdatayouthinkisabsolutelycrucialmaybe,intheireyes,impossibletounderstand.
Exercise:WhyEditingSlidesMatters
Example:FelipesPresentation

Felipetalkedthroughhisinitialplananddiscoveredthatitwouldbelongerthan20minuteswhenhetookintoaccounttheslidesandaudience
participation.Hewasreluctanttodropmanydetailsbecausehemustmakethestrongestpossiblecaseforhisconclusion.Hedoesnotexpecta
secondchance.
Feliperemembersthattheseniorexecutiveshewillbespeakingtowillhavehis
memo.Theymaynothavereaditbeforehespeaks,buttheycanuseitasareferenceafterhepresents.
ThepresentationplanhasmorethantwentyfiveslidesandthelimitFelipesetforhimselfwastwenty.Theexactnumberisnotsoimportant.Felipe
setthenumbertodisciplinehimself,toconcentrateonhisspeaking.
Hemarksdetailsinhisplanthatareredundantornotcompletelynecessary.Hedeletesslidesassociatedwiththatmaterialandthosehethinksadd
littlevalue.
Inhisplan,forinstance,hehasaphotoofaTechMusicacustomer.Hisintentionwastohighlighttheiryouthandassociatethatfactwithheavyuse
oftheInternetandsocialmedia.Butseniormanagementknowstheircustomers.Thephotocanbedropped.

PracticethePresentation
PracticethePresentation
Rehearsethepresentationoutloudwithslidesandothermediaasoftenasyoucan.Practicehowyouaregoingtoexpressyourideas,makesurethe
presentationdoesntruntooshortorlong,andorchestrateotherpresentationelementssuchasslidesandprops.Practicingcanincreaseconfidence
andreducenervousness.

TheMessage:EnrichingthePresentation
TheMessage:EnrichingthePresentation
Duringtheplanningofapresentation,keepinmindthatyouhavemanychoicesforaddingtexture,energy,andinterest.Youdonothavetosettlefor

blandexplanationandbulletpointslides.

EnergizingtheSpeechChannel
EnergizingtheSpeechChannel
Youcanenliventhespeakingpartofapresentationwithstorytelling,audienceparticipation,handouts,andvividlanguage.

Storytelling
Storytelling
Nearthebeginningofabusinessschoolcourse,studentsdeliveredatwominuteautobiography.Mostofthemgaveaspokenversionoftheir
resume.
OneyoungwomanfromChinatoldastory.Shecamefromafamilyofmodestmeans,studiedhard,andreceivedhighmarksinschool.Her
ambitionwastostudyforanMBAintheUnitedStates,butsheneverexpectedthattohappen.Yetshedid.Sheexpressedheramazementandjoy
thatshewasstandingthere.
Towardtheendofthecourse,theinstructoraskedthestudentsiftheyrememberedanyoftheautobiographicalpresentationstheyhadlistenedto.
Mostofthemrememberedonlyone:thestorytheChinesestudenttold.
Humansseemtohaveaninherentinterestinstories.Whensomeonestartstotellastory,wegenerallywanttohearhowitends.Wewatch,read,or
listentothousandsuponthousandsofstoriesduringourlifetimesandneverseemtotireofthem.Asapresenter,youcanusestoriestogalvanize
theattentionofpeopleintheroom.
Storieshelpbothspeakersandlistenersrememberdetails.Storiesseemtopromotelongertermmemoriesinseveralways,oneofwhichisthe
stimulationofemotions.Itisnoaccidentthatforthousandsofyears,preliteratesocietiestoldorsangstoriestocommunicateinformationacross
generations.
Example:Felipe'sPresentation

Theinitialpartofthepresentationwilldescribefactoryconditions.Insteadofusingbulletpointstolistfacts,Felipewilltellastoryaboutwhat
hesawonhistourofthefactory.
ListentoFelipebeginthestoryofhisvisittotheChinesefactory.
FelipeTellsaStory
Felipebeginshisstoryofthefactorywiththefirstdiscoveryhemade.

AudienceParticipation
AudienceParticipation
Audienceparticipationmakespresentationstwowayandstimulatesactiveengagement.
Herearesomewaysofdirectlyinvolvingthemembersofyouraudience:
Askaquestion.
Presentaproblemandaskforsolutions.
Takeapoll.(Youcanusehandhelddigitaldevicesforthis.)
Askthemtogenerateideaswithyou.
Toavoidmakingthepresentationtoolong,audienceparticipationshouldnotrequiretoomuchtime.Itshouldalsobevoluntaryfortheaudience
youdontwanttoputanyoneonthespot.
Whateverformtheparticipationtakes,itshouldbeconnectedandstayconnectedtothecontent.Audiencememberscanslideoffontotangentsor
irrelevanttopics.Bereadytosteerthediscussionbacktothesubjectortakebackthefloor.Youareresponsibletotheentireaudienceandhaveto
protectthetimeneededtodeliveryourmessage.
Example:FelipesPresentation

Felipethoughtthatwhenhediscussesunderageworkersinhispresentation,hecouldasktheCEOandtheotherexecutivesintheroomifthey
havechildren.Hedecidesthatistoopersonal.
Attheendofthepresentation,however,heintendstosharesomeideasforlowcostimprovementstotheplant.Aftergivingafewofhisown,
hewillasktheaudienceforsuggestions.
FelipeInvitesAudienceParticipation
Felipeactivelyengagestheaudiencebyaskingthemtocontributeideas.

Handouts
Handouts
Handoutscanreducethecontentloadofthespokenportionofapresentationandthusallowtimeforactivitiesthatenlivenit.
Handoutscanbeatakeawayreminderofyourkeypoints.Theycanalsofurnishadditionalinformationorevidencethatyoudonotwanttoinclude
inthepresentation.
Presentationsoftwarecanprintslides,butusingthemashandoutsforcesyoutomakemanycopiesandaudiencemembersendupwithastackof
paper.Preparinganoutlineofthepresentationinawordprocessingprogrammeanslesspaperandmoreconvenienceforaudiences.
Thebesttimetodistributehandoutsisattheendofthepresentation,notthebeginning.Anaudiencewithhandoutswillbereadingthemmuchof
thetimeratherthanlookingatyou.(Insomeorganizations,however,speakersareexpectedtoprovidehandoutsatthebeginning.)
Example:FelipesPresentation

Asatakeaway,hewilldistributeanoutlineofhispresentationandrefertheaudiencetohismemoforafullactionplan.Reviewhishandout.
FelipesPresentationHandout

VividLanguage:Quotations
VividLanguage:Quotations
Quotationsfromexpertsorfamousindividualslendcredibilitytoyourpointofview.Becauseofthespeakersauthority,aquotecanhaveagreater
impactonanaudiencethanyourownwords.
Example:PlantingaSeedofDoubt

Letssaythatyouretryingtoshakeacompanyaudienceoutofwhatyouseeasadangerouslethargyaboutthecompetition.Youcouldsay:

Wethinkoursuccesswillgoonforever.Werewrong,though.Thatattitudeisthefirststeptowardfailure.
Theaudiencemightwellbeoffendedbecauseyouseemtobeaccusingthem.Instead,youshowaslidewithaquotationfromanacclaimed
executive.
Thequotationdoesntaccusetheaudience,butAndrewGrovesstaturegiveshisopinionabouthowtostaycompetitiveahighdegreeof
credibility.

VividLanguage:Analogies
VividLanguage:Analogies
Analogiescomparetwothings,usuallytoidentifysimilarities.Analogiescanbeusefulbecausepeoplelearnnewideasbetterwhentheycanconnect
themtosomethingtheyalreadyknow.
Example:UsingAnalogies

Apresentersays:
Thesituationwereinnowissimilartotheonewewereineightyearsago.Wewerehavingrecordsales.Thenacompetitorblindsideduswitha
productthatwastechnicallysuperiortooursandcheaper.Wesufferedacollectivefailureofconfidence,believingtherewasnowaywecould
compete.Wefoundawaythen,andwewillfindawaynow.
Thespeakeriscomparingthepresentwiththepast.Shewantslistenerstounderstandthepresentsituationbyseeingitthroughthelensofthe
earlierone.

VividLanguage:Metaphors
VividLanguage:Metaphors
Metaphorsdescribesomethingusinglanguageunrelatedtowhatisbeingdescribed.Metaphorscanmakelanguagemorememorableforan
audience.Often,theyhaveanemotionalimpact,too.
Forinstance,aspeakermightsay:Weusetheturtleandhareapproachtoequityinvestment.Welookfortheturtlesstocksthathavesteady
positivereturnsandavoidtheharesthosethatshootupinvalueandfalljustasquickly.
Example:FelipesPresentation

Felipehasopportunitiestousevividlanguagetodescribeplantconditions.Eachsentencedescribesafactorycondition.Clicktoseeamorevivid
alternative.
Thechildrenshouldnotbeworkingbutgoingtoschool.
Eachdaytheyspendinafactoryinsteadofaclassroom,thechildrenloseanotherdayoftheirfuture.
Thefactoryposesacomplicatedsetofissuesthatarenotallclearcut.
However,thefactoryisnotablackandwhiteissue.
Someoftheadultworkersareexposedtohightemperaturesandtoxicfumes.
Someoftheemployeesworkinahot,toxicnetherworld.
Exercise:PuttingPopintheSpeechChannel

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EnergizingtheVisualChannel
EnergizingtheVisualChannel
Asyouknow,audienceslearnmorethroughthedualchannelsofhearingandsightthanfromoneortheother.Youcanusethevisualchannelfor
contentotherthanslides,props,andhandouts.
Aquickandsimplemethodforaddingvisualcontenttoapresentationisthetraditionalflipchart.Likeslides,usethemtocommunicatekeypoints.
Flipchartscanalsobeusedinconjunctionwithaudienceparticipation.Forinstance,ifyouasktheaudienceaquestion,youcanrecordresponseson
theflipchart.

Images
Images
Withorwithoutwords,imagescanbeemotionallyevocative.Getinthepracticeofexercisingyourvisualimagination.
Example:FailureorHope

Lookatthephotobelow.
Whatpointaboutfailurecouldthisphotoillustrate?
Theunnecessaryendofabusiness
Whatpointabouthopecouldthisphotoillustrate?
Thepotentialofablightedneighborhood
Theneedforlendingtolocalbusinesses

ChartsandOtherGraphics
ChartsandOtherGraphics
Quantitativeinformationexpressesrelationshipsandrelationshipsusuallymakegoodvisuals.Spreadsheetsserveapurposeinhandouts,butthey
areillsuitedtopresentationsbecauseoftheirvisualcomplexity.
Fromspreadsheetsandotherstructuredarrangementsofnumbers,extracttherelationshipsofgreatestimportancetothepresentation:major
differencesorsimilarities,relevantincreasesanddecreases,notabletrends,criticalsequences,andthelike.
VisualsCanReduceComplexity
Howasimplecartooninapresentationcutthroughcomplexity,confusion,andconflict.

Example:TransformingaSpreadsheet

Reviewthespreadsheettitled"SalesofTents."Itgivesdataonthreemodelsoftents(SCR1,SCR2,andSCR3)overfiveyears.
Spreadsheet:SalesofTents
Thedataarenotdifficulttoread.However,sayyouaregivingapresentationandwanttocallattentiontothesalestrendsofthethreemodels.If
youdisplaythespreadsheet,youhavetoexplainthetrendsastheaudiencestudiesthespreadsheet.Nowviewagraphbasedonthespreadsheet.
Graph:SalesofTents
Thelinegraph,ontheotherhand,conveystheinformationinacoupleofseconds,leavingyouverylittletoexplain.Instead,youcanconcentrate
onthemeaningofthetrends.

Video
Video
Videohasbecomeavaluabletoolforcommunicatingwithbusinessaudiences.Cellphonevideocamerashavegottenbetterandvideoediting
softwareischeaperandeasiertouse.Inaddition,somescreencaptureapplicationscancreatevideosforpresentations.
Evenso,videohastobeusedcarefully,likeanyothervisualcontent.Youshouldtakethelessismoreapproach.Videoclipsshouldbeshort
under30seconds.Poorqualityvideocanmakethepresentationseemunprofessional.
Saythatyourpresentationrequirestheexplanationofahighlytechnicalfinancialconcept.Insteadoftryingtoexplaintheconceptyourself,you
canrecordaninhouseexpertexplainingthepointandplaythevideoduringthepresentation.
Inthisvideoclip,anexpertonaccountingdefinesconcepts.Thevideowouldnotonlyprovideinformationbutwouldalsoenhancetheaudience's
perceptionofthespeakerwhoincludesitinapresentation.
BudgetImpact
Youcanincludeexpertsinyourpresentationbyshowingavideoofthem.
UsingVideotoPersuade
Videosofcustomertestimonialshelpedmotivatesalesrepresentativestosellaninnovativeservice.

InternetBasedTechnologies
InternetBasedTechnologies
Webtechnologieshavepotentialrolesinpresentations.Hereareafewexamples:
YouTube
YoucanpostvideosonYouTube,forexample,andthenplaytheminapresentationusinganInternetlink.
Skype
Insteadofmakingthevideoofaninhouseexpert(assuggestedpreviously),youcanuseSkypeorotherconferencingapplicationstobring
theexpertintotheroom.
Internetdatabases
TheInternethasavastamountofinformationanddata,someofwhichiswelldesignedvisuallyandcanbedisplayeddirectlyina
presentation.
Technicalmalfunctionscanmakeusingonlinematerialperilous.Youhavetomanagethedetailsofwebtechnologybeforeandduringthe
presentation,justlikeyoudodisplayequipmentintheroom.Inaddition,youneedacontingencyplanfortechnicalfailures.
Forinstance,linkstowebsitesneedtobesetupandtestedinadvance,volumehastobeadjusted,andaguestusingSkypeneedstobereadyto
speakontimeandknowwhattosay.

PropsandDemonstrations
PropsandDemonstrations
Propscanbeusedinpresentationstoillustrateapoint,reinforcethemessage,andcaptureaudiencemembersattention.
Asalesperson,forinstance,mightuseaproductsamplewhenpresentingtoagroupofcustomers.Orsaythataspeakerwantstostressthelimited
timehercompanyhastoact.Sheturnsoveranhourglassandusesthedrainingsandasavisualmetaphorfortherapidpassageoftime.
Amoreelaborateexampleofusingpropsinvolvesafinancialexecutivesattemptstocentralizepurchasingofstandardworkgloves.Hemadeseveral
unsuccessfulattemptstopersuadethemanagersofthecompanysplantsthatmanyofthemwerepayingtoomuchforthegloves.
Atameeting,hedisplayedonatableoutsidethemeetingroomthegloveseachplantwasbuying.Apricetagwasattachedtoeach.Forastandard
pairofgloves,thepricesvariedwidely.Manyplantswerepayingabsurdlyhighpremiums.Fromthepricetags,everyonecouldtellwhichplants
werepayingmore.Thefinancialexecutivequicklystruckanagreementforcentralizedpurchasing.
Example:FelipesPresentation

IntheGuangdongfactory,youngwomenassemblecircuitboardsforhourswithoutusingmagnifyingglasses.Felipecandescribehowhardthe
workis,buthewantstheaudiencetohaveaphysicalsenseofit.

Exercise:EngagingtheEyesoftheAudience

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TheMessage:PreparingSlidesandOtherMedia
TheMessage:PreparingSlidesandOtherMedia
Slidesshouldbeattheendofyourpresentationtodolist.
Whenyoustarttodesignslides,donotallowtheneedforhandoutstoconstrainyou.Presentersoftenuseprintedversionsoftheirslidesashandouts.
Buteffectivedesignsdonotnecessarilyprintwell.Slideswithasoliddarkbackgroundmaybenearlyillegiblewhenprintedonablackandwhite
printer.
Tosolvethedesignconflictbetweenslidesandhandouts,createseparatehandoutsinawordprocessingprogram.Thesolutionrequiresalittlemore
work,butitisworththeeffort.

SlidesasOrganizers
SlidesasOrganizers
Thevisualnatureofslidesmakesthemwellsuitedtoorganizingapresentationforlisteners.
Atthebeginningofapresentation,providearoadmapslideofwhatyouaregoingtosayattheend,provideasummaryslideofthepointsyouwant
theaudiencetoremember.Inthebodyofthepresentation,signpostslidestelltheaudiencewheretheyare.
Example:FelipesPresentation

ThefirstslideFelipewillshowisaroadmapslide.Mostconventionalroadmapsusebulletpoints,butheisusingamorevisualapproach.Fora
betterfitonhisslides,heshortenstheparttitlesheusedinhispersuasivememo.
FelipesRoadmapSlide
Felipessignpostslidessignalthemajorpartsofthepresentation.Usingthesamedesignastheroadmapslidemakeseachsignpostslideeasyto
recognize.
FelipesSignPostSlide
Asummaryslidedisplaysthekeypointsthespeakerwantstheaudiencetoremember.Felipessummaryslidehastextandvisualstomakeitmore
memorable.
FelipesSummarySlide

NumberofSlides
NumberofSlides
Howmanyslidesshouldapresentationhave?Thinkbackonyourexperienceofpresentations.Howmanyhadtoofewslides?Howmanyhadtoo
many?Youcanprobablythinkofmanymoreinstancesofthelatter.
Hereisaprocessforkeepingyourslidecountundercontrol.Imaginethatyouarentgoingtouseanyslidesforapresentation.Thenaskthese
questions:
1. WhatarethepointsIwillhavethehardesttimegettingacrosstotheaudienceusingonlyspokenwords?Createslidesforthesepoints.
2. WhatemotionsthatalignwithmypurposecouldIdrawoutbetterusingslidesinsteadofspokenwordsalone?Buildemotionintotheslides
youvealreadycreatedorcreatenewones.
3. WhatadditionalslidesdoIneedtoassisttheaudience?Examplesaretheroadmapandsummaryslides.

LeadLinesandBulletPoints
LeadLinesandBulletPoints
PowerPointtemplatesforformattingslidetitlesassumeaheadlineofafewwords.However,inthereportofa2005study,investigatorsconcludedthat
oneortwofullsentencesatthetopofaslidearebettermemoryaidsthanheadlines.Theyaddedacaveat:Theseleadlinesentencesneedtobeshort.
Notallslidesservethesamepurpose,however,andsomedonotneedaleadline.Asignpostslide,forexample,doesnot.
Probablythemajorityofpresentationslidesyouhaveseenhadbulletpointswithatitle.Forpresenters,bulletpointsletthemputalotofinformation
onaslide.Fortheaudience,theyposeaproblem.Toooftenslideshavetoomanybulletpointswithtoomuchtextineachitem.Notonlydotheseslides
taxtheconcentrationoftheaudiencebuttheyalsoarenotefficient.Mostaudienceswillrememberlittleornothingofthedetailonthem.
Trytolimituseofthebulletpointdesign.Inmanycases,youcandowithoutbulletsbyputtingasingleconceptonaslideandtellingtheaudiencethe
details.Whynothavethemrecallonethingratherthannothing?
Whenyoudousebulletpoints,keeptheitemsshort.Whenyoushowtheslide,usetheBuildfunctiontodisplaybulletpointsoneatatime.Literate
adultsautomaticallyreadwrittenlanguage.Aslidethatdisplaysallofthebulletpointsatonceforcesviewerstoreadthem,whichcancause
informationoverload.
Example:UsingLessisMoreSlideDesign

HereisanexampleofaslidethatgivestheaudiencealotofinformationaboutthesourceofCocaColaCompanysgrowth.
CocaColasForeignSalesGrowth
Howmuchoftheinformationwouldyouremember?Theamountofinformationontheslideworksagainstretention.Andifthepresentationhas
manysimilarslides,audiencemembersmightnotremembertheslideatall.
Here'sanotherversionoftheslide.
CocaColasForeignSalesGrowth(Revised)
Aleadlineandavisualrepresentationofthedatamaketheslidemorememorable.Thisversionsacrificessomeofthedetailofthefirstversion.
However,iftheessentialmessageisthatCocaColanowearnsmostofitsoperatingincomeoutsideNorthAmerica,thesecondversionismore
efficientandmorememorable.
Example:MinimizingtheNumberofBulletPoints

Theslideyouwillviewhastoomuchinformationforanaudiencetotakeineasily.Afteryouviewit,answerthequestionaboutit.Clicktheiconto
seetheslide.
Findings
Howwouldyouchangetheslidetoplacelessofaburdenontheaudience?
Displaytheitemsoneatatime?
Thiswouldhelptheaudiencetakeintheinformation.However,thereisstilltoomuchinformationontheslide.
Makealloftheitemsbulletpoints?
Thissolutiondoesnotreducetheamountofinformationontheslide.
Maketwoslides,eachwithaleadline?Anduseabuildforthebulleteditems?

Yes,thisisathoroughsolutiontotheproblemoftoomuchinformationononeslide.
Deletetheunimportantitems?
Thiscouldbeasolution,butinthiscase,alloftheitemsareimportanttothetopic.
Clicktheicontoseethetwoslidesthatreplacetheoriginalslide.NotehowtheBuildfunctionisusedforboth.
Findings1
Findings2

SlideAnimation
SlideAnimation
Presentationsoftwarehasmanydifferentslideanimations,includingmultipleoptionsformovingtext,images,orobjectsontothescreen.Some
animationslikebuilds(thesequentialappearanceofitems)canbeuseful.
Butanimationcandivertaudiencemembersattentionfromthecontent.Andanimationquicklybecomesstalewithrepeateduse.Animationalso
takestimeifitisusedonmanyslides,itcanlengthenthepresentationconsiderably.Useslideanimationsparingly,ifatall.

DesigningEffectiveSlides
DesigningEffectiveSlides
Effectiveslideshavetheseessentialqualities:
1. Relevance
2. Simplicityandclarity
3. Forcefulness
4. Readability
Todesigneffectivepresentationslides,usethefollowingquestionsasaguide:
WhatistheessentialpointIwanttoconveywitheachslide?
Whatistheminimuminformationnecessarytounderstandthatpoint?
HowcanIcommunicatetherequiredinformationinthemostvisualwaypossible?Whatarethealternativestobulletpointsordata
infestedchartsandtables?
WhatothermeanscanIusetoshareinformationtoodenseforaslide?Alternativesincludeahandout,adocumentthatincludesbackup
informationrelatedtothepresentation,oralinktoawebpagethatincludestheinformation.

Relevance
Relevance
Peopleretainmoreofapresentationscontentwhenthevisualandspeechchannelsreinforceeachother.Visualcontentirrelevanttothespoken
contentactuallyreducesretention.
Example:UsingRelevantVisuals

Comparethesetwoversionsofaslide.
SlideA

SlideB

Whichoftheslidesmakesbetteruseofavisual?
TheclipartimageinSlideAhasnothingtodowiththepointaboutthelocationoftheworldsfreshwater.SlideB,ontheotherhand,usesthe
subjectoftheslideasthebackgroundimage,providingtheaudiencewithavisualmemoryassociatedwiththemainpoint.

SimplicityandClarity
SimplicityandClarity
Simplicityhastwodimensions:amanageableamountofinformationanduncomplicateddesign.Aslidewithclarityimmediatelycommunicatesits
meaning.
Speakersoftenfillslideswithinformationanddatatoconveythecomplexityoftheirtopic.Otherpresenterswanttoconvinceaudiencesthatthey
havedonethoroughresearchandhaveallthenecessarydata.Butsimplymirroringthecomplexityinaslidedoesnothelptheaudience.
Goodpresentershavegreatfaithintheirabilitytousethedataratherthanmerelydisplayit.Theybreakdowncomplexityintosmallerpiecesand
showhowtheyfittogether.AsAlbertEinsteinsaid,Ifyoucantexplainitsimply,youdontunderstanditwellenough.
Nevertheless,noteveryoneagreeswithEinstein.AnMBAstudentpreparedslideswithsimpledesignsforherbossduringaninternship.After
reviewingthem,heinsistedthatshefillupalltheemptyspaceontheslideswithnumbersandotherdetails.Shefeltshehadnochoicebuttogive
himwhathewanted.
Thecultureofcomplexityisn'tgoingtoyieldovernight,butyoucanbepartoffurtheringacultureofclarity.
Example:AvoidingInformationOverload

Reviewtheslide,thenanswerthequestionbelow.
Slide1
Herearesomeeffectsononeofthefunctions:
a.Lowercost
b.Moreflexibility
c.Newtechnology
d.Strategicimportance
Whichoftheitemsaboveisaneffectontheoperationsarea?
Thecorrectansweris(c).Ifyoudidn'tknowtheanswer,it'slikelythatmostoftheslide'sdetailwouldbelostonyou.Ifyoudidremember,you
haveanunusualabilitytotakeindetailsquickly.Buthowwouldyoufeeltryingtorememberthedetailsofmanyslidesliketheoneyoujust
saw?
Inanactualpresentation,theaudiencewouldhavemoretimewiththeslideyoujustsaw,buttheywouldalsobelisteningtothespeaker.Ifthe

informationontheslideisimportantforaudiencememberstoknow,itshouldbegiventothemasahandout.Theslidecanberedesignedwith
aleadlinethatsuccinctlyexpressesthepointtoberemembered.Thespeakercangiveexamplesofthepositiveeffectsoneachfunctionalarea.
Slide2

Forcefulness
Forcefulness
Slidescanhaveasignificantimpactonaudiencemembers.Skilledpresentersuselesstextandexploitthepowerofimagesandsoundtomakean
impression.
Example:FelipesPresentation

Comparethetwoslides.TheyarealternativesthatFelipecoulduseforhispresentationifhedecidedtofeatureastoryofoneoftheworkersinthe
Guangdongfactory.
SlideA

SlideB

Whichonedoyouthinkwillmakeamoreforcefulimpression?
SlideAhumanizesthefactoryissuebyshowingaworker.ThetextinSlideBcertainlytellstheaudiencewhatwillfollow,butitwouldnotspark
thesameinterestinthestoryasSlideA.

Readability
Readability
Thebenchmarkforreadabilityisayesanswertothefollowingquestion:
Canthepersonfarthestawayfromthescreenreadtheslideseasily?
Tofitalargeamountoftextonaslide,thesizeofthetypehastobesmall.Smalltypemakesslidetexthardtoread.
Keeptotypesizesof36to44pointsforheadingsand24pointsfortextonpresentationslides.Evenforsmallvenues,erronthesideoflargerrather
thansmaller.Oneruleofthumb:Don'tusetypesmallerthan18points.
Asecondgoodpracticeistohaveaclearcontrastbetweenthetypeandthebackground.Alackofcontrastreducesreadability.
Exercise:EvaluatingSlides

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Example:FelipesPresentation

FelipehascreatedaslidetoillustratehowinexpensivelyTechMusicacanimproveconditionsintheGuangdongplant.HewilluseitintheWhy
WeShouldActsectionofthepresentationaspartofthecostargument.

Attheendofthepresentation,aslidecarriesaquotebyaNikeexecutivewhohadtocopewithasituationsimilartotheoneFelipescompany
confronts.Giventheexecutivesexperienceandstatus,thequoteshouldhavemoreimpactonTechMusicamanagementthanacomparable
statementbyFelipe.

TheDelivery:CommunicatingtheMessage
TheDelivery:CommunicatingtheMessage
Trueeloquenceconsistsinsayingallthatshouldbesaid,andthatonly.
LaRochefoucauld
Lookatyouraudience!
Donotreadtheslidestothem!
Speakup!
Donotfidget!
Thelistofdosanddontsforpresentationdeliveryislong.Thoseimperativescanbeconfusing,discouraging,andevenannoying.Whyshouldyoumake

eyecontactwiththeaudience?Whyshouldyouavoidreadingyourslidestotheaudience?
Buttheimperativesdohaveanunderlyingrationale.Theysupportthecoreofapresentation:aconnectionbetweenthespeakerandtheaudience.
Despiteallthemediatoolsavailabletoday,youarethecontentofapresentation.Youarethereasonpeopleareintheroom.
Anotherrealityoffacetofacepresentationsisthatemotionsarealwaysaliveintheroom.Ifyousimplystandinfrontofanaudienceandsaynothing,
theaudiencewillhavefeelingsaboutyou.Deliveryshapesthewaylistenersreactemotionally.Youwanttoalignwhattheyfeelwithyourpurpose.
Thefollowingsectionsprovideinformationonfiveaspectsofdelivery:
Communicationapprehension
Voice
Nonverbalcommunication
Practice

CommunicationApprehension
CommunicationApprehension
Nearlyeveryonegetsnervousbeforetheypresent.Thatisnotaproblem.Infact,nervousnessisanaturalperformanceenhancer.Itenergizesspeakers
andmakesthemmorealert,focused,andattunedtothesituation.Buttoomuchnervousnesscanbeaproblem.
Surveysshowthatpublicspeakingisoneofpeoplesgreatestfears.Thisfear,calledcommunicationapprehension,strikesbothnoviceandexperienced
speakers.
BarbraStreisand,afamoussingerandactresswhowonbothGrammyandAcademyawards,gaveupperformingonstagewhenshewassuddenly
struckbycommunicationapprehension.Ittookhernearlythreedecadestoovercomeit.
Communicationapprehensioncanhavelongtermconsequences.Individualswhosufferfromitcandodgeopportunitiestospeakandimprove(as
Streisanddid).Sadly,researchhasshownthatcommunicationapprehensionreducesacademicperformance,limitscareerchoices,spoilsjob
interviews,anderodessatisfactionwithwork.
Whateverleveloffearyouexperience,youneedtoacceptit.Tryingtoignoreorsuppresscommunicationapprehensiondoesnotwork.But
acceptancedoesnotequatetoresignation.
OnlyWomanintheRoom
ButtheotherchoiceIhaveistorealizethepositionofpowerI'minbecauseIamunique.

CausesofCommunicationApprehension
CausesofCommunicationApprehension
Researchhasidentifiedthreecausesofcommunicationapprehension:thesituation,theaudience,andthespeakersgoals.
Situation
Physicalaspectsofspeaking,suchastheroomorthenumberofpeople
Example:Speakingtoalargenumberofpeople
Audience
Thepeoplethespeakerisaddressing
Example:AnonnativespeakerofEnglishpresentingtoanaudienceofnativeEnglishspeakers
Goals
Thespeakersdesiredoutcome
Example:Askingtheaudienceforalargesumofmoneytokeepacompanyafloat
Locatingyourgreatestsourcesofanxietycaninformthecopingstrategiesexplainedinthenextsection.

CopingStrategies
CopingStrategies
Researchhasidentifiednumerouspracticesforcopingwithcommunicationapprehension.Hereareseventhatarewidelyused.
1.WelcomingAnxiety
Anxietyaboutspeakingshouldneversurpriseyou.Ifyouhavefeltitbefore,youshouldexpecttofeelitagain.Allowtheanxietytounfolditisnot
analienforcetakingoveryourbody.Butbeprepared.Anexpertoncommunicationapprehensionrecommendsthatyouwriteoutananxiety
managementplandescribinghowyouwillrespond.Anyofthesixremainingtacticscanbepartoftheplan.
2.InstructionandPractice
Asyoubecomemoreskilledatsomething,youworryaboutitless.Peoplewhodonotlikepresentingoftentrytoavoidit.Butinstructionand
practicecanhelpbuildconfidenceandbeconducivetootherwaysofreducingcommunicationapprehension.
3.Visualization
Visualizationcanalsobuildselfconfidence.Itinvolvesmakingamovieinyourheadofasuccessfulpresentation.Visualizationhelpsonlywhen
youimaginetheentireperformance,notasinglescenefromit,andforseveraldaysinarowpriortospeaking.
4.Reframing
Whenyoureframesomething,youchangethewayyouthinkaboutit.Aspeakerwhoisanxiousabouttheaudiencecanreframethemaspeople
whoareinterestedinhistopicandopentowhathehastosay.
Youfeelvulnerableifyouviewapresentationasasoloperformancewithalleyesonyou.Butyoucanreframeitbypracticingitasaconversation
withafriend.Youcanalsodealwiththeanxietythatalleyesareonyouby"sharingthestage"withavideo,aprop,audienceparticipation,ora
copresenter.
5.WritingThoughtsandFeelings
Expressingyourselfinwritingcanlessenanxiety.Answerquestionssuchas:Whataremygreatestfearsaboutpublicspeaking?Whatistheworst
thingthatcanhappenifIdontpresentwell?
Puttingfearsintowritingmakesthemconcrete.Whentheyareinwriting,youhaveachancetoreflectonthem,consideringwhethertheyare
realistic.Youcanwritedownpositivesaboutthepresentationyouwillgive.Forexample,youmightsaythatyouaregratefultohaveachanceto
talkaboutatopicthatsimportanttoyou.
Regardlessofthecontentofthewriting,itismosteffectivewhenyoudoitregularly.Youalsocanrecordyourthoughtsandfeelingsaftera
presentation,creatingabaselineforyourspeakingexperiencegroundedinreality.
6.PositiveSelfTalk
Negativeselftalkcanbeselffulfillingbystokingfear.Positiveselftalkcandotheoppositefocusingyouonpositivessuchasthefactthatyour
accenthasneverbeenaseriousimpedimenttocommunication.
Youcanscriptyourselftalkbyreadingfrompositivewrittencommentsyouhavewrittenpreviously.
7.StayinginthePresent

Fearofconsequencesfromanunsuccessfulpresentationcantriggercommunicationapprehension.Becausethoseconsequencesareinthefuture,
anantidoteisstayinginthepresentbeforeandwhileyouspeak.
Witharacingmindandstressedbody,youcannotwillyourselfintothepresent.Youneedtoengageinanactivitythatgroundsyou.Techniques
forgroundingincludelisteningtomusic,challengingexercise(suchasrunningupstairs),countingbackward,andmeditation.
Example:FelipesPresentation

Althoughhehasgivenquiteafewpresentations,Felipehasalwaysfrettedaboutthemandneverfelttheywentaswellastheyshould.Forthe
upcomingevent,hehastwosourcesofanxiety:

Thepresentationwillinevitablyaffecthiscareeratthecompany.
Heworriesthathecannotachievehisgoalofpersuadingseniormanagementtotakeaction.
Awareofhiscommunicationapprehension,Felipehastakensomestepstodiminishit.
Practice
Heisnotfightinghisnervesandhascommittedtopracticingasmuchashecan.
PositiveSelfTalk
Heisalsotryingconstructiveselftalk.Inthepast,hehasbeenhardonhimselfabouthisspeakingskill.Buthisspeakinghasbeenwellreceivedin
thepast,andheismakingthoseexperiencesthenewnarrativeofhisselftalk.
Reframing
Thepresentationincludesapropandaudienceparticipation,bothofwhichallowhimtoconversewiththepeopleintheroom.Hewillarrive
earlyandintroducehimselfaspeoplecomein.Eachofthesemeasuresallowhimtoreframetheeventasaninteractionwithpeople,notaone
wayindividualperformance.

Voice
Voice
Wearebornwithourvoices,butwecantrainthem.Operasingersarenotbornknowinghowtosingarias,andtheateractorsarenotbornwiththe
abilitytomaketheirlinesheardinthebalcony.
Yourvoiceisnotmerelyadeliverydeviceforcommunication.Itcommunicatessomethingaboutwhoyouareandyourfeelingsaboutwhatyouare
tellingtheaudience.
Fivecharacteristicsofyourspeakingvoicearecritical:
Projection
Emphasis
Rateofspeech
Tone
Verbalfillers

Projection
Projection
Projectionishowwellapersonsvoicecarries.Thegoalistospeaksothatthepersonfarthestawayfromyoucanclearlyhearyourwords.Achieving
thegoalcanbeaproblemifyouhaveasoftspeakingvoice.
Projectiondoesnotrequireyoutoshout.Ifyoutalkmuchlouderthanyounormallydo,youstrainyourvocalcordsandalienatelisteners.Toproject,
dothefollowing:
Standerectbutnotrigidly.
Speakfromyourdiaphragmratherthanyourthroat.
Goodposturehelpsthebodyproducemoreresonantspeech.Speakingfrom
thediaphragmprojectsyourvoicebetterthanspeakingfromthethroatand
saveswearandtearonyourvocalmuscles.Iftheroomislarge,consider
usingamicrophone.
Example:ProjectingYourVoice

Listentothetwoaudioclipsbelow.Notethedifferenceinclarityand
projectionwhenapresenterspeaksfromthethroatandthenfromthe
diaphragm.
Considerwhichspeakerwouldbeeasiertohearifyouwerenotsitting
close.

Usingyourdiaphragmforspeechtakespractice.Trythefollowingsuggestions:
Takeafewbreathswhileconcentratingonpullingtheairinwithyourdiaphragmthisiscalledbellybreathing.Italsotriggersa
relaxationresponse,whichcanbeusefultocalmnerves.Putyourhandonyourstomachifyouarebreathingfromthediaphragm,you
shouldfeelapronouncedinandoutmovement.
Afteryougetafeelforbellybreathing,humasyouexpelair.Thisexerciseletsyouexperiencewhatmakingsoundsfromtheareabelow
yourlungsfeelslike.
Continuebellybreathing.Trysayingasinglewordasyouexpelair.Thentrysayingthewordfromyourthroat.Youshouldfeela
difference.
Whenyourehearseapresentation,makeanotetoyourselftospeakfromthediaphragm.Eventually,speakingfromthediaphragmwillbecome
automatic.

Emphasis
Emphasis
Listeningtoamonotoneisnotonlyfatiguingforanaudience,butitalsostripsawayadimensionofmeaning.Wechangethepitchofourvoicesas
partofthemeaningofspokenwords,especiallytosignalsignificance.Allwordsinasentencedonothavethesameimportance.Thevoicetells
listenerswhichonesareandarenot.
Example:UsingEmphasisforMeaning

Readthefollowingsentences,puttingemphasisonthewordsinboldface.Thinkabouthowtheemphasisexpressesthespeaker'sinterest.
Whowantstogotothestore?
Theemphasisindicatesprimaryinterestinthepersonwhomightgotothestore.
Whowantstogotothestore?
Theemphasiscommunicatesprimaryinterestinthedesiretogotothestore.
Whowantstogotothestore?
Theemphasiscommunicatesprimaryinterestinthedestination.
Exercise:HearingWhyEmphasisMatters

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RateofSpeech
RateofSpeech
Youhavenodoubtheardspeakerswhoseconcerntogetthroughapresentationasquicklyaspossiblecausedthemtospeakrapidly.Rapidspeaking
canbeasideeffectofnervousness.Thefastertheytalked,thelesslikelyitisthatyoulistenedcarefully.
Rapidspeechhasanotherbadeffectfromtheaudiencespointofview:Iteliminatesemphasisonkeywords.
Talkatacomfortablepace.Monitoryourratebymakingaudioorvideorecordingsofyourrehearsals.
Exercise:SettingYourRateofSpeech

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Tone
Tone
Toneexpresseshowspeakersfeelaboutthetopicandthepeopletheyarespeakingto.Manyspeakersunwittinglyadoptatonethatdoesnotmakea
goodimpressiononlisteners.Speakinginamonotoneoracolorlesstoneofvoicemaybeduetonervesoraconsequenceofrecitingfrommemory.
However,listenerscanhearthistoneofvoiceasboredom,indifference,orfear.
Youwanttobeverycarefulaboutanegativetone.Itmaybeappropriateonrareoccasions,butingeneralthattypeoftonewillcomplicateorsevera
connectionwiththeaudience.
Practicingapresentationbydeliveringittoafriendwillhelpyoumaintainaconversationaltoneonethathasenergyandpositivefeeling.

VerbalFillers
VerbalFillers
Mostofusdoitnumeroustimesduringaday.Wedoitwhenweareaddressingabusinessmeetingandwhenwearetalkingtoafriendonthe
phone.Peoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesdoit,sometimesusingidenticalsounds.
Uh,ah,andumandphrasessuchasyouknowandlikethesesoundsandphrasesareverbalfillersbecausetheyfillwhatotherwisewouldbe
silence.Occasionalfillersarenotaproblem,butwhentheyarefrequent,theydistractandannoylisteners.Thisproblemhasasimplesolution:
Replacethefillerswithsilentpauses.
Whilethesolutionisconceptuallysimple,theimplementationisdifficult.Fillersarehabitssotheyneedtobeusheredoutofanindividuals
vocabularygradually.Also,speakerstendtobeafraidofsilenceandoftenhaveanexaggeratedsenseofhowlongasilencelasts,eventhough
audiencesdonotnoticewhenspeakerspauseortheyquicklyforgetthattheydid.
Herearesuggestionsforgraduallyeliminatingfillers:
1. Startmonitoringhowyouusethemineverydayconversations.
2. Startsubstitutingapauseforsomeofthem.
3. Setagoalofreducingyouruseoffillersoveraperiodoftime.
Example:RiddingSpeechofFillers

Studythenotesbelow.Donotmemorizethembutrememberthemainideas.Thendelivertheideasoutloudasifyouweregivinga
presentation.Notewhenyouusefillers,butkeepgoing.Afterfinishing,repeattoseeifyoucanreplacesomeoftheverbalfillerswithasilent
pause.
ExportingtotheU.S.:MexicoversusChina
Wages
WagedifferentialbetweenMexicanandChineselabornarrowing.
In2010,ChineselaborcostsonethirdofMexicos,ButChinesewagesincreasingatdoubleannualrateofMexico's.
AverageMexicanwageis20percentoftheaverageintheU.S.
Geography
MexicoclosetoU.S.
Allowsfastdeliveryofproductsandlowtransportationcosts.
Conclusion
MexicomorecompetitivewithChinaforproductsexportedtotheUnitedStates.

NonverbalCommunication
NonverbalCommunication
Nonverbalcommunicationconveysmeaningthroughfacialexpression,gestures,andothermeansthatdonotrelyonwords.Nonverbal
communicationcanbedividedintofivesources:
Facialexpression
Eyecontact
Posture
Movement

Gesture
Thisformofcommunicationhasaprofoundeffectonpeople,startingwithfirstimpressions.Asyouknow,peopleformafirstimpressionofa
strangerinaboutatenthofasecond.
Youcanmanagefirstimpressionsbythinkingahead.Audiencemembersarelikelytofeelmorepositivelytowardyouifyouexhibitwhat
psychologistscallimmediacybehaviors,ornonverbalbehaviorthatbringsindividualsclosertoeachother.Theyinclude:
Smiling
Relaxedposture
Eyecontact
Exhibitingimmediacybehaviorswhilespeakingnurturesandsustainsafavorableimpression.Thebehaviorscanbeaugmentedwithexpressions
offeelingssuchasconcern,reassurance,humor,confidence,andempathy.
Yourphysicalappearancematterstooandshouldfitwhatyouraudiencethinksisappropriate,forinstance,businessattireforbankersandcasual
clothesforvideogamedevelopers.

FacialExpression
FacialExpression
Smilingisavitalelementofimmediacybehavior.Ifyouarenothappyspeaking,whyshouldtheaudiencebehappylistening?Ifyouarenot
excitedaboutyourtopic,whyshouldtheaudiencebe?Surprisingly,quiteafewpresentersdonotsmile,evenmomentarily.
Anxietyaboutspeakingcanleadtoablankorfrowningface.Thepeopleintheroomdonotknowwhatyouarefeelingtheycanonlygoonwhat
theyseeandhear.Fromtheirviewpoint,youmayappearslightlyhostile,unhappyabouthavingtopresent,oruninterestedinthetopicand
them.
Youwanttheaudiencetolikeyou.Whenpeoplesmileatyou,youtendtolikethemthatisawelldocumentedpsychologicalresponse.
Youdonthavetosmileallthetime.Manyotherexpressionsareappropriateaccordingtothecircumstances.Forexample,alookof
concentrationwhenanaudiencememberspeakstoyoushowsthatyouarelisteningintently.
Example:RespondingtoFacialExpression

Lookatthethreephotosandthinkaboutthequestionbelow.
Inwhichphotodoesthespeakerseemmostinterestedinconnectingwiththeaudience?
Thespeakerismorelikelytoconnectwithlistenerswhenheissmiling(photoontheleft)thanwhenhehasnoexpression(middlephoto)
orisfrowning(photoontheright).
Example:SmilefortheAudience

Itmayseemstrangetopracticesmiling.Yetmanyspeakersarenotawareofhowsomberornoncommittaltheylooktoanaudience.
Infrontofamirror,talkfor15secondsaboutatopicyouknowwell.Trysmilingthreetimeswhilespeakingorwhenyoupause.Youmayfind
thissurprisinglytoughtodo.Youcanalsorecordtheexerciseasavideo.

EyeContact
EyeContact
Whetheryouaremovingorstandingstill,facetheaudienceasmuchaspossibleandlookataudiencemembersintheireyes.Thatkeepsyou
connectedwiththem.Trynottostandinoneplace,rotatingyourheadbackandforthtoscantheaudience.Yourheadwilllooklikeavideo
surveillancecamera.
Ataviscerallevel,wehavenegativefeelingsaboutpeoplewhowontlookusintheeye.Thisreactionisnotaconsciousjudgment.Ithappens
automaticallyandcancolorourattitudetowardthespeakerwithoutourbeingawareofit.
However,incertaincultures,steadyeyecontactisnotregardedasapositivebehavior.Asalways,youhavetobesensitivetothecultural
context.
Oneofthebiggestliabilitiesofpresentationslidesisthattheyexertanalmostmagneticattractiononthepresenterseyes.Allofushave
staredatthebackofpresenterswhoseemmesmerizedbytheirownslidesandprobablyallofushaveturnedourownbackstoanaudience.
Partofrehearsingapresentationisestablishingthedisciplineoffacingtheaudienceasmuchaspossible.

Posture
Posture
Whenspeakersstanderectbutrelaxedtheyseemcomfortablewithus,andweusuallyfeelcomfortablewiththem.Asfortheperennial
questionofwhattodowithyourhands,whentheyarenotdoingsomethingsuchasmakinggesturesputthemwherenaturedid:atyour
sides.
Slumpedshoulders,arigidbody,standingsidewaystotheaudienceforlongperiodsalloftheseposturessignalapresenter'sdiscomfort,
whichisreadilycommunicatedtoaudiences.
Eventhepositionandmovementofyourheadcanaffectaudiences.Inpsychologicalstudies,peopletendtoperceiveaslightlyraisedheadas
expressingconfidenceorhappinessandaloweredheadasmeaningsadnessorsubmission.
Aheadtiltedtotherightorleftisusuallyseenasadesireforrapport,althoughwhencombinedwithanegativefacialexpressionsuchasa
frown,itcommunicatesdisagreementordisapproval.
Exercise:UsingPosturetoCommunicate

Movement
Movement
Movementhelpsmaintaintheaudiencesfocusonyou.Rememberthatpeoplehavethreesystemsofattentionandone,alerting,issensitive
tomovements.
Maintainpurposefulmovementwhileyouspeak.Forexample,walktowardpartoftheaudience,makeeyecontactwithindividuals,andthen
walktowardanotherpartoftheaudienceandagainmakeeyecontact.Returntoaspotinthefrontoftheaudienceandstandforafew
moments.Thenrepeattheprocess,butapproachdifferentpartsoftheaudiencethanyoudidthefirsttime.
Gettingclosetoindividualsintheaudiencebreaksdownthebarrierofspaceandstrengthenstheimpressionthatthespeakeristalkingto
eachofthem.
Example:UsingMovementandtheEyestoConnect

Inthephotosthepresenterengagestheaudience(left)butfocusesontheflipchart(right).
Manypresenterslookattheirvisualsmorethantheaudience.

Gesture

Gesture
Alongwithmovement,gestureisthekineticcompanionofspeaking.Thinkofgesturesasvisualaidsthathappentobeattachedtoyou.
Gesturehasanotherpurposebesidessignalingtheaudience.Accordingtoscientificresearch,gesturinghelpspeoplethink.Scientists
speculatethatthemovementofarmsandhandsmakespeoplesthoughtsmoreconcrete.Thegesturethoughtconnectionimpliesthat
suppressinggesturescanmakespeakingmoredifficult.
Somepeoplesaythattheyfeelexposedandawkwardwiththeirhandsattheirsides.Theywanttodosomethingwiththeirarmsthatmakes
themfeelsafer.Insteadoffightingthetendencytoclasphandsorputthembehindyourback,keepthematwaistlevel,closetogetherbutnot
clasped.Thehandsneedtobefreesothatyoucangesturewiththem.
Exercise:UsingGestures

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UsefulGesturesforSpeaking
UsefulGesturesforSpeaking
Themostusefulgesturesarethosethatcomenaturally.Letyourhead,hands,andarmsmoveastheydowhenyouhaveaconversation.
However,youcanemployafewstandardgestureswhenspeaking.
Thetwostandardsetsofgesturesareenumerationandemphasis.
Example:UsingGesturestoEnumerate

GesturestoEnumerate
Usefingerstoenumerateuptothreeitems.Beyondthreethegesturebecomesawkward.
Thesecondstandardgestureisemphasis,whichactuallyinvolvesafamilyofgestures.
Example:UsingGesturestoEmphasize

GesturesforEmphasis
Fivegesturesillustratedanddefined:
1.Extendoneforearm
2.Extendbothforearms
3.Pointyourindexfingerupward
4.Singlechop
5.Doublechop
Example:FelipesPresentation

Inhisexperiencewithpublicspeaking,Felipeknowshehasanchoredhimselftoonespotontheflooratwhatfeltlikeasafedistancefrom
theaudience.Inaddition,hehasslippedhishandsintohispocketswithoutknowingit.
Recognizingspeakinghabitscandirectpracticeatchange.Sincehisaudiencewillbeseniortohimintheorganization,hecouldeasilygive
intohishabitandtakeadefensivepositiondistantfromtheaudience.Inhisrehearsals,Felipemakesapointofmovingforwardtoward
hislisteners.
Onthemove,hecannotputhishandsinhispockets.Whenhefeelshishandsseektheirhabitualpositions,hetakesafewstepsforwardor
totheside.

Practice
Practice
Youshouldspendmoretimepracticingyourpresentationthanactuallydeliveringit.
Speakingisaskillinvolvingboththemindandthebody.Peopledonotgivepresentationsintheirheadsorwanderaroundaroom,gesturing,
smiling,andsayingnothing.Theyintegratethoughts,feelings,andbodymovements.Speakingisthereforeanalogoustosports,whichalso
incorporatethemindandbody.Theonlywaytogetbetterateitheristopractice.
Presentationpracticehasamemorycomponentlearningthecontentofthepresentationsothatyoucandeliveritfluentlybutnotmemorizing
anythingmorethanafewsentences,ifthat.
Presentationpracticehasemotionalandphysicalcomponents.Youshouldgetusedtosmilingandotherimmediacybehaviorsasyouspeak.
Monitoryourspeakingvoiceforapositivetone.Allowyourhandsandarmstogesturenaturally,moveforward,andmaintainacomfortable
posture.Practicingsilentlyinyourheadmayhelpyourememberthecontent,butitdoesnothingfortheotherelementsofyourpresentation.
Researcherswhostudymemoryrecommendfairlybriefperiodsofpractice(10to15minutes),shortbreaks,andthentestsofwhatyouhave
learned.Studyingchunksofcontentandotheraspectsofthepresentationfollowedbyselfteststoseeifyoucanperformthechunkwithout
majormistakesleadstobetterretentionthanstudyingallofthecontentatonce,alongwithalltheslidechanges,movements,andotherdetails
ofspeaking.
Youalsoarebetteroffpracticingdifferentpartsofthepresentationratherthanpracticingonepartoverandover.Ifyouhavedividedyour
presentationintosmallerparts,practicethemoneatatime.

MemoryAids
MemoryAids
Thebestmemoryaidispractice.Theidealistospeakwithoutnotes.Anindividualspeakingtotheaudiencewithoutreferringtonotesor
constantlylookingatherslideshelpsestablishastrongconnectiontotheaudienceandenhanceshowtheyperceiveher.
Butamemoryaid,suchasanoutline,ishelpfulasareference.Memoryaidscanmakeapresenterfeelmoresecure,becausehehasrecourse
ifheforgets.Slidescanservethesamepurposeasnotes,butbesurenottobecomeoverdependentonthem.Ifyoudo,youwillhaveyour
backturnedtolistenersandreadtheslidestothem.
Donotreadyourpresentationfromnotesorreciteitwordforwordfrommemory.Bothkillanyengagementbetweenthespeakerandthe
audience.

FourWaystoPractice
FourWaystoPractice
Youshouldtrytopracticeintheroomwhereyouwillbespeaking.Thevenuemakesadifference:Speakinginasmallconferenceroomdiffers
markedlyfromspeakinginalargeroomorauditorium.Forexample,voiceprojectionandmovementarevariablesthatdependonthesizeof
thespace.

Practicingintheroomwhereyouwillspeakgivesyouanopportunitytocheckconditionssuchaslightingandequipment(forexample,the
projectionsystemandsound).Youhaveenoughonyourmindbeforeyouspeakyoudonotwanttoaddtryingtofigureouttheaudiovisual
equipment.
1.UseVideo
Watchingavideoofyourrehearsalsisprobablythemosteffectiveteachingtoolavailableotherthanaudiencefeedback.Mostpeopledonot
likelookingatthemselvesonvideo.Recruitingafriendtowatchwithyoucanmoderatethetendencytoharshselfcriticism.
Forrealisticpractice,askseveralfriendstoserveastheaudience.Havethemsitonyourrightandleftsoyoucangetusedtomovingand
makingeyecontactwiththeaudience.Askthemforhonestfeedback.
Becauseofcellphoneswithvideocameras,recordingiseasy.Youcanhaveafriendrecordyouordoityourselfbyplacingaphoneonaflat
surfaceorusinganinexpensiveminitripod.
2.UseaTrustedAudience
Rehearseinfrontofatrustedaudiencewithoutrecordingyourself.Arrangetheaudiencemembersasdescribedinnumber1.Thenask
themforfeedback.
3.PracticewithaMirror
Practicinginfrontofamirrorcanhelpyouworkonspecificvisualaspectsofdeliverysuchasposture.Asyouwatch,youcanchangethe
wayyouarestandingorrefineagestureinrealtime.However,watchingyourselfinamirrorcanbedistractingandcanencouragebad
habitssuchasnotmoving.
4.PracticewithoutaMirror
Rehearsingbyyourselfwithoutamirrororvideocameraisbetterthannorehearsalaslongasyoutalkoutloud.Youmightfeelself
conscioussometimes,butyouneedtouseyourvoice,asyouwillinthepresentation.

AnsweringQuestions
AnsweringQuestions
Thinkofaquestionandanswer(Q&A)sessionaspartofapresentationratherthananaddon.Forapersuasivepresentation,aQ&Aprovides
moreopportunitiestoconvincetheaudienceaswellasachancetoreengagethemwhentheirinterestandenergymaybeflagging.
Atthesametime,Q&Ashaverisks.Audiencememberscannotalwaysbecountedontogivepresenterstherespectandempathytheydeserve.

PreparingforQuestions
PreparingforQuestions
Youcanneverincludeeveryimportantpointaboutatopicinapresentationnorshouldyou.Toprepareforquestions,considerwhatyouare
leavingoutthataudiencemembersmayhavequestionsabout.(Sometimesthisthinkingwillidentifycontentthatdoesneedtobeinthe
presentation.)
Everyconclusionaboutacomplicated,controversialissueinevitablyhasweaknessesordownsides.Thesecanoftenbethesubjectsof
audiencemembersquestions.Agoodresponsewillexplainhowtomitigatethoseweaknessesordownsides.Youmayalsohavetodefend
yourconclusionbyreviewingtheevidenceyouhavepresented.Youshouldknowhowtosummarizeitquickly.
Example:MitigatingtheDownside

Imagineacompanyinwhichinnovativeideashavedriedup.Youthinkoneofthecausesisthebureaucraticvettingprocessthathas
developedovertheyearsandstiflesnewideas.Yoursolutionistostreamlinetheprocess.
YouexpectthisissuetocomeupintheQ&A.Severalpowerfulmanagerswillhavetogiveuptheirrolesinevaluatingnewideas.Youridea
formitigatingtheirresistanceistohaveeachofthemparticipateinthevettingprocessonarotatingbasis.
Exercise:IdentifyingPotentialAudienceQuestions

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RehearsingaQ&A
RehearsingaQ&A
Writedownthequestionsyouexpectsothatyoucanpracticeansweringthem.Apracticemethodisusingonlineormobileapplicationsfor
creatingflashcards.(Manyoftheseapplicationsarefree.)Theyallowyoutorandomizetheorderoftheflashcards,andsomeofthemhavethe
capabilitytospeakthequestions.Anotheroptionistohaveafriendaskyouquestions.
Trytopracticeanswersasyoudothepresentation:Standandspeakoutloud.

ConductingtheQ&A
ConductingtheQ&A
Afterdeliveringapresentation,youareprobablykeyedupandmayhavestrongemotions.Thisisnotaninternalstateconducivetolistening
patiently.ButthatiswhatyouneedtodoinaQ&Aobservequestionerscloselyandlistentothemcarefully.
Watchthebodylanguageofthequestioner.
Tostrengthenyourconcentration,notequestionersnonverbalcommunicationfacialexpression,posture(evenwhenseated,peoplehave
differentpostures),andgestures.Theinformationhelpsyouconcentrateandassessthequestionersmotivationandattitude.
Understandthequestion.
Becertainthatyouunderstandaquestion.Yourjobistoanswerquestions,notsortoutvagueorconfusedaudiencestatements.Never
answerwhatyouthinkwasaskedaskforclarification.Forexample,Ihaveasensethatyoudontfindtheevidenceconvincing.Ifthats
true,tellmewhyyouaren'tpersuadedandIcanspeaktothat.Bealertforquestionsthatgiveyouanopeningtoreinforceyourmain
points.
Speaktoeveryone.
Repeatthequestionsothateveryoneknowswhatitis.Remembertospeaktothewholeaudience,notthequestioneralone.
Acceptcriticismgracefully.
Youhavetotaketoheartthefactthatnopositioniswithoutweaknessandthereforenopresentationisimpregnable.Inaddition,
understandthatyouprobablycantconvinceeveryoneintheroom.Showrespectforcritics,evenifyouthinktheyarewrong,anddonottry
todenyorhidefromfaircriticism.
Whatifaquestionerhasnoticedamistakeinthepresentation?Thankherforit.Itisembarrassing,butitisbettertohavethechanceto
correctthemistakethantohaveaudiencemembersrealizeitlater.

Donotfakeitever.
Whenyoudonotknowtheanswertoaquestion,sayso.Fakingananswerrisksdestroyingyourcredibility.Ifyouransweriswrongandthe
audienceacceptsit,itcouldleadtobadconsequenceslateron.Tellthepersonwhoaskedthequestionthatyouwillgetbacktohimwithan
answer.(Andmakesureyoudo.)

MaintainingControl
MaintainingControl
Occasionally,audiencememberscanfeelcompetitivewithspeakers.Theymaythinktheyarerightandthespeakeriswrong,andattemptto
hijackaQ&Aforacounterargument.
Assoonasyouseethissituationdeveloping,politelytelltheindividualthatyouwantasmanyaudiencemembersaspossibletohaveachance
toaskquestions.Proposeaconversationafterthesessionhasended.Withoutanaudience,theindividualoftenwillnotbeinterestedin
pursuingthediscussion.
Anotherriskispeoplewhodonotdisputethepresentationbutwanttotalkaboutsomethingtheyconsidermoreinteresting.Bewatchfulfor
topicsthathavenothingtodowiththepresentation.Ifthishappens,aresponsesimilartotheonejustdescribedisappropriate.

Example:FelipesPresentation

Afterhispresentation,Felipewilltakequestionsandheexpectssomehardones.Hereareatwoheanticipatesandoutlinesofhis
responses.
Question:Ifwesubsidizeimprovementsinthefactory,wonteveryvendorweworkwithexpectthesametreatment?Someofthem
mightevendecidenottospendmoneyonimprovementsbecausetheythinktheycangetustopay
forthem.
Goodquestion!
Inthefuture,weshouldinsistoncertainstandardsbeforewesignacontract.
Ourstandardcontractshouldrequirevendorstomaintainstandards.
Ifthevendorsdonotmaintainthesestandards,wecanterminatethecontractimmediately.
Question:Ithinktheethicalproblemiseasytosolve.Wetellthefactoryownerwewanthimtostopemployingchildrenandupgrade
factoryconditions.Thenitsuptohimtodosomething.Ifanyoutsidersask,wecansayweveputtheowneronnotice.Whyshouldwe
domore?
Wecoulddoasyousuggest.
Itgivesusadefensethatwehavetried.
Butcanwebesureourcustomerswillseeissuethesamewaywedo?
Theworldischanging,andcustomersaremakinggreaterethicaldemands.
Thischangewillcontinueitsnotafad.
AnsweringaQuestion
ListenasFeliperespondstoachallengingquestionfromtheaudienceofhispresentation.

TeamPresentations
TeamPresentations
Inbusinessschoolandthecorporateworld,presentationsareoftendoneinteams.Teampresentationsarenotmerelyaseriesofindividual
presentations.Theyaddalayerofplanning,preparation,andpracticetotheindividualpresentations.
Presentinginteamsdemandscoordinationandcontinuityinfourareas:
Content
Slidesandothervisuals
Delivery
Transitionsandtiming

Content
Content
Contentmaybethetoughestaspectofateampresentation.Aswithanyformofteamwork,individualseasilyheadindifferentdirections,
resultinginincoherent,disjointedmaterial.Toavoidthis,allmembersoftheteamshouldagreeonawrittenpresentationplan.Acrystal
clearstatementofpurposeformsthefoundationoftheplan.
Usetheplanasablueprinttoassignteammembersresponsibilityforthemajorpartsofthepresentation.Theirfirsttaskisgenerating
content.Teamsshouldregularlycommunicateaboutprogressanddiscussanyproblemsthatcropup.Forexample,ateammembermay
findlittlematerialforthepartshehasbeenassigned.Theteamcandecidewhethertochangethepresentationplanorseeiftheycanhelp
withtheresearch.
TeamPresentationsNeedaStoryline
Forateampresentationtobeeffective,youneedtohaveavery,veryclearstorylinetheteamcanagreetoupfront.
Assumingtheteamwilltakequestions,eachmembershouldwriteoutafewquestionsthataudiencemembersmayaskabouthisorher
portionofthecontent.Teammembersshouldaskeachotherthequestionsandanswerthemaspartofthepresentationpractice.

SlidesandOtherVisuals
SlidesandOtherVisuals
Teammembershavedecisionstomakeaboutslides.Willtheteamusethem?Iftheywill,howmanywilltheyuse?Willsomepartsofthe
presentationneedmoreslidesthanothers?
Ifslidesareused,theteamshoulddevelopacommonslidetemplatetoensureaconsistentlookandfeel.Becausepeoplehavedifferentideas
aboutslidedesign,thegroupshouldalsotalkaboutdesignprinciples.
Theteamshoulddiscussothervisualmaterials,suchasvideoorpropsthatcouldenhancethepresentationanddecidewhowillbe
responsibleforthem.
Havinganotherteammemberadvanceslidesandhandleothermediatakessomepressureoffthespeakersandeliminatestheneedforthem
totaketurnsholdingtheremote.

Delivery
Delivery
Everyonehasauniquepersonalityandthereforeauniquedeliverystyle.Thedifferencesareanadvantagebecausetheycankeepaudience
engagementalive.
Butallofthepresentersshouldfollowcertainbestpractices.Theyshouldexpressasimilarlevelofemotion,suchasenthusiasm,andmake
similareffortstoengagetheaudience,suchaseyecontactandbodymovement.Ahighengagementspeakerfollowedbyalowengagement

speakerwilljaraudiencemembersandpossiblycausethemtowonderwhetherthelowengagementpresenterbelievesintheteams
message.

TransitionsandTiming
TransitionsandTiming
Thetransitionsbetweentheteamsspeakersshouldnotbelefttoimprovisation.Theteamshouldagreeonhowtohandlethemandpractice
them.Oneapproachtotransitionsishavingeachspeakerintroducethenextone.Oronepersoncanhandlethetransitionsthatpersoncan
alsoopenandconcludethepresentation.
Presenterscanpracticetheirpartsontheirown,buttheteamshouldrehearsethefullpresentation,includingtransitions,severaltimes.
Teammembersshouldgiveeachotherhonestbutconstructivefeedback.
Carefulattentionshouldbepaidtohowlongeachpersonspeaksandthetotaltimeofthepresentation.Adjustmentsshouldbemadewhen
onepersonrunslongandputspressureonthespeakersthatfollowtocutshorttheirremarks.Makingadjustmentsinfrontoftheaudienceis
muchmorestressfulthanmakingtheminpracticesessions.
Speakerscanlosetrackoftimeinfrontofanaudience.Ateammembershouldberesponsibleformonitoringthetimespeakersaretaking
andgiveasignagreedoninadvanceiftheydonotfinishwhentheyaresupposedto.
Thenexttimeyouparticipateinateampresentation,considerusingtheTeamPresentationAssessment.Reviewthechecklistwiththe
memberssothattheyunderstandandcommittotheworkthatgoesintoasuccessfulpresentation.
Template:TeamPresentationAssessment

WebandVideoConferencing
WebandVideoConferencing
Internetbasedconferencingapplicationsareroutinelyusedforbusinesscommunication.Althoughtheyhaverealshortcomings,theirphysical
andeconomicbenefitsensuretheirwideusage.

TechnicalConsiderations
TechnicalConsiderations
Forvirtualpresentationstobesuccessful,boththespeakerandtheaudienceneedtoknowhowtousethesoftware.Presenters,therefore,
shouldpracticeextensivelywiththeapplicationtheywilluse,especiallywhentheyarenewtoit.
Evenwhentheyareskilled,however,presentersshouldhaveanexperiencedproducerforeveryevent.Decadesago,speakersworriedthat
thelightbulbintheoverheadprojectorwouldburnout.Nowtheyworrythattheaudioandvideofeedswillbedroppedinthemiddleoftheir
presentations.
Experiencedproducerscansavewebpresentationsfromdisruption.Theycanberesponsibleformakingsurethatparticipantshavecorrect
logininformationinadvanceandareabletoconnecttotheevent.Theycanmonitorthesoftwareduringthepresentation,troubleshoot,assist
participants,andmanagecommunicationssuchaschatandemail.
Avirtualeventcanquicklyrunintotroubleifparticipantsareunfamiliarwiththesoftware.Presentersshouldbesuretheaudienceknows
thesoftwarebeforethedayofthepresentation.Iftheydonot,thepresentershouldmakesuretheyreceivethenecessarytechnicalsupport.
Thissectionassumestheuseofwebpresentationapplicationswithandwithoutvideo.Itdoesnotcoverhighendproductssuchas
TelepresenceorapplicationssuchasSkypeorFaceTimethatareprimarilyusedforonetooneorsmallgroupcommunication.

StrengthsofVirtualPresentations
StrengthsofVirtualPresentations
Audiencesize
The"virtualconferenceroom"ofawebbasedpresentationcanaccommodateafewparticipantsorhundredsoreventhousands.
DistanceandTime
Becauseitiswebbased,thetechnologycanreachallovertheglobeandmaketimedifferenceslessimportant.
Cost
Virtualpresentationscanbefarlessexpensivethanfacetofacemeetingsifsignificanttravelisinvolved.
Maturingtechnology
Softwareusedforvirtualpresentinghasbeeninuseforyears.Reliabilityhasimprovedandtherangeoffeaturesandtoolsislarge.

WeaknessesofVirtualPresentations
WeaknessesofVirtualPresentations
Audienceattention
Thecompetitionfortheaudience'sattentionisworseduringvirtualpresentationsthanliveevents.Audiencememberscanbedoing
anythinginsteadoflisteningandwatchingreadingandwritingemails,texting,orstaringoutawindow.
Nonverbalfeedback
Presentersreceivenononverbalfeedbackfromtheaudience.Theycan'treadhowattentiveparticipantsareortheiremotionssuchas
confusion,satisfaction,ordissent.
Makingaconnection
Exceptwhenusinghighendsoftware,virtualpresentershavelimitedwaysofmakingaconnectionwiththeaudience:voice,facial
expression,simulatedeyecontact(lookingdirectlyatthevideocamera),limitedgestures,andslidesandothervisualmaterial.

PreparingVirtualPresentations
PreparingVirtualPresentations
Toprepareforavirtualpresentation,youcanusetheprocess,techniques,andguidelinestaughtinthisModule.Excludingthesoftware
platformandothersupportingtechnologies,virtualpresentingisastrippeddownversionoffacetofacespeaking.Asaspeaker,youhaveto
adapttothelimitations.
Setrealisticlimitsonpresentationcontentandtime.
Virtualpresentingdiminishesthehumanconnectionpossibleinfacetofaceencounters,thusmakingithardertokeeptheaudience's
attention.Sodoesthefactthatparticipantscandomanyotherthingswhiletheyaresupposedtobepayingattention.Therefore,youshould
cutthecontentdowntothebareessentialsandrestrainthelengthofthepresentation.
Persuadewiththepurpose.

Prepareastatementaboutwhyparticipantsshouldpayattentiontoyou.Thinkofthemassittingintheirofficeorhomewithmanyoptions
fordirectingtheirattention.Givethemreasonswhytheyshouldchooseyouandyourmessage.
Dividethepresentationintoshortchunks.
Apresentationconsistingofseveralsmallchunkswithclearboundariescangivetheaudienceasenseofforwardprogress.Themomentum
canassistyouinkeepingthemfocused.Prepareyourselftodescribethestructureatthebeginningofthepresentation.
Buildininteractivity.
Sincetheinteractionbetweenthespeakerandaudienceissolimited,buildintwowayeventssuchasquestionandanswerperiods,
discussions(includingcallingonaudiencemembersbyname),problemsparticipantshavetoworkthrough,polls,games(ifappropriate),
andteamwork.
Designsimpleslidesandeyecatchingvisuals.
Keepyourvisualmessagesassimpleaspossibleandtastefullyeyecatching.Forexample,visuallysimplechartsandgraphsinbrightcolors
willattractandholdattentionbetterthantableswithrowsofnumbers.
Practicewiththesoftware.
Practicethepresentationasmuchaspossible,usingthesoftware.Iftheapplicationhasthecapability,recordrehearsals,critiquethem,
andpracticeagain.

DeliveringVirtualPresentations
DeliveringVirtualPresentations
Thefollowingguidelinesarebasedonapresentationteamofatleasttwo:thespeakerandtheproducer.Atechnicalsupportpersonmakesa
goodaddition.Yourgoalasthespeakeristobeabletoconcentrateasmuchaspossibleoncommunicatingandaslittleasnecessaryonthe
technology.
Makeabargainwiththeaudience.
Besidestellingtheaudiencewhytheyshouldlisten,letthemknowthatinreturnfortheirattention,youwillkeepthepresentationmoving
andendontime.Thenclearlystatethepurpose,structure,andlengthofthepresentation.
Doasound,video,andinterfacecheck.
Makesureeveryonecanhearyou(andseeyouifusingvideo).Checkwhetheranyparticipantishavingatechnicalproblem.
Positionthecameracorrectlyandspeakintoit.
Checkthepositioningofthevideocamerabeforeyoubegin.Itshouldbeateyelevelandfarenoughawaythatviewerscanseeyoufrom
thewaistup.Speaktothecameramostofthetime.
Payattentiontoyourvoice.
Yourvoiceisyourmainmediumofcommunicationinavirtualpresentation.Forpresentationswithoutvideo,itisyouronlymedium
otherthantextandvisuals.Useitwisely.FollowtheadviceinthisModule.Imaginethatyouaretalkingtosomeoneinhisorheroffice.
Speakatamoderaterateandmodulateforemphasis.Besureyouaretalkingatavolumecomfortableforthelisteners.
Usegentlegestures.
Ifyouhaveavideochannel,gesturesplayaroleincommunicatingmeaning.Sousethem,butrememberthatinthesmallframeofthe
typicalwebvideocamera,movementsaremagnified.Trynottomoveyourhandsandarmsquicklyandkeepthemclosetothebody.
Donotinterpretsilenceasattention.
Asthepresenteryoucan'tbeconstantlyworriedthatpeoplearepayingattention.Atthesametime,silencecanbeabadsign.Askinga
participantbynameifsheunderstandsapointyou'vejustmadeshowstheaudiencethatyouwillbemonitoringtheirinvolvement.Other
typesofinteractivityaccomplishthesamegoal.

WhenYouPresent
WhenYouPresent
Themomenthasarrived.
Youhaveworkedhardtounderstandtheaudienceandareconfidentyouwillbepersuasive.Youhaveasmallslidedeckthatyouexpectwill
havealargeimpact.Therehearsalshavehelpedhoneyourcontentanddelivery.Youthoughtthroughthequestionsyoumaybeaskedand
practicedanswers.
Intheroom45minutesearly,youfirstcheckthetemperatureandthelighting.Thereisnoiseoutsidetheroomandyouclosethewindows.You
havebroughtamemorysticktotransfertheslideandmediafilestotheroomcomputerandhavecopiesonalaptopthatcanbeusedasa
backup.Afterputtingyourslidesontheprojectionsystem,yourunthroughthemtwiceusingtheremotetoensurethattheydisplayproperly.
Youalsotestashortvideothatyouwillshow.
Youhaveastressmanagementplan.Besidesrehearsals,youvisualizedthepresentationinyourmindeachdayforaweekandhavejustbriskly
walkedupanddownseveralflightsofstairs.Theexertionleavesyoufeelingmorerelaxed.Althoughyouwillnotbeusingnotes,youreviewyour
majorpointsonasheetofpaperyoubroughtbutyoufindthatthereviewisnotnecessary.
Aspeoplestarttoentertheroom,yougreetthemwithasmileandhandshakeandasktheirnames.Onepersonmentionsaninterestina
particulartopic.Younotethepersonsnamewhenyoureachtheappropriatepointinthepresentation,youplantosay,Laurel,Imnowgoing
totalkaboutthetopicinwhichyouhaveaspecialinterest.Maybeothershavethesameinterest.
Youhavefinishedthehardwork.Nowyoucanreapthebenefits.Justbeforeyoustartspeaking,asyouwalkeasilytowardtheaudience,make
eyecontact,andsmile,yourealizeyouaregoingtoenjoyyourself.
Example:FelipesPresentation

Felipehasfinishedhisworkonthepresentation.AlthoughhedoesnotknowwhethertheCEOhasatrulyopenmind,Felipedoesnotworry
becausehehaschosentoconcentrateonmakingthepresentationsomethinghecanbeproudofandletthechipsfallwheretheymay.
Felipe'sPresentation
InthebriefexcerptofFelipe'spresentation,heputsintopracticemanyofthelessonstaughtinthiscourse.
NoticehowFelipelooksateveryoneatthetableandcontinuestodosothroughout.
Hestandsclosetohisaudiencetoconnectwiththem.Hisspeakingisclearandunhurried.
Inhisopening,Felipehasdescribedtheissueanditsriskforthecompany.
HeuseshisvoicetostresstheexampleofNike.
Felipe'sgesturesandenumerationemphasizeessentialpoints.
Felipestateshisconclusionabouttheissueandgivesaroadmapofthepresentation.

PresentinginBusiness:Memos
PresentinginBusiness:Memos
Felipe'sPersuasiveMemo:FinalDraft
Felipe'sPresentation:SampleNotes

Felipe'sInitialPresentationPlan
Felipe'sPresentationPlanwithSlides
Felipe'sPresentationHandout

TemplatesandChecklists
TemplatesandChecklists
Checklist:OrganizingArgumentsforPersuasivePresentations
Template:TeamPresentationAssessment

PresentinginBusiness:ExamIntroduction
PresentinginBusiness:ExamIntroduction
ThistestwillallowyoutoassessyourknowledgeofPresentinginBusiness.
Allquestionsmustbeansweredforyourexamtobescored.
Navigation:
Toadvancefromonequestiontothenext,selectoneoftheanswerchoicesor,ifapplicable,completewithyourownchoiceandclickthe"Submit"
button.Aftersubmittingyouranswer,youwillnotbeabletochangeit,somakesureyouaresatisfiedwithyourselectionbeforeyousubmiteach
answer.Youmayalsoskipaquestionbypressingtheforwardadvancearrow.Pleasenotethatyoucanreturnto"skipped"questionsusingthe
"Jumptounansweredquestion"selectionmenuorthenavigationalarrowsatanytime.Althoughyoucanskipaquestion,youmustnavigateback
toitandansweritallquestionsmustbeansweredfortheexamtobescored.
Yourresultswillbedisplayedimmediatelyuponcompletionoftheexam.
Aftercompletion,youcanreviewyouranswersatanytimebyreturningtotheexam.
GoodLuck!
CopyrightHarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing.Copyingorpostingisaninfringementofcopyright.Permissions@hbsp.harvard.eduor6177837860.

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