LDR Eb

BSNL LDCE EXAM 2015
LDR Enterprise Business
BSNL LDCE EXAM 2015
Last Day Revision [LDR] Guide
Enterprise Business
Created By ExamKart
ExamKart
www.examkart.testpress.in
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BSNL LDCE EXAM 2015
Index
Sr No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Chapters
Chapter 1 : MLLN
Chapter 2 : MPLS VPN
Chapter 3 : NGPN FTTH
Chapter 4 : MSPP
Chapter 5 : Multiplay Broadband Services
Chapter 6 : NIB
Chapter 7 : Enterprise Services
Chapter 8 : New Business
Chapter 9 : CUG and Centrex
Chapter 10 : Franchisee management
Chapter 11 : Project Smile &3G experience zone
Chapter 1 2: Service Level Agreement types
Chapter 13 : Optical Fiber Communications- Basics of OFC
Chapter 13 : Optical Fiber Communications-PDH & SDH
Chapter 13 : Optical Fiber Communications-DWDM
Chapter 14 : Microwave Communications :Basic Link Budget,
Diversity, Antenna
Chapter 15 : Satellite Communications: Basics
Chapter 15 : Satellite Communications: VSAT
Chapter 16 : Earthing and Power plant
Chapter 17 : NOFN Project
Chapter 18: Infra Sharing
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Chapter 1 - MLLN
MLLN [Managed Leased Line Network]: MLLN is an integrated, fully managed , multi
service digital network platform through which service provider can offer a wide range of
service at an optimal cost to business subscriber .MLLN mainly deals with data circuits ranging
from 64 Kbps to 2048 Kbps
Drawback Of Traditional Leased Line Circuits [Need For MLLN]
No Intramedia in between. Grew from 64 kbps they have to jump over to 2 Mbps only.
Data Cards support only upto 64 Kbps
From Operator point of view in case of Leased Line Circuit different boxes from different
vendors so difficult to manage & control.
No Centralized Monitoring or alarm or performance monitoring.
242 ROT upto 2003 and 178 new ROT installed after 2003
MLLN Applications: Banking, Financial institution, Stock market, paper industry, broadcasting
& Internet service Provider main customers for MLLN.
MLLN Advantages
24 hrs Performance Monitoring of the circuit
Circuit fault reports generated proactively .Before customer know we should detect the
fault & rectify it)
On Demand the Bandwidth can be increased. (without changing the MODEM recreate the
circuit with the same MODEM
Low lead time for new circuit provisioning. (Create & debug if any fault)
Protection against the failure of the circuit (through recovery Management process either
automatic or manually)
Long drive on single copper pair.( for 64 kbps 7 kms & for 2mbps 3.5 kms)
Centrally managed from ROT connected to the NMS
KEY ELEMENTS OF MLLN

MLLN Nodes
Servers
Workstations
Networking Equipment
Others (Printers, UPS etc)
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MLLN Nodes
DXC (Digital Cross-Connect)
VMUX (Versatile Multiplexer)
NTU (Network Terminating Unit)
NMS (Network Management System)

Servers
Database Server
NMS Application Servers
Billing and Accounting Servers
Web Self Care Servers
Proxy Servers
DXC
Capacity
DXC (64 ports upgradeable to 128 ports)
DXC (256 ports)
1/0 cross-connect capability
Non-Blocking Architecture
Redundancy
Power Supply
Switching Matrix
Cross-connect Memory
Expansion to be made possible by addition of cards only.
Fully Managed from Centralized NMS
VMUX :Type - I, Type - II, Type - III
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NMS (Network Management System)

NMS supports service provisioning, Network optimization, planning & service
monitoring Billing and Accounting System
Using NMS, MLLN can provide high speed Leased Line with improved QoS, high
availability & reliability
Web Self-care system
Supports regional partitioning and VPN capabilities
Offered Performance Monitoring, Recovery, Reporting Packages
Nodes in MLLN
A node can be described as a digital multiplexer equipped with several trunk interfaces
and as a digital cross-connect device equipped with several channel interfaces.
1. Cluster Node [1 master sub rack and 1 - 8 slave sub racks]
The cluster node represents the largest node of the System. It is built in master-slave
architecture. The maximum cross-connect port capacity of a cluster node is 8 * 64 Mbit/s
= 256 * 2048 kbit/s port = 64 * 8448 kbit/s port= 512 Mbit/s .The cluster node is used
for high capacity cross-connect equipment.
2. Basic Node [1 subrack]
The Basic Node is the basic building block of the system. (16 unit slot). It is used in local
exchange or backbone networks or customer premises networks, depending on the
needed services and application. The cross connect port capacity of a Basic node is
32*2048 kbps port = 8*8448 kbps port =64 Mbps
3. Midi Node [1 subrack]
A midi node is usually used as an access multiplexer. The basic nodes or midi nodes are
used if customer access to the network requires a lot of tributary port capacity.The basic
nodes and midi nodes are used as flexible multiplexers or medium capacity cross-connect
equipment.
4. Mini Nodes
Mini nodes are used as access multiplexers or low capacity cross-connect equipment.
5. Micro nodes
Micro Nodes are used as small capacity cross-connection devices especially in mobile
networks.
6. Accelerator node
The accelerator node A111 combines PDH and SDH technologies to form a solution for
interfacing customer access to backbone transport. The accelerator node A111 is an SDH
access multiplexer with one or two 155 Mbit/s STM-1 aggregate electrical or optical
interfaces.
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TVARIT
TVARIT is Leased Line Online provisioning and upkeep system.
It is computerized online system, simple to operate & self explanatory.
Paperless.
Reliable, Fast and Instant execution of transactions.
Numbering Scheme Of Leased Circuit

Every leased circuit will have a number as ABCD/JKL/XY/EFGH
Where ABCD= originating SDCA code
EFGH= Terminating SDCA code
JKL = Circuit number
XY = Circuit type
For circuit within the same SDCA, ABCD=EFGH

For 3 digit code, D= # and H= #
For 2 digit code, C, D, = # and G, H = #
For 3 digit SDCA code, for JKL = 000 to 999, the circuit number will be
ABC#/JKL/XY/EFGH
For international circuits, EFGH is replaced by # # # #
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Chapter 2 -MPLS VPN
Multi Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a data-carrying mechanism in packet-switched

networks. It operates at a layer that is generally considered to lie between Layer 2 (data
link layer) and Layer 3 (network layer or IP Layer), and thus MPLS is often referred to as a
"Layer 2.5" protocol
MPLS Applications:It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP
packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, Frame relay and Ethernet frames
MPLS Features
MPLS uses Label Switching
MPLS is a packet-forwarding technology that uses labels to make data
forwarding decisions.
A label is assigned for each IP flow
A LSP is created between ingress and egress
Common Terminologies used in MPLS
Label: A label is an identifier, which indicates the path a packet, should traverse.
MPLS Label Stack:MPLS works by prefixing packets with an MPLS header, containing one
or more 'labels'. This is called a label stack
Each label stack entry contains four fields: MPLS Label :20-bit label value
3-bit Experimental field used normally for providing for QoS (Quality of Service)
1-bit bottom of stack flag. If this is 1, signifies that the current label is the last in
the stack.
8-bit TTL (time to live) field
Swap: Every incoming label is replaced by a new outgoing label (As per the path to be
followed) and the packet is forwarded along the path associated with the new label.
Push: A new label is pushed on top of the packet, effectively "encapsulating" the original
IP packet in a layer of MPLS.
POP: The label is removed from the packet effectively "de-encapsulating". If the popped
label was the last on the label stack, the packet "leaves" the MPLS tunnel.
LER [Label Edge Router]: A router that operates at the edge of the access network and
MPLS network. LER performs the PUSH and POP functions commonly know as Edge
router.
LSR[Label Switch Router]: An LSR is a high-speed router device in the core of an MPLS
network, normally called Core routers. These routers perform swapping functions and
participate in the establishment of Label Switch Path (LSP)
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Ingress / Egress Routers

Ingress Router: routers receiving the incoming traffic or performing the first PUSH
function
Egress Routers: routers receiving the terminating traffic or performing the POP
function are Egress routers.
The same router performs both functionality i.e. Ingress and Egress. The routers
performing these functions are LER.
FEC [Forward equivalence class] : is a representation of a group of packets that share
the same requirements for their transport.. As opposed to conventional IP forwarding, in
MPLS, the assignment of a particular packet to a particular FEC is done just once, as the
packet enters the network at the edge router.
Label Distribution Protocol (LDP):The LDP is a protocol for the distribution of label
information to LSRs in a MPLS networks. It is used to map FECs to labels, which, in turn,
create LSP
LSP [Label Switched Path]: Two types
1. Static LSPs :Static LSPs are configured manually on each LSR in the LSP. No signaling
protocol is used. To establish a static LSP, you configure the ingress LER, transit LSRs, and
egress LER, manually specifying the labels to be applied at each hop.
2. Signalled LSPs :Signalled LSPs are configured only at the ingress LER.
MPLS remains independent of the Layer-2 & layer-3 protocols.
Steps taken for a data packet to travel through an MPLS domain
Label creation and distribution
Table creation at each router
Label-switched path creation
Label insertion/table lookup
Packet forwarding.
Tunneling in MPLS :A unique feature of MPLS is that it can control the entire path of a packet
without explicitly specifying the intermediate routers. It does this by creating tunnels
through the intermediary routers that can span multiple segments. This concept is used for
provisioning MPLS based VPNs.
Customer edge (CE) routers: consisted of the routers at the various customer sites. The
routers connecting individual customers' sites to the service provider network were called
customer edge (CE) routers.
Provider edge (PE) routers: Used by the service provider to offer dedicated point-to-point
links over infrastructure owned by the service provider. Service provider devices to which the
CE routers were directly attached were called provider edge (PE) routers.
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Classification of VPN Implementations

1. Overlay model
Service provider doesnt participate in customers routing, only provides transport to
customer data using virtual point-to-point links. As a result, the service provider
would only provide customers with virtual circuit connectivity at Layer 2.
Permanent virtual circuit (PVC): If the virtual circuit was permanent or available for
use by the customer at all times, it was called a permanent virtual circuit (PVC).
Switched virtual circuit (SVC):If the circuit was established by the provider on-demand,
it was called a switched virtual circuit (SVC).
The primary drawback of an Overlay model was the full mesh of virtual circuits
between all customer sites for optimal connectivity.
2. Peer-to-peer model
Service provider would actively participate in customer routing. In the peer-to-peer

model, routing information is exchanged between the customer routers and the service
provider routers, and customer data is transported across the service provider's core,
optimally.
Customer routing information is carried between routers in the provider network (P and
PE routers) and customer network (CE routers). The peer-to-peer model, consequently,
does not require the creation of virtual circuit
Protocols Used In MPLS Networks

1. Open Short Path first (OSPF): is the routing protocol, that multicasts the change in
routing table of a host to all other hosts with in the boundary of Network. In MPLS
Network, this protocol is used as Label Distribution Protocol between peers. This
protocol is one among the Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
2. Border Gateway Protocol: is also one among the routing protocol, which provides loopfree inter domain routing between autonomous systems. An autonomous system is a set
of routers that operate under the same administration. Here MPLS Domain becomes
autonomous system. BGP is often run among the VPN networks and MPLS Network.
3. Protocol-independent multicast (PIM): which is used for multicast states label
mapping.
4. Resource Reservation Protocol :is not the routing protocol and works in conjunction
with other routing protocols to keep the Quality of Service with in the MPLS cloud. It uses
exchanging of labels pertaining to the services require time management (on line services
like Video Conferencing, IP Telephony etc. RSVP provides the creation of Tunnels in MPLS
Domain
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Methods used in label creation

Topology-based methoduses normal processing of routing protocols (such as OSPF
and BGP)
Request-based methoduses processing of request-based control traffic (such as
RSVP)
Traffic-based methoduses the reception of a packet to trigger the assignment and
distribution of a label using label request and label assign mechanism for routing the
unlabeled IP packet is received.
Label Information Base :Label Information Base is Software database created in both LER
and LSR.
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Chapter 3 - NGPN-FTTH
Services such as broadband, voice, data & video etc services are clubbed into a brand
name Next Generation Play Networks. FTTH is future proof solution for providing addon services such as Video on demand, Online Gaming, HDTV etc.
Fiber To The x (FTTx)

For simplicity, most people have begun to refer to the fiber network as FTTx, in which x
stands for the termination point
1. FTTH (Fiber To The Home)

Fiber to the Home is defined as a telecommunications architecture in which a
communications path is provided over optical fiber cables extending from an Optical Line
Terminal (OLT) unit located in telecommunications operators switching equipment
connects to an Optical Network Terminal (ONT) at each customer premise.FTTH
consists of a single optical fiber cable from the base station to the home.
2. FTTB (Fiber To The Building)

Fiber to the Building is defined as a telecommunications architecture in which a
communications path is provided over optical fiber cables extending from an OLT to ONU
at the boundary of the apartment or office or building, but where the optical fiber
terminates before reaching the home living space or business office space and where the
access path continues to the subscriber over a physical medium other than optical fiber
(for example copper loops).
3. FTTC (Fiber To The Curb)

A method of installing optical fiber cable by the curb near the user home. An optical
communications system is then used between the remote unit (optical signal/electrical
conversion unit) installed outside (such as near the curb or on Street Cabinet) from the
installation center
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Advantages of FTTH
FTTH provides end-users with a broad range of communications and entertainment
services, and faster activation of new services.
Competition is beginning to offer a multi-play (i.e., voice, video, data etc) bundle.
FTTH provides Service Providers with the ability to provide cutting edgetechnology
and best-in-class services.
FTTH provides carriers with an opportunity to increase the average revenues per user
(ARPU), to reduce the capital investment required to deliver multiple services, and to
lower the costs of operating networks (fewer outdoor electronics, remote management, ..)
will result in less operational expense.
FTTH architecture: Two Types
The network can be installed as an active optical network, or a passive optical network (PON).
1. Active Optical Network
Subscribers are provided a dedicated optical cable and the distribution points are handled
by active optical equipment. These active architectures have been setup as either Home
Run Fiber or Active Star Ethernet.
A. Home Run Fiber (Point-to-Point) Architecture
Home Run Fiber architecture is one in which a dedicated fiber line between subscriber
and CO.
Advantages: Offers most bandwidth and Most flexible architecture over long term
Disadvantages: More Cost and More Fiber required , as dedicated fiber is installed
B. Active Star Ethernet (Point-to-Multi Point) Architecture
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Active Star Ethernet (ASE) architecture is a point-to-Multi-point architecture in which

multiple premises share one feeder fiber through a Ethernet switch located between
the CO and the served premises. With Active Star Ethernet (ASE) architecture, end users
still get a dedicated fiber to their location; however, the fiber runs between their location
and Ethernet switch
Advantages: Reduces the amount of fiber deployed; lowering costs through the sharing of
fiber.
2. Passive Optical Network (Point-to-Multipoint) Architecture

A Passive Optical networks (PON) use optical fiber and optical power splitters to connect
the Optical Line Terminal (OLT) at the local exchange (CO) to the subscriber Optical
Network Unit (ONU) on his premises.
Passive splitters are located downstream from the CO and can split the fiber signal up to
32 or more times over a maximum distance of 10-20 km. This means that the bandwidth
is split, or shared, between users as well. The architecture is called passive because all
splitters and intermediate equipment located between the CO and the ONT is passive;
that is, it has no active electronics and therefore does not need separate power.
Advantage:This approach greatly simplifies network operation & maintenance, and
reduces the cost. Another advantage is that much less fiber is required than in point-to
point topologies.
Two common splitter configurations for PON architecture

1. Centralized Splitter Approach :In Centralized Splitter Approach typically uses a 1x32
splitter in an outside plant enclosure, such as a fiber distribution terminal. In the
case of a 1x32 splitter, each device is connected to an OLT in the central office. In this
approach, optical splitters are concentrated in a single location from which all
customer optical network terminals (ONTs) at 32 homes are connected.
2. Cascaded Splitter Approach :A cascaded split configuration results in pushing splitters
deeper into the network.In a Cascaded PON, there will be more than one splitter
location in the pathway from central office to customer. Currently, standard splitter
formats range from 1 x 2, 1 x 4, 1 x 8, 1 x 16 and 1 x 32 so a network might use a 1 x 4
splitter leading to a 1 x 8 splitter further downstream in four separate locations.
Optimally, there would eventually be 32 fibers reaching the ONTs of 32 homes.
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Types of PON Technologies
Components of PON Architecture
1. OLT [Optical Line Terminal]

The OLT resides in the Central Office (CO). The OLT system provides aggregation and
switching functionality between the core network (various network interfaces) and PON
interfaces. The network interface of the OLT is typically connected to the IP network and
backbone of the network operator.
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2. ONU/ONT [Optical network Unit/ Optical network Termination]

This provides access to the users i.e. an External Plant / Customer Premises equipment
providing user interface for many/single customer. The ONU/ONT provide, user interfaces
(UNI) towards the customers and uplink interfaces to uplink local traffic towards OLT
The access node installed within customer premises for network termination is termed
as ONT.Whereas access node installed at other locations i.e. curb/cabinet/building, are
known as ONU.
3. PON [Passive Optical network]
Distributed or single staged passive optical splitters/combiners provides connectivity
between OLT & multiple ONU/ONTs through one or two optical fibers. Optical splitters
are capable of providing up to 1:64 optical split, on end to end basis. These are available
in various options like 1:4, 1:8, 1:16, 1:32 and 1:64.
4. NMS [Network Management System]:Management of the complete PON system from
OLT.
One OLT serves multiple ONU/ONTs through PON
TDM/TDMA protocol between OLT & ONT
Single Fiber/ Dual Fiber to be used for upstream & downstream
Maximum Split Ratio of 1:64
Typical distance between OLT & ONT can be greater than 15Km (with unequal splitting up-to 35Km)
Downstream transmission I.e. from OLT to ONU/ONT is usually TDM
Upstream traffic I.e. from ONU/ONT to OLT is usually TDMA
EPON & GPON Applications

Residential or Business Services
High Speed Internet
Transparent LAN Service
Broadcast Video
TDM Telephony
Video on Demand
On line Gaming
IPTV etc
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Chapter 4 - Multi-service Provisioning Platform (M S P P)
TEC has prepared two different platforms for catering to the needs of the inter city and
intra city equipments.
1. First platform: is the STM-16 with the GFP-F, GFP-T protocols and layer-2 switching
functionality and caters to the need of inter-city traffic.
2. Second platform: is using Multi service Provisioning Platform (MSPP), and caters
to the need for the intra-city traffic requirements.
The MSPP equipment shall be capable of simultaneously interfacing the PDH streams and
mapping / de-mapping into SDH payloads and vice-versa, thus enabling the coexistence of SDH & PDH on the same equipment. This is the greatest advantage for the
network as SDH and PDH existing in the present network can integrate easily which in turn
enables quick bandwidth provisioning to the customer.
MSPP is implemented with two different back haul transmission rates, viz. STM-16 and
STM-64.
Features of MSPP
Generic Framing Protocol-Frame (GFP-F)
Generic Framing Protocol-Transparent (GFP-T)
Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS).
Virtual concatenation (V-CAT)
Layer 2 switching.
Ethernet on SDH (EoS)
PoS capability on Ethernet interface
DS-3 tributary interface of SONET hierarchy
Support block code oriented payload (FICON)
ESCON (Enterprise system connection)
FC (Fiber Channel) at gigabit Ethernet interface
Tandem Connection Monitoring (TCM) on N1 & N2 bytes
Multi service traffic switching
Multiple SDH rings interconnection at STM-1tributary interfaces as well as at STM-4/16
aggregate interfaces.
Interfacing the PDH streams (2Mb, 34Mb, 140Mb) and mapping / De-mapping into
SDH payloads and vice-versa.
Key Technologies via MSPP

1. Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), ITU-T G.7041
2. Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS), ITU-T G.7042
3. Virtual Concatenation (VCAT), ITU-T G.707
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VCAT is used to provide better data granularity

GFP is used to wrap the data in a converged TDM network
LCAS is used to dynamically allocate& manage B/W
Major issues in the legacy SDH

Difficulty of mapping newer (Ethernet, ESCON, FICON, Fiber Channel etc) services to
the existing SDH transport network.
Inefficient use of the transport network in delivering data services.
Inability to increase or decrease available bandwidth to meet the needs of data
services without impacting traffic.
Solution to above issues provided by NGSDH
1. Integrated Data Transport i.e. Ethernet tributaries in addition to 2Mb, 140 Mb, STM-1,4,16
---GFP
2. Integrated non blocking, wide-band cross connect (2Mb granularity) making the efficient
use of the transport network in delivering data services ---VCAT
3. Dynamic Bandwidth allocation, Intelligence for topology discovery, route computation and
mesh based restoration---LCAS
Components of Next Generation SDH
1. Generic Framing Procedure (GFP)

GFP is most economical way of adopting high-speed services, constant bit rate and
variable bit rate, in SDH networks. It provides a flexible encapsulation for both blockcoded and packet oriented data units (PDU)
Two types of GFP mechanisms

A.. PDU-oriented known as Frame mapped GFP (GFP-F)
B. Block-code-oriented known as Transparent GFP (GFP-T)
A. GFP-F:GFP-F (Framed) is a layer-2 encapsulation in variable sized frames. Optimised for
data packet protocols such as DVD, PPP and Ethernet, MPLS etc
B. GFP-T:GFP-T is useful for delay sensitive services. GFP-T (Transparent) is a layer 1
encapsulation in constant sized frames. Optimised for traffic based on 8B/10B codification
such as VoIP, DVB-ASI, 1000BASE-T, SAN, Fibre Channel, and ESCON. GFP-T is very good
for isocronic or delay sensitive protocols &SAN (ESCON). GFP-T is used for FC, Gigabit
Ethernet etc.
2. Concatenation (V-CAT & C-CAT)

SDH concatenation consists of linking more than one VCs to each other to obtain a rate
that does not form part of standard rates.
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Two concatenation schemes
A. Contiguous concatenation
B. Virtual concatenation
A. Contiguous concatenation
Adjacent containers are combined and transported across the SDH network as one container.
Contiguous concatenation is a pointer-based concatenation. It consists of linking N number of
VCs to each other in a logical manner within the higher order entity i.e. VC4 and above.
Disadvantage: is that it requires functionality at every N/E adding cost and complexity. Lower
order VCs (VC-12, VC3) concatenation is not possible in contiguous Concatenation.
B. Virtual Concatenation
Virtual concatenation maps individual containers in to a virtually concatenated link. Any
number of containers can be grouped together, which provides better bandwidth granularity
than using a contiguous method. It combines a number of lower/higher order VCs (VC-12, VC3
& VC4 payload) that form a larger concatenation group.
Virtual concatenation Benefits
1. Use the same core NEs, modify only edge NEs.
2. Low investment and fast ROI (return on investment).
3. Efficient & scalable i.e. fine granularity and multi-path capability.
4. SDH gives best QoS, well engineered and reliable.
3. Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS)
LCAS has capability to dynamically change the amount of bandwidth used in a virtually
concatenated channel i.e. bandwidth management flexibility.LCAS is the key to provide
bandwidth on demand.
Benefits of LCAS
A. Call by call bandwidth (Bandwidth on demand)
Customer :rents a 6Mb Internet connection (VC-12-3v) and calls to operator to get
additional 2Mb
Operator :will provision additional VC-12 path and will hitless add it to existing
connection via LCAS
B. Bandwidth on Schedule
A customer is offered a fixed bandwidth of 100 Mb (VLAN) Ethernet, allotting 46 VC-12
(0ne VC12 = 2.176 Mb x 46 = 100.1 Mb). Every night for one-hour additional 900 M
ESCON service is provisioned by LCAS.
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Chapter 5 - Multiplay Broadband Services
Prior to broadband service, PSTN dialup (including ISDN) was the main technique to get
Internet access. For high speed, only alternative was lease line bandwidth
Sancharnet is an all India roaming account i.e. user can use it from any landline in India
TRAI has defined Broadband as an always on data connection that is able to support
interactive services including internet access and has the capability of the minimum
download speed of 256 kbps to an individual .
Advantages of Broadband
Always on (Not on shared media)
Fast (speed ranging from 256 kbps to 2 Mbps)
No disconnection
No additional access charge
Telephone and Data simultaneously
Wired Broadband Technologies

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL, given over copper loop of Telecom operators)
Cable Modem (CM, Given over cable TV operators coaxial cable network)
Power Line Broadband (BPL, Over Power lines)
Fiber technology
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) : is a wire line transmission technology that brings data
and information faster over copper telephone lines already installed in homes.
The traffic from the user to the network (from customers premise to the telephone central
office) is upstream traffic and from the network to the user (from the telephone central
office to the customers premises) is downstream traffic
Types of DSL transmission technologies

Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL):It is used typically for business
applications such as video conferencing. When the data rate in both directions is
equal, it is called a symmetric service.
Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL):It is used primarily by residential
users who receive a lot of data but do not send much, such as Internet surfers. ADSL
provides faster speed in a downstream direction than upstream . When the
upstream data rate is lower than the downstream rate, it is called an asymmetric
service.
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High-data-rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL):It provides fixed symmetrical high

speed access at T1 rate (1.5 Mbps), and is designed for business purposes.
Very high-data-rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL):It provides both symmetrical
and asymmetrical access with very high bit rate over the copper line.
ISDN Digital Subscriber Line (IDSL) :It provides symmetrical connection with ISDN
and is designed to extend DSL to locations with a long distance to a telephone
central office.
DSLAM:DSLAM is the equipment located at a phone companys central office (CO) that
links many customer DSL connections over existing copper telephone lines to a single
high-speed ATM line. When the phone company receives a DSL signal, an ADSL modem
with a POTS splitter detects voice calls and data. Voice calls are sent to the PSTN, and data
are sent to the DSLAM.
BSNLS Broadband Access Technology :BSNL Broadband service is built on a world class,
multi-gigabit, multi-protocol, convergent IP infrastructure through National Internet
Backbone-II (NIB-II)
Effect of copper pair quality :Data speed capability depends on the thickness of wire
used in cable network. Higher the gauge, higher the data carrying speed. Data speed
deteriorates if copper loop quality is bad i.e. more joints, loose joints, low insulation
etc
For BSNL Broadband connection, Customer Needs:
BSNLs Landline connection
Computer with 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Card
DSL Modem + Splitter (CPE)
PPPoE software to be loaded in the Client
Broadband Account (Username and Password)
Local toll free number for broadband booking & complaints is 1504, all India toll free is
1800 424 1600.
Services offered to BSNL Broadband customers
Content Based services: [Video on Demand (VoD), Education]
Web conferencing
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Interactive Gaming: This service is offered in association with a franchisee

Broadband customers can visit http://bsnl.indiagames.com/ and subscribe
this service.
BB Multiplay [Triple Play Service]

1.Data (Internet)
2. Voice (VoIP )
3. Video (IPTV, VOD]
Components of Broadband Multiplay

L3PE (MCR / PE Router of NIB-2 Project 1)
BNG [Broadband Network Gateway]: Connects Multiplay Network to NIB2 Backbone
Project 1, through L3PE).
RPR :Tier-1 Switch and Tier-2 switches in the ring Provides connectivity to BNG
OC LAN Tier-2 Switch.
DSLAM.
ADSL CPE.
DSL Tester.
Changes in Broadband Multiplay after Broadband

T1 & T2 changed from star topology to RPR ring topology High reliability
IP-DSLAM connected on GE interface as compared to FE interface.
BNG behaves as customer edge router whereas BRAS was a PE Router.
BRAS were present at 23 A locations only whereas BNG is present upto B type cities.
Set-top-Box : BSNL franchisee in Pune has named the set-top box as WICE Box (Window for
Information, Communication and Entertainment) and supports all sorts of inputs like
audio, video, tablet data, text data, pointer devices etc. it has a USB port and a microphone
and headphone jack in addition to essential ports.
VOIP [Voice over IP] :The technology used to transmit voice conversations over a data
network in form of packets using the Internet Protocol
VoIP also is referred to as Internet telephony, IP telephony, or Voice over the Internet
Benefits of VOIP
Cost reduction :Toll by-pass,WAN Cost Reduction
Operational Improvement :Common network infrastructure ,Simplification of Routing
Administration
Business Tool Integration :Voice mail, email and fax mail integration ,Web + Call,Mobility
using IP
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Chapter 6- NIB
Core of BSNLs Broadband service is National Internet Backbone (NIB).
NIB features
It provides a diversified range of Internet access services including support for VPN
(Layer-2, Layer-3 and Dialup and Broadband services)
It also offers SLA Reports including security, QoS (quality of service) and any to any
connectivity.
Offers fully managed services to customers.
It offers services like bandwidth on demand etc. over the same network.
The network is capable of on-line measurement and monitoring of network
parameters such as latency, packet loss, jitter and availability so as to support SLAs with
customers
The routers support value added services such as VPNs, Web and content hosting, Voice
over IP, Multicast etc.
Encryption Services
Firewall Services
Multicast Services
Network Address Translation
NIB-II has been implemented in four projects
Network Architecture
The cities in India have been classified in six types namely A1, A2, A3, A4, B1, B2.
A1 5 Core cities -Bangalore, Chennai, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkatta
A2/A3 9 next level core cities -Pune, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Ernakulam, Lucknow,
Jaipur, Indore, Jullundur, Patna
A4 10 Major cities
B1, B2 47 other cities
A1 city core routers are fully meshed between locations on STM-16
IGW International Gateway Router Connectivity to Internet is through this router
IXP Internet Exchange Point ISPs connect each other through this router
IDC Internet Data Center for connecting to BSNL Data Centers
B1 and B2 cities have only EDGE routers.
Primary Network Operating center at Bangalore and Disaster Recovery is at Pune
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Equipment Terminologies used in Broadband
BBRAS: A Broadband Remote Access Server routes traffic to and from the digital
subscriber line access multiplexers (DSLAM) on an Internet service.
DSLAM: Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer is a device that takes a number of ADSL
subscriber line and concentrates these to a single ATM line.
CPE Customer Premises Equipment - Any equipment provided by the customer at their
premises.
GBIC [Gigabit Interface Converter]: a Fiber Channel optical or copper transceiver that is
easily swapped to offer a flexible choice of copper or fiber optic media.
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Chapter 7 -Enterprise Services

BSNL is having number of business solution for enterprise.
1. VSAT service
2.
Key Features
VSAT service of BSNL covers all parts of India
Available at any remote location
Provides voice as well as data service
Provides broadband services
Supports Internet, video multicast, video conferencing as well as voice telephony
Capable of providing access to MPLS VPN as well as normal leased lines
A range of satellite bandwidth available
4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512 Kbps, 1 Mbps, 2 Mbps
Installation and maintenance at remote location by BSNL
Centralized NOC at Bangalore
24 x 7 support available at NOC
ISDN service :ISDN Stands for Integrated Services Digital Network . ISDN is having two type
of access one is BRI and other one PRI. PRI access can be used to get business from
enterprises.
Key Features
Digital telephone line as opposed to ordinary analog phone line.

30B channels over a single pair of ordinary telephone copper wires.
Useful for connecting private exchange (EPABX) of Corporates to the PSTN telephone
network.
Also useful for DID franchisees of BSNL and ISPs (for their incoming traffic)
Better voice quality due to digital transmission of voice & data.
Capable of both voice & date usage.
Video conferencing and other data applications possible by utilizing required number of
B channels.
3. MLLN Managed Leased Line Service
MLLN is an integrated, fully managed , multi service digital network platform through
which service provider can offer a wide range of service at an optimal cost to business
subscriber .MLLN mainly deals with data circuits ranging from 64 Kbps to 2048 Kbps
4. Internet Leased Line (ILL) Service
ILL is an always on Internet connection based on leased line access (i.e. dedicated access).
5. 3G Mobile Broadband Device (Data Card)
3G is the next generation of mobile communication system. It enhances the services like
multimedia, high speed mobile broadband, internet access etc .3G Data Card offers High
speed internet and data service while on move .
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Features of 3G services
Data rate downloading 3.6 Mbps & 7.2 Mbps
Simple Plug and Play type of devices
Single band and Tri-Band operation
6. Free EPABX scheme

BSNL provides a scheme to provide bundled telecommunication services through the provision of
Voice & Data EPABX systems at customer location connected to the telecom backbone on BSNLs
nationwide telecom network .Free deployment of EPABX systems wherein the supply,
installation, operation and maintenance of the entire system are done by BSNL through its
appointed and empanelled vendor(s)
7. Wire Line Intelligent Network Services
Dedicated IN platform for wire line Network.
Both Prepaid and Postpaid Services available.
Prepaid Services-ITC, CALLNOW, FLPP and ACC
Postpaid-VPN, TFS, UAN, UPN, Televoting and PRM
Four GPIN platforms to support all IN services except Televoting.
8. Free Phone Service
This service shows the new function in charging, a call to a service subscriber will be paid by the
called party. All charges are levied on the service subscriber. The service is free of any charge to
the calling user.
9.Universal Access Number
A call to a service subscriber will be paid by the calling party or split between the calling and
called party. 11 digit number: 1860-XYZ-ABCD.
10.Premium Rate Service
A single 11 digit number on PAN India basis to the service subscriber: 1867-XYZ-ABCD.
Call charges to be paid by calling party. Call will be billed at premium rates (Higher Rates).
11.Televoting Service
Televoting is unique service used in collecting public opinion. A user, who wishes to vote, can
dial the specific voting number to register his vote of choice. Televoting is possible from STD
barred phones also.
Televoting numbers are 13 digit number
1861-424-ABCD-XY (unit pulse charge to calling party)
1862-424-ABCD-XY (two pulse charge to calling party)
1861-424-ABCD-XY (no charge to calling party, service subscriber to pay)
Revenue sharing between the service provider (Subscribers) & network provider (BSNL).
12.Account Calling Card
This service allows the user to make a phone call from any normal phone to any destination
number and have the cost of these calls charged to the account specified by the Account calling
card. This card is deal for corporate and executives.
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Chapter 8 - New Business
1.
2.
3.
Few sources of additional revenue :

Mobile Commerce
Sharing of infrastructure
Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO)
1. Mobile Commerce
Products And Services Available Under Mobile Commerce

Mobile Ticketing :Tickets can be sent to mobile phones using a variety of technologies.
Users are then able to use their tickets immediately by presenting their phones at the
venue.
Mobile Vouchers, Coupons And Loyalty Cards :Mobile ticketing technology can also be
used for the distribution of vouchers, coupons and loyalty cards
Content Purchase And Delivery :Currently, mobile content purchase and delivery mainly
consists of the sale of ring-tones, wallpapers, and games for mobile phones.
Location-Based Services :Unlike a home PC, the location of the mobile phone user is an
important piece of information used during mobile commerce transactions. Knowing the
location of the user allows for location based services such as: Local maps ,Local offers,
Local weather,People tracking and monitoring, Information services etc
Mobile Banking :Banks and other financial institutions are exploring the use of mobile
commerce to allow their customers to not only access account information, but also make
transactions, e.g. purchasing stocks, remitting money, via mobile phones and other mobile
equipment. This service is often referred to as Mobile Banking or M-Banking.
Mobile Brokerage :Stock market services offered via mobile devices have also become
more popular and are known as Mobile Brokerage
Mobile delivery enables:

Economy of scale
Quicker and easier delivery
Effective target marketing
Privacy-friendly data mining on consumer behaviour
Environment-friendly and resources-saving efficacy
2. Sharing Of Infrastructure :Sharing of towers,land assets etc
Benefits of Sharing infrastructure

To reduce the capital expenditure.
Quick rollout of the network and thereby inflow of revenue.
To reduce the operating cost.
To improve the city skyline.
Optimum utilization of national resources and hence improved economic efficiency.
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3. Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO) :A mobile virtual network operator

(MVNO) is a company that provides mobile phone service but does not have its own
licensed frequency allocation of radio spectrum, nor does it necessarily have all of
the infrastructure required to provide mobile telephone service.
MVNOs are roughly equivalent to the "switchless resellers" of the traditional landline
telephone market. Switchless resellers buy minutes wholesale from the large long distance
companies and retail them to their customers.
Mobile Network Operator (MNO):A company that does have frequency allocation(s)
and all the required infrastructure to run an independent mobile network is known simply
as a Mobile Network Operator (MNO).
An MNO that does not have a frequency spectrum allocation in a particular

geographical region may operate as an MVNO in that region
MVNOs can operate using any of the mobile technologies MNOs use, such as IS-95 (CDMA),
GSM and the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS).
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Chapter 9 - CENTREX & Closed User Group
Centrex : is the facility under which landline customers can talk free of cost with each
other, within a group.
Different type Centrex facility for landline customer

1.For Cooperative Group housing Societies/DDA Residents Welfare Associations
2.For Local Exch. Area.
3.For city wide.
1. Centrex facility For Cooperative Group housing Societies/DDA Residents Welfare

Associations
The Free Centrex facility shall be for the Cooperative Group Housing Society/Resident
Welfare Associations and DDA having clearly defined boundaries with maximum 500
dwelling units. Above 500 dwelling units the case will be considered by the concerned
CGMs on case to case basis
One rent free Telephone connection under Plan 160 will be given against minimum 5
upto 50 MTNL landline connections. Thereafter, against every 50 MTNL landline
connections, one more rent free telephone connection will be provided.
2. Centrex facility for Local Exch. Area
This facility will be provided to the customers within the same Exch. Area.
The uniform tariff of Rs. 60/- per telephone connection per month will be charged for
Centrex facility. This would be in addition to the monthly telephone charges as per
applicable tariff plan.
3. Centrex facility for city wide
This facility will be provided to the customers for the different Exch. Area.
The uniform tariff of Rs. 125/- per Telephone Connection per month will be charged for
Centrex facility. This would be in addition to the monthly charges as per applicable tariff
plan.
The existing telephone No. will be charged into New number with levels 288XXABCD.
Salient features of Centrex facilities

Minimum limit of members in a group of Centrex would be five.
Calls within the Group are free.
The registration amount, initial Deposit, monthly rental and installation charges etc.
for Telephone Connection under Centrex shall be same as normal Telephone
connection.
Anybody can join/leave the existing Group at any time.
The DELS belonging to public Services like, call Centers, enquiry numbers, ISP
Dial in numbers, paging service numbers, franchises, PCO holders and only
incoming number shall not be part of the Centrex Group.
Centrex Facility will be available in all Tariff Plans.
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Closed User Group :A group of users may form themselves into a CUG which enables the
subscribers belonging to the same CUG to make communications with each other
preventing access from or to the world outside the group.
CUG is a facility, wherein a group of subscribers within an organization can talk (or send
messages) to each other at a differential cost or for free, thereby significantly reducing
the overall cost of communication for the company.
Centrex Tariff Charges & Conditions:

All intra Centrex calls shall be free
The monthly plan charges shall be levied on each DELs covered under Centrex as under
There is no upper limit on the number of members in the Centrex group.

CENTREX FACILITY FOR CIC/CORPORATE CUSTOMERS
A. Centrex Facility in the BSNL network for CIC/Corporate Customers
Tariff Details
The above Centrex charges will not be levied for CIC/Corporate customer whose annual
revenue is more than Rs. 4 lakhs with combined billing wherever technical feasible.
B. Rent free incoming connection
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Chapter 10 - Franchisee Management
Franchisee Management comes under Project Vijay
Objectives of Project Vijay

Expand reach ensure availability of BSNL products at more than 95% of telecom
retail outlets
Capture significant share (25-30%) of retailer's counter sales (increase extraction)
Build distinctive channel management capabilities Nurture and build strong and viable
channel partner network
Key terms used in Project Vijay

FoS [ Feet on street] : Franchise's employees
who will visit retailer shops,
deliver material and
collect CAF (Customer Application forms ) forms
Primary Sales:Sales of product from BSNL to franchise
Secondary Sales:Any sales from franchise unit to retailer
Tertiary sales:Product sales from retailer to end-customer.
Reach:Reach defined as the ratio of telecom retail outlets (multi-brand telecom outlets)
that sell BSNL products to the total number of telecom retail outlets in a particular
geographical area.
Extraction:Extraction defined as the share of BSNL sales in the total sales of a particular
multibrand telecom outlet
MBO: multi-brand telecom outlets
Revised structure of Franchisee channel
Primary sales will be made from BSNL SSA to Franchisee.
Franchisee will make the sales to Sub Franchisee and also to MBO retail
Outlets through FoS.
Sub Franchisee will also make sales to MBO retail Outlets in its area.
MBO retail Outlets will make the sales to customers.
Categories of retailers
The category of retailers are different according to the characteristics which depends on
number of SIMs sold per month or amount of Recharge sales per month.
Class A:The Retailers who sold more than 100 SIMs per month or Recharge sales more than Rs. 3
lakhs per month come under this category. For examples large multi-brand telecom
outlets comes under this category.
Class B:The Retailers who sold between 50-100 SIMs per month or Recharge sales between Rs.1-
3 lakhs per month come under this category. For examples large kirana shops, medium
multi-brand telecom outlets, STD/ PCO shops, etc. comes under this category.
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Class C:The Retailers who sold less than 50 SIMs per month or Recharge sales Between Rs. 0.51 lakh per month come under this category. For examples medium kirana stores, small
multi-brand telecom outlets, etc. comes under this category.
Class D:The Retailers who sold negligible (mostly nil; may sell 10-30 SIMs per month) or
Recharge sales less than Rs. 50,000 per month come under this category. For examples
small kirana stores, paan shop, tea stall, etc. comes under this category.
Franchisee Structure
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Franchisee Team Members
Franchisee Manager is expected to manage up-to 2 Franchisees and visit them every alternate
day; Franchisee Manager is also expected to visit each sub franchise once a month.
Retailer Manager Coordinators expected to manage up to 15 Retailer Managers and does 1
inspection visit per Retailer Manager per month.
Each retailer manager is typically assigned 200-300 retailers, depending on area geography
and is expected to visit each retailer 2 times a month.
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Awards:
In case of a tie, the award amount may be equally split.

In order to qualify for an award, the Franchisee Manager or Retailer Manager coordinator must
meet a minimum of 10% achievement on Primary sale (# of SIM and Recharge value),
Similarly in, order to qualify for the award, the Retailer Manager must meet a minimum of
30% achievement on no. of retailers visits done as a proportion of the total no of retailer
visits assigned.
The final decision on awards at the circle levels should be made by the PGM/GM (Consumer
Mobility) at circle level at the end of the month, after taking in to the account the average
score on KPAs received from SSAs
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Chapter 11 - Project Smile & 3G Experience Zone
Project Smile: Project mainly deals with customer care
Categorization of CSC: Three types [Type 1,Type 2 & Type 3] based on size, services
offered and location.
Key objectives of the re-categorized CSCs

1. Improve customer satisfaction
Ensure all customer care needs of walk-in customers are met at CSCs
Provide a pleasant and customer friendly experience
2. Demand generation and fulfillment
Provide demonstrations of high-end BSNL products to create awareness
Ensure order fulfillment can be done at CSCs for all product types
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Type of counters in CSC: 4 types
Timings of CSC
Depending on category of CSC ,the timings of CSC payment counters should be as follows
Category Type 1: 12 hours (8:00 AM to 8:00 PM)
Category Type 2: 10 hours (8:00 AM to 6:00 PM)
Category Type 3: 5-7 hours (10:00 AM to 3:00 PM / 5:00 PM)
The cash collection vehicle should not visit Type 1 and 2 CSCs before 15:00 hours, so that
first shift can work till 2 PM
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Four initiatives have been implemented in CSCs as part of Project SMILE
Roles and responsibilities
1. Circle CSC Nodal officers

Ensure Implementation of initiatives in at least one SSA directly
Training of all SSA CSC in-charges in circle for implementation
Provide support for resolving local issues (contracts, directives etc.)
Regular review of implementation and co-ordination with corporate team
2. SSA CSC Nodal officers

Ensure dissemination of directives and changed processes within CSC staff across SSA
Help in getting approvals necessary for rollout like budget sanction, staff requirements
Regular monitoring of results
3. Finance
Collections from Self payment kiosks
Extension of counter timing
Alternate payment options (online, bank tie-up)
4. Commercial Officers and IT

Wireline services and processes changes
Mobility services and processes changes Extension of CCN nodes
Tariff and Promotions booklet
Lead capture
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Chapter 12 - Service Level Agreements

SLA: A performance-based technique where a written agreement is established between the
customer and service provider that defines key service objectives, metrics, and acceptable
quality levels (AQLs).
Features of SLA
SLA is a communication tool

SLA is bilateral agreement
Effectiveness due to measurable parameters
Provides scope for continuous improvement
Provides framework for understanding

SLA Components
Parties involved
Dates of Agreement
Service Description
Service Availability
Service Quality Acceptable levels
Metric Measurement and formula [Network related, Customer related, End to End (Availability,
Objective, Evolution, Reliability, Utilization, Global vitality, Reachability, Response Time, Outage,
Transaction Successful or Failed)
Reporting
Rewards, penalties and performance targets
Review Procedure
Crisis Management and Disputes Resolution
Change Process
Definitions, people, departments involved, contact details etc.

Basic Terms used in MPLS VPN SLA
1. Uptime: It is a measure of the time a link has been "up" and running. In majority of cases
it has been observed that the non-availability of link is due to local lead problem, so
suitable measures should be taken to make the link available for 99% of the time.
2. Latency: Latency in a packet-switched network is measured either one-way (the time from
the source sending a packet to the destination receiving it), or round-trip (the one-way
latency from source to destination plus the one-way latency from the destination back to
the source).
Many software platforms provide a service called ping that can be used to measure
round-trip latency.Ping performs no packet processing; it merely sends a response
back when it receives a packet (i.e.performs a no-op), thus it is a relatively accurate way
of measuring latency
3. Packet Loss: It occurs when one or more packets of data traveling across a computer
network fail to reach their destination. Packet loss can be caused by a number of factors,
including signal degradation over the network medium, over-saturated network links,
corrupted packets rejected intransit,faulty networking hardware, maligned system drivers
or network applications, or normal routing routines. Packet loss is to be maintained below
1%.
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4. Jitter: It is an unwanted variation of one or more signal characteristics in electronics and

telecommunications. This has to be maintained below 25 ms.
Service Level Metrics
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BSNL SLA Format
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Chapter 13 Optical Fiber Communications [Basics of OFC]
Fiber optics is sending signals from one location to another in the form of modulated light
guided through hair-thin fibers of glass or plastic.The main job of optical fibers is to guide
light waves with a minimum of attenuation (loss of signal).
Optical fiber Construction

1. Core : The center of the fiber where the light is transmitted.High refractive index (RI)
,Smaller in diameter (8 micro meter)
2. Cladding: Lower RI than core, Larger in Diameter (125 micro meter)
3. Coating: This is a layer of plastic that surrounds the core and cladding to reinforce and
protect the fibre core. (250 to 900 microns)
4. Strengthening fibres :These components help protect the core against crushing forces
and excessive tension during installation. The materials can range from Kevlar to wire
strands to gel-filled sleeves.
5. Cable jacket :This is the outer layer of any cable. Most fibre optic cables have an orange
jacket, although some types can have black or yellow jackets.
The difference between the refractive indices of the core and cladding causes most of
the transmitted light to bounce off the cladding and stay within the core.
Total internal reflection: is a phenomenon that happens when a propagating wave

strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with
respect to the normal to the surface.Due to total internal reflection ,wave stays inside the
fiber.
Mode: A single "electromagnetic field pattern" (think of a ray of light) that travels in fiber.
Types of Optical fibers
1.Single mode Fiber: has a much smaller core, only about 8-9 microns, so it only transmits one
mode. Singlemode is used for telephony (long distance, metropolitan and fiber to the home)
and CATV with laser sources at 1310 to 1550 nm. It can go very long distances at very high
speeds.
Single-Mode Fiber Designs

The three principle types of single mode fiber and their ITU-T specifications are:
1. Non-dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF) [ITU G.652] : accounts for greater than 95 percent
of deployed plant; suitable for TDM (single-channel) use in the 1310-nm region or
DWDM use in the 1550-nm region (with dispersion compensators). This type of fiber can
also support 10 Gigabit Ethernet standard at distances over 300 meters.
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2. Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF)[ITU G.653] : suitable for TDM use in the 1550-nm
region, but unsuitable for DWDM in this region.
3. Non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZ-DSF):[ITU G.655]
2. Multimode Fiber: has a larger core (almost always 50 or 62.5 microns - a micron is one one
millionth of a meter) and is used with laser or LED sources at wavelengths of 850 and 1300 nm
for short distance, lower speed data networks like LANs.
By this classification there are three types of fibres :
(I)
Multimode Step Index fibre (Step Index fibre)
(II)
Multimode graded Index fibre (Graded Index fibre)
(III)
Single- Mode Step Index fibre (Single Mode Fibre)
Optical Fibre Parameters

Wavelength: For example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical
wavelength for fibre use are 850nm, 1300nm and 1550nm all of which are invisible.
Window: A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best
operates.
Window
Operational Wavelength
800nm - 900nm
850nm
1250nm - 1350nm
1300nm
1500nm - 1600nm
1550nm
Attenuation:Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a fibre
with lower attenuation will allow more power to reach a receiver than fibre with higher
attenuation. Attenuation may be categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic Attenuation:It is loss due to inherent or within the fibre. Intrinsic

attenuation may occur as
(1) Absorption - Natural Impurities in the glass absorb light energy.
(2) Scattering - Light Rays Travelling in the Core Reflect from small Imperfections into
a New Pathway that may be Lost through the cladding.
Extrinsic Attenuation
It is loss due to external sources. Extrinsic attenuation may occur as
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1. Macrobending - The fibre is sharply bent so that the light travelling down the fibre
cannot make the turn & is lost in the cladding.
2. Microbending - Microbending or small bends in the fibre caused by crushing
contraction etc. These bends may not be visible with the naked eye.
Numerical Aperture :Numerical aperture (NA) is the "light - gathering ability" of
a fibre. The material NA relates to the refractive indices of the core and cladding.
NA = n12 - n22
where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively
Dispersion :Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the length of an
optical fiber
Types of dispersion :
(I)
Modal Dispersion
(II)
Material dispersion
(III)
Waveguide dispersion
There are two basic cable designs are:

1. Tight Buffer Tube Cable : used inside buildings.
2. Loose Buffer Tube Cable: outside-plant installations
OFC Splicing:Splices are permanent connection between two fibres. The splicing involves
cutting of the edges of the two fibres to be spliced.
Splicing Methods
The following three types are widely used :
1.
Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.
2.
Mechanical splicing.
3.
Fusion splicing- widely used
The splice loss indicated by the splicing machine should not be taken as a final value as it is only
an estimated loss and so after every splicing is over, the splice loss measurement is to be taken
by an OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer).
Optical Link Budget :The "Optical Budget" is a term used in OFC route planning taking into
account various losses of fiber
Transmitter Power = Loss in Cable + Splice loss + Splitter loss + Power required at
Receiver.
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Main Tests on OFC
Cable Loss.
Splice Loss.
Connector Loss.
Fiber Length.
Continuity of Fiber.
Fault Localizations/Break Fault
Laying of Optical Fiber cable: OFC is either buried or laid in Ducts.

Two categories of soils are:
Rocky: Cable trench, which can not be dug without blasting and/or chiseling.
Non-Rocky: Other than above including murram and soil mixed with stone and soft rock.
Pipes for cable laying and protection
HDPE pipe 75 mm (diameter) length 5m. (approx 18 to 20 )
HDPE pipe 50 mm (diameter) length 5m. (approx 18 to 20 )
PLB pipe (40 mm. outer diameter) length 1km/200m ( town limits with rope)
GI pipe for PLP 50 mm dia length 6 meter
Measurement of cable depth: All depth should be measured from the top of pipe.
(A) Cross country rout (normal soil)

Above HDPE pipe :1.5 meter
Trench depth :1.65 meter
In rocky area minimum depth 0.9 m (all cables having depth less then 1.2 meter should
be protected by RCC/GI pipes)
(B) In built up area (city/town/urban area) :Depth in rocky soil may be consider as 0.9 to 1.0
meter
(C) On culvert/bridge over river and nallah. :At the depth of 1.5 meter below the bed throw
HDPE/RCC Pipe. Pipe length should be 2 meter extended at both ends.
(D)At road crossing :At a depth of 1.5 meter through HDP pipe enclosed in RCC pipe extended
by 3.0 meter to the side end of the read.
Indicators along route
Route indicator: At every 200 m route length of showing name of route & no of
indicators.
Joint indicator: At every joint (Splice) generally it is placed at every 2 or 4 Km (Drum
length)
Branch (Root diversion) indicator: Provided at route diversion or branching from the
main root.
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Chapter 13 - Optical Fiber Communications- PDH & SDH
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchies (PDH)
Main problems of PDH systems
Homogeneity of equipment
Problem of Channel segregation
The problem cross connection of channels
Inability to identify individual channels in a higher-order bit stream.
Insufficient capacity for network management;
Most PDH network management is proprietary.
Theres no standardised definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140 Mbit/s.
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous multiplexing - data

from multiple tributary sources is byte interleaved.
SDH standard introduced with three major goals:

Avoid the problems of PDH
Achieve higher bit rates (Gbit/s)
Better means for Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OA&M)
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SDH Advantages
High transmission rates :Transmission rates of up to 40 Gbit/s can be achieved in

modern SDH systems.
Simplified add & drop function:Compared with the older PDH system, it is much easier
to extract and insert low-bit rate channels from or into the high-speed bit streams in
SDH. It is no longer necessary to demultiplex and then remultiplex the plesiochronous
structure.
Reliability:Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up and repair
mechanisms to cope with system faults.
Future-proof platform for new services: SDH is the ideal platform for services ranging
from POTS, ISDN and mobile radio through to data communications (LAN, WAN, etc.),
and it is able to handle the very latest services, such as video on demand and digital video
broadcasting via ATM that are gradually becoming established.
Interconnection: The SDH interfaces are globally standardized, making it possible to
combine network elements from different manufacturers into a network. The result is a
reduction in equipment costs as compared with PDH.
Network Elements of SDH
1. Regenerators :Regenerators have the job of regenerating the clock and amplitude
relationships of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and distorted by
dispersion.
2. Terminal Multiplexer : Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and
synchronous input signals into higher bit rate STM-N signals.
3. Add/drop Multiplexers(ADM) : Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals
can be extracted from or inserted into high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs.
4. Digital Cross-connect [DXC]:. It allows mapping of PDH tributary signals into virtual
containers as well as switching of various containers up to and including VC-4.
5. Network Element Manager:All the SDH network elements mentioned so far are softwarecontrolled. This means that they can be monitored and remotely controlled by network
element manager.
SDH Rates : SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s. The basic
unit of SDH is STM-1. [STM -Synchronous Transport Modules]

Different SDH rates are given below:
ExamKart
STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s

STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s
STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s
STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
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STM-1 frame format

It is made up from a byte matrix of 9 rows and 270 columns.. The frame repetition rate is 125
ms.
Overhead :The first 9 bytes in each of the 9 rows are called the overhead. Two types of
overhead: regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex section overhead
(MSOH)
Automatic protection switching (APS)

Two basic types of protection architecture
1. Linear protection :The simplest form of back-up is the so-called 1 + 1 APS. Here, each
working line is protected by one protection line. If a defect occurs, the protection agent in the
network elements at both ends switch the circuit over to the protection line.
2. Ring protection: A collection of nodes forming a-closed loop whereby each node is connected
to two adjacent nodes via a duplex communication facility. A ring provides redundant
bandwidth or redundant network equipment, or both; so distributed services can be
automatically restored following a failure or degradation in the network. Thus a ring can be
self-healing.
Two type of ring Architectures

Two fiber unidirectional self healing ring (USHR)
Two-fiber or four-fiber, bi-directional, line- switching ring (two-fiber or four-fiber BSHR)
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SDH Network Toplogies
NG-SDH
Read Chapter MSPP of LDR for more info on NGSDH
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Chapter 13 Optical Fiber Communication - DWDM
Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a fiber-optic transmission

technique that employs multiple light wavelengths to transmit data in parallel
through a single fiber.
DWDM promises to solve the "fiber exhaust" problem and is expected to be the central
technology in the all-optical networks of the future.
Varieties of WDM
WDM: Traditional, passive WDM systems are widespread with 2, 4, 8, 12, and 16
channel counts being the normal deployments. This technique usually has a distance
limitation of less than 100 km.
CWDM: Coarse WDM (CWDM) typically uses 20-nm spacing (3000 GHz) of up to
18 channels. The CWDM grid is made up of 18 wavelengths defined within the range
1270 nm to 1610 nm spaced by 20 nm.
DWDM :Dense WDM common spacing may be 200, 100, 50, or 25 GHz with channel
count reaching up to 128 or more channels at distances of several thousand kilometers
with amplification and regeneration along such a route.
Transmission Windows
The second transmission window (around 1300 nm) and the third and fourth
transmission windows from 1530 to 1565 nm (also called conventional band) and from
1565 to 1625 nm (also called Long Band) are used.
DWDM System Components
1. Transmitter (transmit transponder):

Changes electrical bits to optical pulses
Is frequency specific
Uses a narrowband laser to generate the optical pulse
2.Multiplexer/ demultiplexer: Combines/separates discrete wavelengths
3. Amplifier
Pre-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the receive side
Post-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the transmit side (post amplifier) and on the receive
side (preamplifier)
In line amplifiers (ILA) are placed at different distances from the source to provide
recovery of the signal before it is degraded by loss.
EDFA (Eribium Doped Fiber Amplifier) is the most popular amplifier.
4. Optical fiber (media):
Transmission media to carry optical pulses
Many different kinds of fiber are used
Often deployed in sheaths of 144256 fibers
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5. Receiver (receive transponder)

Changes optical pulses back to electrical bits
Uses wideband laser to provide the optical pulse
Benefits of DWDM
Increases bandwidth (speed and distance)
Does not require replacement or upgrade their existing legacy systems
Provides "next generation" technologies to meet growing data needs
Less costly in the long run because increased fiber capacity is automatically available;
don't have to upgrade all the time
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Chapter 14 - Microwave Communication
Electromagnetic wave Spectrum
RANGE
NAME WAVELENGTH USES
030 KHz
V.L.F.
Up to 10 km.
30300
KHz
L.F.
10 km to 1 km
0.33 MHz
M.F.
1 km to 100 m
Radio Broadcast, Marine Power in KW,

ground wave propagation, i.e. follows the
curvature of the Earth.
330 MHz
H.F.
100 m to 10 m
Long haul point to point communication.

Propagation is by one or more reflections from
ionosphere layers and so subject to variations.
30300
MHz
V.H.F.
10 m to 1 m
Line of sight, Tropo-scatter communication.
0.33 GHz
U.H.F.
1 m to 10 cm.
do
330 GHz
S.H.F.
10 cm to 1 cm.
Line of sight, terrestrial M/W and Satellite

communication.
30300
GHz
E.H.F.
1 cm to 1 mm.
Experimental.
Used for long communication. Has limited

information. Bandwidth require very high
power.
Microwave
Microwave transmission refers to the technique of transmitting information over
microwave frequencies (1 Ghz to 40 Ghz) SHF band. However, most of the m/w
systems available are in the range of 1 to 18 GHz
Features
Suitable over line-of-sight transmission links without obstacles
Provides good bandwidth
Affected by rain, vapor, dust, snow, cloud, mist and fog, heavy moisture, depending on
chosen frequency
Sensitive to high pollen count
Signals can be degraded during Solar proton event
Have limited penetration capabilities
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Microwave link
A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in the
microwave frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations,
which can be from just a few feet or meters to several miles or kilometers apart.
Applications:
M/W frequency bands are used for the following services
(i)
Fixed Radio Communication Services.
(ii)
Fixed Satellite Services.
(iii)
Mobile Services.
(iv)
Broadcasting Services.
(v)
Radio Navigation Services.
(vi)
Meteorological Services.
(vii)
Radio Astronomy Services.
BSNL has been nominated as a major wireless user by the WPC(Wireless Planning
Commission) in 1981 for fixed radio communication.
BSNL Microwave Spectrum

Band
Bandwidth
Available
Spectrum Space
2 GHz
300 MHz
20002300 MHz
4 GHz
900 MHz
33004200 MHz
6 GHz
1185 MHz
59257110 MHz
7 GHz
300 MHz
74257725 MHz
11 GHz
1000 MHz
10,70011,700 MHz
13 GHz
500 MHz
12,75013,250 MHz
In India the first M/w System was completed in December, 1965 between Kolkata and
Asansol with a system capacity of 1200 channels.
Transmission Capacities Available on the Radio Systems

The transmission capacities available on digital radio systems are, of course, integral
multiples of PCM hierarchical bit rates and are classified into small, medium and large or
high capacity systems.
1.Low capacity
704 kbps, 2 mbps and 8 mbps
2.Medium capacity
34 mbps
3.High capacity
140 mbps
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The systems being used in the BSNL in the medium capacity range are 2 GHz ,13 GHz
and 34 Mbps equipments.
Link budget
Link budget is accounting of all of the gains and losses from the transmitter, through the
medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in a telecommunication
system. It accounts for the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation, as
well as the antenna gains, feedline and miscellaneous losses.
A simple link budget equation

Received Power (dBm) = Transmitted Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) Losses (dB)
A link budget equation including all these effects, expressed logarithmically, might look like this:
where:
= received power (dBm)
= transmitter output power (dBm)
= transmitter antenna gain (dBi)
= transmitter losses (coax, connectors...) (dB)
= free space loss or path loss (dB)
= miscellaneous losses (fading margin, body loss, polarization mismatch, other
losses...) (dB)
= receiver antenna gain (dBi)
= receiver losses (coax, connectors...) (dB)
Free Space Path Loss [FSPL]
Free Space Loss is defined as minimum loss an electromagnetic wave experiences if it

travels in atmosphere.
Diversity In Microwave Links

Diversity in MW Links is a sort of redundancy in network. They also help overcome
various factors which affect MW links.
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Two types of Diversity in MW links

1. Frequency Diversity: calls for use of two different frequencies for same MW link.
This is normally avoided because two frequency allocation means double the annual fee
payable for frequency. Frequency diversity is generally meant to overcome frequency
interferences and various other factors.
2.Space Diversity: uses two Microwave antennas at each side and is best suited to
overcome Reflection of Microwave waves. Signal is received by both antennas called
Main Antenna and Diversity Antenna and it is IDU to decide which signal to receive.
Generally IDU receives best possible signal. This diversity also helps a lot in areas of high
wind because if one antenna gets misaligned network can function without fail from
another. Thus this provides a sort of redundancy to our network.
1.
Types Of Antenna
Isotropic Radiator
The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all
directions. Most antennas' gains are measured with reference to an isotropic radiator,
and are rated in dBi (decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator).
2.
Dipole Antenna
The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either
horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other
end hanging free in space. Generally, the dipole is considered to be Omni-directional in
the plane perpendicular to the axis of the antenna, Variations of the dipole include the
folded dipole, the half wave antenna, the ground plane antenna etc.
3.
Yagi Antenna
The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic elements
added which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses (directors) to focus a
filament light bulb. Generally used in TV transmission
4.
Horn Antenna
The Horn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short (microwave) and
space is not an issue. Horns can be narrow band or wide band, depending on their shape. A
horn can be built for any frequency, but horns for lower frequencies are typically
impractical. Horns are also frequently used as reference antennas.
5.
Parabolic Antenna
The parabolic antenna consists of an active element at the focus of a parabolic reflector
to reflect the waves into a plane wave. Like the horn it is used for high gain, microwave
applications, such as satellite dishes.
6.
Patch Antenna
The Patch antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a ground plane.
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Chapter 15 - Satellite Communications -Basics

A Communications satellite (sometimes abbreviated to COMSAT) is an artificial satellite
stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications.
Advantages of Satellite Communications

(i)
Large coverage : Almost onethird of the earth with exception of polar regions is
visible from geostationary orbit. It is, thus, possible to cover about 10,000 kms.
distance irrespective of intervening terrain with a single satellite.
(ii)
High quality : Satellite links can be designed for high quality performance. The
link performance is highly stable since it is free from ionospheric disturbances,
multipath effects or fading.
(iii)
High reliability : Reliability is high since there is only one repeater in the link.
(iv)
High capacity : With microwave frequencies, wide bandwidths are available and
large communication capacity can be obtained.
(v)
Mobile, shortterm or emergency communications: Reliable long distance land

mobile, maritime mobile and aeronautical mobile services are feasible only by
means of satellite.
Satellite Communication Applications
1. Telephony:long distance telephony

2. Satellite television:Television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous
delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more
precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats.
3. Fixed Service Satellite:Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of
the Ku bands. They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and
local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, live
shots, and backhauls), as well as being used for distance learning by schools and universities,
business television (BTV), Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications.
4. Direct broadcast satellite:Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of
the microwave Ku band. DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV
services, such as DirecTV, DISH TV etc.
5. Amateur radio:Amateur radio operators have access to the OSCAR (Orbiting Satellite
Carrying Amateur Radio) satellites that have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio
traffic.
6.Navigation: Its primary application is GPS (Global Positioning System).Receivers on the earth
pick up transmissions from four satellites simultaneously. The receiver uses the microprocessor
to compute and display the exact position, in terms of latitude and longitude
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Basic Communications Satellite Components

The communication satellite essentially consists of
1.
Payload
2.
Support subsystems
1. Payload : refers to the equipment used to provide the service for which the satellite has
been launched. In communication satellites, payload consists of transponders which carry
out the repeater function and the transmit and receive antennas.
2. Support subsystems: include altitude and orbit control equipment, power subsystem,
telemetry and telecommand subsystem, etc.
Frequency Bands
Uplink : From earth station to satellite
Downlink : From satellite to earth station
Uplink (U/L) and Downlink Frequencies (D/L) for Satellite communications
1. C-band : U/L-6 GHz, D/L-4 GHz
2. Ku band: U/L-14 GHz, D/L-12 GHz
Geostationary satelite
A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be in a fixed position to an earth-based
observer. A geostationary satellite revolves around the earth at a constant speed once per
day over the equator. This satellite revolves above the equator round the earth at a height
of 35,790 km. Its period of revolving round the earth is same as that of the earth rotation
on its own axis.
Advantage of Geostationary satelite
(1)
Its large antenna at an earth station is easy to track.
(2)
Twentyfour (24) hours communication can be made with even only one
satellite.
(3)
The satellite looks at the earth as if it were stationary, and it radiates highly
effective wave power.
(4)
Visibility from one satellite is very wide, and global communication can be made
using only three satellites.
Earth Station
The function of an earth station is to receive information from or transmit information to
the satellite network in the most cost-effective and reliable manner while retaining the
desired signal quality.
Any earth station consists of four major subsystems

1.Transmitter
2.Receiver
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3. Antenna
4. Tracking equipment
Earth Station Tracking System

An earth stations tracking system is required to perform some of the functions such as
i)Satellite acquisition
ii)Automatic tracking
iii)Manual tracking
iv)Program tracking.
Low-noise amplifier (LNA) is an electronic amplifier used to amplify possibly very weak
signals captured by an antenna.The LNA adds little noise to the carrier being amplified, and
at the same time it provides sufficient amplification for the carrier to override the higher
noise level present in the following mixer stage.
DSPT [Digital Satellite Phone Terminal]

Department of Telecommunications Initiative to Provide Communication to Remote Villages
not Connected by any Communication Network. USO Funded Program Under the Bharat
Nirman Initiative of GOI
DSPT Project Features
Star-Topology
Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA) Technology
DSPT System Working on Ku Band
Frequencies
Transmit :14.00 - 14.5 GHz
Receive: 10.95 - 11.20 GHz ; 11.45 - 11.70 GHz ; 12.20- 12.75 GHz
Full Duplex Facility
2-Ports for Voice/FAX Service
1-Port for Data Service
Source Coding for Voice
6.3 Kbps as per ITU-T Recommendations
Internet Access
IP-Port @ 64 Kbps down-link/ 14Kbps Up-link
Voice Band Data @ 2.4 Kbps
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Chapter 15 - Satellite Communications -VSAT
VSAT stands for Very Small Aperture Terminal. VSAT is a device (also known as an earth
station) that is used to send and receive wireless transmissions by satellite.
The "very small" component of the VSAT acronym refers to the size of the VSAT antenna or
dish - typically about 2 to 5 feet (0.55-1.8 meters) in diameter for Ku-band systems - that is
mounted on a roof, attached to a wall or placed on the ground and is capable of both receiving
and sending satellite signals
VSAT Services: Satellite based Broadband internet access, VOIP, video conferencing, IP
multicast, Local Area Network, voice, Fax etc
Important Frequency Bands For Satellite Communication

1. C- Band
Up Link Frequency: 5.925 6.425 GHz.
Down Link Frequency: 3.7 4.2 G Hz.
Total 500 M Hz BW.
2.
Extended C- Band
Up Link Frequency : 6.725 7.025 GHz.
Down Link Frequency : 4.5 4.8 G Hz.
Additional 300 MHz BW
3.
Ku band
Up Link Frequency : 14.0 - 14.5 G Hz.
Down Link Frequency : 10.95 11.2 and 11.45 - 11.7 GHz.
A total of 500 MHz BW in Ku band.
VSAT Equipment
1. ODU ( Outdoor Unit )
2. IDU ( Indoor Unit )
1. Outdoor Unit (ODU)
Transmit / Receive Dish (Antenna) (0.75m - 1.8m)
Block Up-converter (BUC) : Block up-converter converts incoming I.F. (from IDU) to R.F.
transmitting frequency, amplifies it and passes it to feed.
Low Noise Block-Down-converter (LNB): LNB amplifies incoming R.F.(Radio Frequency)
from feed using low noise amplifier, converts it to I.F. and passes it to IDU
Feed Assembly
2. IDU (Indoor Unit)
The indoor unit may be a small desktop box, or it may be (as in this case) a network
module integrated with a router providing VSAT network connectivity just as any other
network module and provide flexible Interfaces like Ethernet 10/100 BaseT,USB with
maximum download speed of up to 4 Mbps and maximum upload speed of up to 2
Mbps
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Features of BSNL Broadband V-SAT system:

Maximum Trans / Receive Data up to 2 Mbps / 4 Mbps with 10/100 Mbps Base-T Ethernet
interfaces.
Supports all IP V4 protocols
Shared and customized Bandwidth for customers requirements (i.e. dedicated or shared
Bandwidth)
Supports Video Conferencing
Built in GRE Tunneling
Dynamic Link Allocation (DLA) technology which automatically adjusts modulation,

coding, and gain based on the link environment (such as during rain) to achieve maximum
availability
Broadband V-SAT Topologies

Point to Point Network: allows two-way communications between two VSAT sites.
Star Network :allows any number of V-SAT sites to have two-way communication with a
central hub.
Mesh Network :allows two-way communications between any V-SAT sites in a network. A
central hub is not necessary. Each site communicates to another site with a single satellite
hop.
MPLS: It will be connected to BSNL MPLS cloud using multiple 2 Mbps lease lines. MPLS
router will work as CE routers for the MPLS cloud.
BSNLs Ku Band HUB (Earth Station) at BANGALORE consists of :

1. Satellite antenna of 8.1 m Cassegrain feed type.
2. Ku Band RF equipment and its control systems.
V-SAT Services Offered

LEASED LINES Through V-SAT on IP PLATFORM: 4Kbps onwards
High speed Broadband Internet
VPN Networking
VOIP Telephony
Facsimile
Telemedicine
E-learning
IP multicasting
Video conferencing
Video streaming
Facsimile
Distance Education
Banking
E-learning
On-demand services for WAN backup/disaster recovery etc.
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India V-SAT Equipment Market Major Players
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Chapter 16 - Power Plant & Earthing
Power plant Classification

1.Based on Capacity
Power plants
Small exchange
power plants
Capacity:
Input
Paralleling of
rectifier
5/12A
Single Phase
Not possible
Medium
exchange
power plants
25/50A
Single Phase
Only manual
paralleling is
possible
Large exchange
power plants
> 50A
Three Phase
Auto paralleling
is possible
Power plant comprises 3 parts

1. Float Rectifier
2. Battery Charger
3. Switching Cubicle.
1. Float Rectifier
The function of the Float Rectifier is to receive three phases 440 V AC and to give
a constant 51.5 Volts D.C without AC ripples.
The steps involved to achieve the function are
a) Step-down
b) Rectification
c) Filtering of A.C. ripples.
d) Regulation.
Regulation is done
1. By Transductor or saturable reactor or magnetic amplifier method.
2. By varying the secondary of the main transformer automatically depending on
output voltage.
3. By SCR method.
4. SMPS method.
Four main parts of a Float Rectifier
a) 3 phase step-down transformer
b) Rectifying circuit
c) Smoothening or Filtering circuit
d) Control circuit.
2. Battery Charger
Functions of Battery charger
To Initial charge a battery set:- For initial charging, the battery charger capacity should
be at least 14% of AH capacity of battery set.
To normal charge the battery set at 10 hour rate.
To use as Float rectifier during emergency condition by suitable links.
To charge the sick cell.( provision exists in some power plants only).
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3.Switching Cubicle
The Switching Cubicle essentially provides for the termination of:
i. The paralleled output from the Float Rectifiers connected with the Exchange load.
ii. The paralleled output from the Battery Chargers.
iii. The positive and negative bus bar risers for the batteries.
iv. The positive and negative bus bar risers for the exchange.
v. Arrangement for manual operation of the knife switches for floating of either all
batteries or any one battery. The knife switches are so arranged and interlocked that
except for the battery on charge, other batteries remain connected across the exchange
during or after any switching operation.
All the knife switches are of the single pole double throw slow to break type, one each
for every battery.
Another classification of power plant is

1.Single unit type :Float Rectifier (FR),Battery charger (BC) and switching cubicle (SWC)
will be in single container .Eg: 5/12A PP
2.Two unit Type :One unit is FR/BC/SWC and another unit is FR
3. Three Unit Type: FR/BC/SWC are all in individual units
Nowadays mostly 2 units p/p are used with maintenance free batteries and all
transmission power plant are 2-unit type only. The latest being P/P of SMPS with VRLA
batteries.
Earthing
Earth Electrode System For Telephone Exchange

To provide an earth connection to the battery circuit to stabilize the battery
potential of the lines and equipment with respect to earth, thus reducing the risk
of cross talk due to lines and equipments assuming an indefinite voltage with respect
to earth, and enabling single pole switching to be used on the exchange power plant.
To provide a direct connection with earth for lightning protective apparatus.
To provide protection to persons and plant against leakage from station power
wiring to metallic apparatus, frames etc.
To provide a means of earthing electrostatic screens on apparatus and of earthing
lead sheaths of cables.
To complete the circuit of telephone systems, employing a common earth path for
signaling purposes.
Standards for resistance of earth electrode systems

The resistance of the earth electrode system should be as low as possible and in any case
should not normally exceed 2 ohms at any time for the year.
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The worst condition occurs in winter when specific resistively of soil increases sharply
with temperature near or below 0 C, where it exceeds 2 ohms
The earth resistance of Earth electrode system for Electronic exchanges should be less
than 0.5 Ohms.
Classes of Earthing Systems :Two major categories

(a) Service Earthing Systems
(i) switching equipment earth
(ii) transmission equipment earth
(iii) measuring equipment earth
(iv) A.C. power supply earth
(v) Corrosion mitigation earth
(vi) Miscellaneous equipment earth (e.g. telegraphs).
(b) Protective Earthing System
(i) Power system earth to provide protection against excessive current;
(ii) Lightning protective earth to provide protection against excessive voltage
Types of earth electrode systems
1. Spike earth electrode system

The present standard for spike earth-electrode system consists of twenty 25.0 mm or
38.00 mm diameter G.I pipes, each of 275 or 375 cm length. Each pipe is used as an
earth spike driven to its full length into the ground, the spacing between any two being not
less than 375 cms. In practice a spacing of 375 cms is found adequate and in no case
should this spacing be permitted to be less than 250 cms
2. Lead Strip Electrode System
This consists of a lead strip 1 mm wide and 6 gms/square cm buried at a depth of from
60 to 90 cms. The strip should be preferably laid in one continuous length of 2450 cms.
Otherwise two lengths of 1225 cm should be laid at least 250 cm apart and overlapped by
at least 152 mm, the two electrode being parallel at the M.D.F earth bar.
3. Earth plate electrode system
This consists of four galvanized iron plates of 145 SWG 76 cms square.These four plates
are placed vertically and at diagonally opposite in an excavation 185 cm square and of a
depth sufficient to reach damp soil. The depth should never be less that about 250 cms
and need not be greater than 500 cms
Conditions determining the type of earth electrode system to be used.

a) Spike earth electrode system: This system is generally used at all new auto
exchange installations where adequate space is available around the exchange
building and where subsoil suitable for driving in pipes to the prescribed depth exists.
b) Lead strip electrode systems: This is used when adequate space around the
exchange building is available but where rock is encountered at a depth less than
375 cm below ground level.
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c) Earth plate electrode system: This is employed when the layout of the exchange site is such
that adequate space is not available to install an earth electrode system of types (a) and (b)
mentioned above.
Battery
The secondary cells in general use in BSNL are of lead acid type. Secondary cells are
electrolytic cells for generation of electric energy.
Type of secondary cells
There are three types of storage (secondary) cells in use.

(1) lead-lead-acid type
(2) Nickel-iron-alkaline
(3) Nickel-Cadmium alkaline type.
BSNL only lead-lead-acid type is used. They are commonly known as lead acid type cell
Capacity of a cell
Capacity of a battery is specified in Ampere Hour (A.H). If the capacity of a battery is 500 AH,
it can be discharged at the rate of 50 Amps for 10 hours
The capacity that can be obtained from a cell varies with
the discharge rate
the temperature of the acid
the acid density
the value of the final voltage
Efficiency of battery
The efficiency of battery can be expressed in terms of either the capacity in Ampere- hour or the
energy in watt-hours. A.H efficiency of a cell or battery is the ratio of the quantity of electricity
which can be taken out during discharge to the quantity which must be put back during
charge, to restore it to its original condition.
AH efficiency under normal working conditions in a healthy battery is about 90 to 95% and the
Watt-hour efficiency is about 80 to 85%
Maintenance Free Secondary Cells (VRLA)

Maintenance free, valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries ensure a reliable, effective
and user friendly source of power. It is spill proof, leak proof and explosion resistant and
there is no need to add water or to clean terminals. It has low self-discharge rate which
eliminates the need for equalizing charges. The container is made of polypropylene.
Constant Voltage Method: Constant voltage is the only charging method
recommended. Most modern chargers are of the constant voltage type.
Float system
In this system the battery is always kept connected across the load in the float system in a
fully charged state. But the operating conditions are so maintained that the floated
battery does not discharge into the load as long as the mains power supply is available.
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There is absolutely no break in the DC power supply when the mains supply fails as the
emergency battery takes over the load instantaneously
The floating voltage cannot be higher than 2.35 volts per cell since beyond this
limit,Overcharging and vigorous gassing of the battery occurs
Within the permissible range of floating voltage from 2.0 to 2.35 volts per cell, three
distinct types of full float schemes have been evolved. They are as follows:i. Batteries floated between 2.02 to 2.07 volt per cell or divided battery float system.
ii. Batteries floated between 2.15 to 2.20 volt per cell or parallel battery float system.
iii. Batteries floated between 2.24 to 2.30 volt per cell or end cell switching system.
Floating Charge Method :In this type of operation, the battery is connected in parallel
with a constant voltage charger and the critical load circuits.
UPS
UPS System means Uninterrupted Power Supply. As the name indicates, this system
supplies uninterrupted A.C. supply.
Capacity: The Capacity of an UPS is the output power it can deliver and is expressed in
terms of kilo volt-amperes (KVA).
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Chapter 17 - NOFN Project

NOFN [National Optical Fiber Network] Project Objective: Extend existing Optical Fiber
Network to Panchayats by utilizing Universal Service Obligation Funds (USOF) and creating
an institutional mechanism for management and operation of NOFN. There is a plan to connect
all the 2,50,000 Gram panchayats in the country. This will be done by utilizing existing fibres
of PSUs (BSNL, Railtel and Power Grid) and laying incremental fibre to connect to Gram
Panchayats wherever necessary.
The Telecom Commission approved a 3-phase implementation of the NOFN. The first 100000
Gram Panchayats were to be covered in the first phase up to March 31, 2014 and an
additional 100000 Gram Panchayats were to be reached by March 31, 2015. The rest were to
be covered by September 30, 2015.
Bharat Broadband Network Limited (BBNL), a PSU has been registered under The
Companies Act 1956 on Feb 25, 2012 for management and operation of NOFN .
The NOFN project is estimated to cost about Rs. 20,000 Cr. It is proposed to be completed in 2
years time. The project will be funded by the Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF).
NOFN Project Overview
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NOFN Details
NOFN will ensure that Broadband of at least 100Mbps is available at each GP
NOFN will provide nondiscriminatory access to all categories of service providers.
On NOFN, ehealth, eeducation, egovernance & ecommerce applications & Video
conferencing facilities can be provided.
Ring & tree architecture to be used depending on ground realities and requirements
NOFN to be operated and controlled centrally (NMS) by BBNL
NOFN to be built using dark fibres leased from three CPSUs (or any other desirous
telecom operator) and laying incremental fibre.
NOFN to offer interconnection at Block level and Gram Panchayat (GP) level
Guaranteed Bandwidth of 100 Mbps
NOFN offer to Service Providers
Guaranteed Bandwidth at GP and Block
Beneficiary operators to interconnect NOFN at its PoP at Block and further built up
connectivity using existing networks upwards
Access Providers to interconnect at GPs to launch their retail services.
Standard interfaces for interconnection at GPs as well as Blocks
Centralised Management NMS, OSS/BSS
NOFN Architecture
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NOFN implementation at GP (Gram Panchayat) level

At GP, the technology called GPON (Gigabit Passive Optical Network Technology) will be
utilised.
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Chapter 18 - Infra Sharing
Infrastructure sharing (tower-sharing)

Overall, sharing of infrastructure, passive as well as active, is beneficial for all parties
involved as it brings along significant operational as well financial savings, thus enabling the
companies to minimise duplication of efforts and costs and improve profitability.
Functioning of a Tower Infrastructure Company
A tower infrastructure company provides passive infrastructure on a sharing basis to

Telecom operators.
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Role of a tower infrastructure company

Site planning, keeping in view the network rollout plans of prospective customers.
Site acquisition, including entering into long-term agreements with land owners.
Obtaining of necessary regulatory approvals.
Erection and commissioning of tower and allied equipment.
Provision of support services such as backup power, air-conditioning and security.
Provision of turnkey solutions to telecom companies such as sourcing of equipment,
testing and maintenance.
Types of Towers
(i)
Ground-Based Tower: Erected on the ground, ground-based towers (GBTs) are taller
(typically 200 to 400 feet) and are mostly used in rural and semi-urban areas
because of the easy availability of real estate space there. GBTs involve a capital
expenditure in the range of Rs. 2.4 to 2.8 million, depending on the height of the tower.
(ii) Roof-Top Tower (RTT): Roof-top towers (RTTs), which are generally placed on the
roofs of highrise buildings, are shorter (than GBTs) and more common in urban and
highly populated areas, where there is paucity of real-estate space. Typically, these
involve a capital expenditure of Rs. 1.5 to 2 million.
Tower sharing companies have their business model based largely on the following two
approaches
1. Contract Approach: Tower companies set up tower sites going by the
requirements of the telecom operators, and the terms of the contract are
specified beforehand in the MSAs signed by the two parties.
2. Anticipatory Approach: Tower companies set up tower infrastructure at sites
with reasonable demand potential and subsequently invite telecom operators to
set up their network on these towers.
Factors driving growth for passive infrastructure sharing
Viability of business at low ARPUs
High usage and limited spectrum availability
Quality of service
Enhancement of profitability
Entry of new players and expansion plans of existing operators
Shorter rollout time, a key necessity
New technologies to further stimulate demand
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Last Day Revision [LDR] Guide

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LDR Enterprise Business

KEY ELEMENTS OF MLLN

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DXC (Digital Cross-Connect)

VMUX (Versatile Multiplexer)

NTU (Network Terminating Unit)

NMS (Network Management System)

VMUX :Type - I, Type - II, Type - III

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NMS (Network Management System)

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LDR Enterprise Business

Numbering Scheme Of Leased Circuit

For circuit within the same SDCA, ABCD=EFGH

For international circuits, EFGH is replaced by # # # #

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LDR Enterprise Business

Multi Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a data-carrying mechanism in packet-switched

Common Terminologies used in MPLS

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Ingress / Egress Routers

MPLS remains independent of the Layer-2 & layer-3 protocols.

Steps taken for a data packet to travel through an MPLS domain

Label creation and distribution

Table creation at each router

Label-switched path creation

Label insertion/table lookup

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Classification of VPN Implementations

Service provider would actively participate in customer routing. In the peer-to-peer

Protocols Used In MPLS Networks

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Methods used in label creation

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Fiber To The x (FTTx)

1. FTTH (Fiber To The Home)

2. FTTB (Fiber To The Building)

3. FTTC (Fiber To The Curb)

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B. Active Star Ethernet (Point-to-Multi Point) Architecture

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Active Star Ethernet (ASE) architecture is a point-to-Multi-point architecture in which

2. Passive Optical Network (Point-to-Multipoint) Architecture

Two common splitter configurations for PON architecture

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Types of PON Technologies

Components of PON Architecture

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