A Report On A Service-Learning Class (Masters)

Linking Students with Community in Collaborative Governance: A Report on a Service-Learning
Class
Author(s): Thomas A. Bryer
Source: Journal of Public Affairs Education, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Winter 2011), pp. 89-114
Published by: National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA)
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Linking Students with Community

inCollaborative Governance:
A Report on a Service-Learning Class
Thomas
A. Bryer
UniversityofCentralFlorida
Abstract
governance is increasingly becoming a topic for scholarly research
and practitioner skill development as well as a component of graduate programs
in public administration. This article documents a service-learning project in a
Collaborative
in Public Administration
class on cross-sector governance.
graduate-level Masters
The article begins with a brief review of literature on university-community relations
thecivicmission of institutions
of highereducation and the
and, specifically,
role of service learning in public administration programs. The teaching case is

then introduced, with the full context and detail explained. Lessons are offered
forreplicatingthiskind of class.An analysisof the successof thecase isoffered
based on reflection journals written by students throughout
the semester.
Collaborative governance is increasingly becoming a topic for scholarly research

and practitioner skill development as well as a component of graduate programs in
no further than the topMasters
in Public
public administration. One need look
Administration
programs
in theUnited
States (Posner, 2009),
browse recent book
titlespublished in thepublic administration

field (seeforexample therecentedited
volumes byBingham& O'Leary, 2008, andO'Leary & Bingham, 2009), and
examine article titles in top scholarly journals in public administration
(see for
next
to
citations
in
the
the
of
collaborative
emergence
example
verify
paragraph)
governance as a hot topic.
comes with much substance. Research has

Importantly, the apparent fad
demonstrated the benefits of multi- or cross-sector collaborative relationships,
both interorganizational and citizen centered (Bingham & O'Leary, 2008; O'Leary
& Bingham,2009). The challengesofdevelopingsuccessful

collaborative
partner
a
case
in
interest
been
the
have
documented
of
studies,
public
ships
utilizing variety
in
&
collaborations
(Kiefer
emergency
management
Montjoy, 2006;
including
&
works
2007;
Bryer,2009), healthcare
(Cooper Bryer,
Moynihan, 2005), public
& Provan,2000), and transportation
2002; Bryer,2009).
(Milward
(Lawther,
JPAE, 77(1), 89-114
JournalofPublicAffairsEducation
89
in Collaborative
Governance
So farmissing from the literature, however, is an explicit linkage between

collaborative governance theory and analysis with literature on the civic mission
of universities. In the latter category, there is a rich history of writing on the
not isolate themselves
importance of ensuring institutions of higher education do
from the communities
they exist. Institutions of higher education,

to be citizens and promote citizenship among their
inwhich
indeed, have commitments
faculty, staff, and students (Dewey, 1916).

between universities and communities
Collaboration
is potentially
significant
to successfully achieve both the educational objectives of the university and the
service or experiential
public service objectives of community partners. Promoting
learning
in public
programs has the potential to enrich the

achieved by students while simultaneously
administration
of learning outcomes
most
theoretical and empirical knowledge on an issue
up-to-date
providing the
& Torres,
or concern to address a need in the community
(Dicke, Dowden,
quality
2004; Lambright,2008).
a
a
in
service-learning project in graduate-level Masters
class on cross-sector governance. The course is a requirement
and Homeland
for students in the certificate program in Emergency Management
article documents
This
Public Administration
public
Security, but it is often populated by students in nonprofit management,
administration, and planning certificate or degree programs. The article begins
with a brief review of literature on the civic mission of institutions of higher
and the role of service learning in public administration programs. The

case is then introduced, with the full context and detail explained. Lessons
teaching
course. An analysis of the success of
are offered for
replication of this kind of
education
is offered based on reflection journals written
the case
by students
throughout
the semester.
The Civic
in Public
Obligations
of Universities
and
Service
Learning
Administration
(1916) advocates for institutions of higher education to adopt an

Dewey
active role in promoting democracy,
citizenship, and serving
encouraging
community.Since hiswriting in 1916, thework of strengtheninglinkages

between
the educational
recent writings,
and civic missions
of schools has continued.
Some
and the urgency expressed in those writings, suggest that there

to go for some
higher education institutions (Boyte & Kari,
may be a long way
2000; Salamon, 2005).
seem
streams of
particularly influential in considering the
thought
function of universities as well as of university faculty, staff, and students. The
Two
firstis theconception of highereducation as publicwork (Boyte& Kari, 2000).

This notion is summarizedinBoyte and Kari s (2000, p. 48) quotation from
LibertyBailey:
90
Journal ofPublicAffairsEducation
in Collaborative
Governance
leadership lies in taking hold of the first and commonest problems

that present themselves and working them out. I like to say to my
students that they should attack the first problem that presents itself
when they alight from the train on their return from college. Itmay
Real
be a problemof roads;of a poor school; of tuberculosis;of ugly signs

along the highways.
To suggest that higher education

their faculty, staff,and students?have
is public work
is to say that universities?and

to the
promotion of democracy
obligations
and the solving of real-world problems. Problem solving and public work is not
a function for experts
as experts and
or
acting
consequently in their self-interest
disciplinary interest. Rather, faculty, staff, and students should apply their craft
as a contribution
to the democratic
process, both informing decision making
and
educating citizens.
The public work perspective is consistent with another stream of thought
advanced by Lester Salamon
(2005). Salamon, confronting the challenge of
across sectors and increased reliance on
actors to
boundaries
blurring
third-party
to
a
services
deliver
people and communities, introduced the notion of professional
citizen.He defined thisperson as follows (2005, p. 13):
a
to
"professional citizen" is thus person who works, and is trained
a
or
on
in
volunteer
whether
work,
capacity,
paid
public problems?
to
to
to devise solutions to them, and to
them,
them,
identify
analyze
are
implement actions that alleviate them?whether
they
employed
or even
agencies, nonprofit organizations,
for-profit
in roles that focus on the solution of public problems.
in governmental
companies
Salamon
(2005)
saw a role for

public administration
programs
in training
professionalcitizensand providingthemwith threetypesof knowledge: (1) tool

or awareness
to facilitate collaboration,
of mechanisms
such as
or
awareness
conflict
and
(2) design knowledge
management,
building
of what tools can be effective given different conditions,
and (3) operating
or competence
in
the
tools
of
governance and collaboration.
knowledge
applying
knowledge
consensus
citizens serve public causes, Salamon

(2005) suggests, regardless of
sector. Universities and university
not
to serve as
faculty have obligations
only
to
train
citizens.
but
professional
professional citizens,
One means of pursuing a mission of higher education as public work and
of acting as and training professional citizens is service learning.A small handful of
Professional
articleshave been published on thespecifictopicof servicelearninginpublic
programs, or masters in public administration programs more

some
specifically. Each of these articles, reviewed here, expresses
degree of optimism
in pursuing service learning as a means of fulfilling the
and encouragement
administration
91
in Collaborative
Linking Stridents with Community
Governance
it seems public
function of higher education institutions. Overall,
administration programs are particularly well placed, given their existing professional
programs, to integrate service learning and pursue democratic
development
democratic
objectives (D'Agostino, 2008).

Waldner andHunter (2008) considertheefficacy
ofwhat theycall client-based
are "structured to
a useful report or
a
produce
product for client"
a
issue
tool
"The
clients
becomes
focal
for
(p. 219). They
delivering
course materials and
Client-based
theories
and
(2008,
219).
p.
integrating
practice"
courses, which
continue:
courses are variants of

not contain a reflection
service-learning courses, but theymay
component. The focus, as with service-learning courses, is on gaining experience
courses can
and generating a useful product for a community partner. Client-based
be service learning in character, if they also promote self-reflection and awareness.
To this end, Dicke, Dowden,
and Torres (2004) direct us toward four rationales
on the use of
strategies: (1) community service, (2)
service-learning pedagogical
can
The
instrumental.
and
moral, (3) political,
(4)
community service rationale
the public work perspective of higher education. Universities
and students should contribute to the common good through technical or volunteer
assistance given to community nonprofit, governmental, or private organizations.
be identified with
The moral
rationale
aware
is grounded
in the desire to have students become more
self
and ethical perspectives on, for instance, the

regarding their philosophical
role of government or the role of professions in the promotion of a common good.
Whereas
the moral rationale seeks student self-reflection, the political rationale
promotes a particular vision of strong community and the pursuit of social
equity and justice. Last, the instrumental rationale is applied and is exemplified by
and Hunter (2008). Students
the client-based course design described byWaldner
new
are
to exit the class with

expected
real-world settings.
case described
The
skills and competences
to
apply
in
next offers an assessment
and findings that align with the

rationales. The course did not pursue a
community
particular social justice agenda, though students may have advanced that perspective
own reflection.
on their own,
Through analysis of student reflection
through their
service and instrumental
journals,thecase studyoffersbroad lessonsbut does not dig deeply in any one
such as Lambright s (2008) emphasis on the instrumental rationale and

differential learning outcomes associated with service-learning versus traditional
courses.
inmind this broad parameter, we now present the case.
Keeping
rationale,
A Cross-Sectoral
The
Southeast United
The
solution
strengths of
92
Governance
course was
Service-Learning
Course
at a
taught
large,metropolitan-based
public university in the
on
States. Its purpose is stated
the syllabus in the following manner:
to many
the public,
social
requires the combined

sectors.
for-profit/private, and nonprofit
problems
in ColUborative
Governance
on cross-sectoral governance
by
highlights this emphasis
a foundation in the purpose and usefulness of cross-sectoral
providing
relationships, and by providing the knowledge and tools necessary for
This
course
the effective management
of such relationships.
the course:
university's catalogue contains the following description of
course
with
associated
and
examines
"This
the structures, dynamics,
processes
services through networks and partnerships
developing and delivering public
sectors." Figure 1 summarizes
involving public, nonprofit, voluntary, and private
the course objectives, as they appear in the syllabus.
The
Figure 1.
Course Objectives
Academic and ScholarlyObjectives:
the size, trends, nature, structure, and constraints of the

sectors.
public, for-profit, and nonprofit
Evaluate the structure, dynamics, and processes of cross-sectoral
Analyze
governance.
the rationales for cross-sectoral governance arrangements.

an
understanding of historical and theoretical perspectives
Integrate
Analyze
of intergovernmental relations and cross-sectoral governance.

Evaluate the future of cross-sectoral governance and the system as a
whole.
Professional
Devehpment Objectives:
governance, consensus building, and conflict resolution

Develop
interactions.
tools in inter- and intra- organizational
Service-Learning
Objectives:.
a normative orientation toward self and community.
Develop
Learn about community?strong
community requires active involve
ment with and of diverse stakeholders.
we
Learn about citizenship?as
individually
professional citizens,
and collectively have responsibilities toward the betterment of com
not only for our own selves and neighborhoods.
service is rent for our time here on earth."
munities,
Learn
about
service and knowledge?with
knowledge
"Public
comes
responsibility.
JournalofPublicAffairsEduca?on
93
Linking St?idents with Community
in Collaborative
Governance
In designing the course as a service-learning course, the dual objective was

to instruct on the
governance while
practice and theories of collaborative
to a set of
service
community partners how collaboration
demonstrating
through
can be
the focus of the service project was
successfully achieved. Appropriately,
to enhance collaborative
the development
of a set of recommendations
capacity
across sectors and

agencies.
The class provided students with
to engage
successfully in networking
sectors.
Among
nonprofit, and private
network development
and evaluation,
the theoretical and practical tools needed

and collaboration across government,
the topics covered during the course were

consensus building,
conflict management,
and public participation.The class of 25 students

worked for 13weeks with the
Orange
County
Orange
County,
Children's
Cabinet
and the larger child-serving
community
in
Florida.
to the Children's Cabinet
bylaws, theirmission is "To provide

According
the framework, advocacy platform and organizational model to foster integration,
collaboration and development of all entities focused on creating positive outcomes
for thechildrenofOrange County."Though theCabinet has formally

draftedbylaws,
it is not a legal entity. Instead, the Cabinet
is an informal network of approximately
60 individuals from public, private, and nonprofit child-serving agencies. Service
areas
are not limited to foster care, education, mental health,
represented include but
meet once a month
juvenile justice, and basic needs (e.g., shelter, food). Members
to reflect on current data and trends in their service areas,
plan joint activities, and
generally share information regarding the participating organizations.

The Cabinet was in search of a plan to enhance coordination across child-serving
a means to refocus their attention
on
prevention
agencies in the county,
collectively
rather than treatment, and a desire to reduce service duplication as well as service
gaps inmeeting the needs of children in the county. Students in the class sought
to apply theirskillsand knowledge to address theseobjectives.They did so by
interviews, analyzing
conducting
assessing best practices.
a survey,
completing
a literature review, and
Structureof theClass
course included the

Key components of the
instructor-prompted reflection
and facilitated consensus pro
journals, facilitated group work and management,
cess that led to the
report. These processes
writing of the final recommendations
allowed for the timelycompletionof a credible reportto thecommunity,

while
these processes
simultaneously permitting advanced student learning. Underlying
were standard classroom activities,
including lectures, casework, and role-play
simulations.
Instructor-Prompted Reflection Journals

the semester, students kept a reflection journal
Throughout
94
inwhich
they
in Collaborative
Governance
were
to discussion prompts
responded
provided by the instructor.Questions
intended to provide students an opportunity to specifically draw connections
between class discussions and readings with experiences outside the classroom.
are outlined
questions
outcomes.
learning
later in the article when
These
Facilitated
discussing
student
Group Work and Management
Studentswere divided intogroupsaccordingto tasksthatneeded tobe
completed. Teams
of three to four students formed to (1) interview nonprofit
officials,(2) interview
officials,(3) interview
officials,
public/governmental
for-profit
(4) interview faith-based organization officials, (5) conduct statistical and network
a literature review of collaboration
in child
analysis of survey data, (6) conduct
services issues, and (7) conduct "best" practices research of how officials in other
in Florida were
to pursue positive outcomes for children. As

interacting
discussed later in this article, the learning outcomes for students may be different
based on the group theywere assigned to or chose. Specifically, the passive activity
counties
of literature review limited student

Consideration
Facilitated
interaction with
is given to this issue in the next section.
community
members.
Consensus Process toWrite Final Report
In theend, all group outputneeded to be consolidated intoa single,credible

with a set of recommendations
to
agreed
by all students. To achieve
this, the instructor asked each team to appoint one member to a writing committee.
This committee met with the instructor outside of class hours to review the findings
document
from each team and, based on themodel of network development described

in a section to follow, write the final report. Members
of thewriting team were
s
to draft individual sections; much of the
assigned
writing committee meeting
time was spent exploring possible recommendations
for the Children's Cabinet.
The
of the committee were presented to the full

decision process to
changes and finalize the recommendations.1
consensus
class, at which
make
recommendations
time the instructor facilitated a consensus
Instructor Preparation for Teaching and Facilitating

a
to
Any instructor seeking
replicate
service-learning
the one described
herein can benefit from a few lessons
course
design like
learned. Lessons are
on the
course to
course may
graduate students, but the
teaching of the
more
be appropriate for advanced undergraduates with perhaps
hands-on
based
instructor.
guidance from the
As already observed, in the sections that follow, the learning outcomes were
not consistent across all students; those who had direct contact with community
members demonstrated through their journaling a stronger ability to link theory
and practice. Students whose
taskwas
focused on literature review demonstrated
95
in Collaborative
Governance
less ability to link theory to practice. The implication of this finding concerns the
division of tasks for successful completion of a project, while allowing approximately
to achieve the same
outcomes. To
learning
equal opportunity for all students
of experiences in this case, literature review, to the extent it
is required, might be divided across groups rather than assigned to a single group
of students. As such, all students would have opportunity for deeper reading in a
counter
the division
subject area, plus the benefits of field research and data analysis.
An important consideration for any instructor contemplating a service-learning
class on the scale of the one described here is the immense time commitment re
quired.
Simply
stated, much
is being asked of students in a service-learning
class;
With that inmind, it isadvised that

much should be expectedof the instructor.
instructors observe
the service-learning design principles outlined by Imperial,

those are explicit connections between the
Katula
and
(2007). Among
Perry,
service activity and learning objectives, reflection, faculty commitment, and
in particular, cannot be emphasized
perceptible impacts. Faculty commitment,
enough. In this case, the instructor worked for the year before the class being
offered to establish trustwith Children's Cabinet members. He attended most
time on preliminary visioning exercises, and

developed personal relationships with many of the Cabinet members. These
once the students entered the field and
sought interviews,
relationships ensured that
were
Once
the
members
and
students
started their
community
waiting.
ready
was
to
the instructor
needed
troubleshoot, particularly with
engagement,
monthly meetings,
volunteered
individuals who were not responsive to requests for interviews. Ultimately, the
to be matched with
required the hard work of the students,
both, the project would not be successful
persistence from the instructor.Without
and might very well damage relationships between the university and community
success of the
project
a desired and
promised project.
research may require the approval of
any community-engaged
Conducting
a university institutional review board (IRB). However,
IRB processes require
based on the inability to complete
of any change to protocol or data collection instruments, which are

nature of the service
requirements that may be problematic given the emergent
to
learning project. For this class, the instructor completed the IRB process
were
secure use of student reflection
journals for analysis of the class. Survey data
submission
foranalysisby
collectedby theChildren'sCabinet and provided to the instructor
students;
interview data were collected
Children's Cabinet.
The
as consultants to the
by students acting
community partners, following completion of the project,
agreed tohave thestudentreportpubliclyreleased,alongwith all accompanying
data. This method
worked
in this case; however,
if an instructor or any student
wished topublish directlyfromthedata, it is advisable thatthe IRB be consulted

at thevery leastfor thepossibilityof expedited review.
to be a clear theoretical framework
Lastly, it is important for there
that
guides theoverallproject.Absent such a framework,itcan be potentiallydifficult

96
in Collaborative
Governance
to ensure all students are

tasks that are aligned with the needs of
accomplishing
in
the project. The model used
this class is presented in the next section.
NetworkDevelopment
ApplyingaModel of
Literature on network and stakeholder management

and evaluation suggests
a set of steps that can be followed in
a network in social service deliv
designing
ery systems; these steps informed the interview questions students asked of com
munity partners (see the appendix for questions). Students learned and followed
these eight steps:
1. Identify problem or information needs./Identify
2.
3.
Identifypossible networkmembers.
the type of network.
or information each
Specify the skills, resources, relationships,
potential
network member possesses.
4.
Map
existing relations among potential members.
the relations that you might want to exist, given member
5. Map
resources, relationships, or information.
6.
7.
8.
skills,
Identify unique environmental conditions.

Determine
strategic orientation of network members.
Select management
structure of network.
Problem orinformation
Identify
Needs!IdentifytheTypeofNetwork
is a first step in any purposeful project, whether it involves the creation

of a public participation process, a strategic planning process, or, as in this case,
This
a network.The firststep is to clearlyidentifytheproblems towhich thenetwork

might respond.Doing sowill allow studentsto identifythebest functionaltype
to recommend.
of network
fourtypesof networks:(1) service

Milward and Provan (2006) identify
(2) information diffusion, (3) problem solving, and (4) community

are defined
capacity building. Service implementation networks
by four primary
characteristics. They typically involve government funding for services; services
implementation,
are
at least two
occurs
jointly produced by
organizations; coordination
through
horizontal rather than hierarchical management;
challenges include the need
for successful cooperation and negotiated contracts between service producers.
Information diffusion networks maintain hierarchical lines of authority as well
as horizontal
relations between network members. The primary focus of the

is on sharing information across agencies and other boundaries.
or
to establish an active
policy
political agenda.
Problem-solving networks aim
Their focus is on solving immediate problems, such as lost funding or burdensome
network
regulation. Community-capacity-building
among diverse actors in communities,
social capital
developed
issues and needs.
can enable
networks seek to develop social capital

the intent that emergent and
with
agencies
to address
current and future
97
in Collaborative
Governance
PotentialNetworkMembers
Identify
It is important for students to experience a process of stakeholder identifi

cation and selection. In defining a stakeholder as anyone who can affect or be
affected by the actions of an organization, or in this case a network (Freeman,
who have themost poten

1984), Bryson (2004) suggestsassessingstakeholders
tial either to help or hurt the organization

(or network) and its ability to accom
on
can be more advanced or less advanced,
plish its goals. This step
depending
the amount
advanced,
of time devoted
to the
question
a stakeholder
power-interest
of stakeholder
grid (Bryson, 2004)
identification.
Ifmore
can be constructed
inwhich all possible stakeholdersare categorizedas havinghigh or lowdegrees
of power (or ability to influence the networks success and direction) and inter
or
est (or concern for the
topic
problem being addressed by the network). Those
stakeholders who have high amounts of power and high interest are potentially
most needed for inclusion in the network; those with
high power and low inter
estmight be necessarybut perhaps in a differentrole.Those with lowpower and

need not be includedfroma strictly
power perspectivebutmay be
high interest
in goal achievement.
instrumental
Each
Relationships,orInformation
SpecifytheSkilU,Resources,
Potential Network Member
Possesses
This
step identifies the existing capacities of potential network members,

to each other. This activity allows one to
including how they currently relate
not
identify
only existing strengths but also theweaknesses of the potential
(i.e., where are the skill or relational gaps?). For insight on this step,
membership
students or others can refer toMoynihans
(2005) examination of the Exotic
Newcastle Disease networkaswell as Kiefer andMontjoy s (2006) studyof the

response network. In both cases, it is evident where there are
benefits of well-documented
and planned relations across parties and the harm
that can result from the lack of such systemic planning.
Hurricane
Map
Katrina
Members
theRelationsThat ExistAmongPossible
in the previous step, it is important to understand

existing capacity
exercise is simple,
before considering how to move forward. The mapping
or bidirectional
arrow drawn between two or more
with a unidirectional
As
there is an existing
indicating whether
(aka?a
relationship between potential members
sociogram). There may be
to
a
of
relations
types
explore. Perhaps prospective members have
multiple
prospective
network members
communication
close proximity
more
multiplex
serve on
boards together, or live in
multiple
relationship,
to each other. The more relations are found to exist, or the
the network,
the potentially
might be (Provan& Milward, 2001).
98
stronger the overall network
Map
in Collaborative
theRehtionsThat YouMight Want toExist
On
a blank slate, who
needs to be connected with whom
Governance
in order for the
networkto succeed?
What should thedensityof thenetworkbe? Should there
be bridges between cliques or groups in the network? Or should everybody be

connected to everybody? Are there key members of the network? These are some
can be answered
to the other steps in
questions that
through analysis of responses
this process.
Conditions
Unique Environmental
Identify
Exotic
Disease study,aswell as Kiefer and
Newcastle
Moynihans (2005)
s
Katrina
Hurricane
Montjoy (2006)
study,shinea lighton the importanceof
structure and
design with environmental conditions. The question
aligning network
to ask here is:

What factorsin theenvironment
might influencetheabilityof the
network
to operate or achieve
its goals? Possible
answers to this
question
include
events, member/institutional
representative
general uncertainty, unanticipated
turnover or rotation, resource constraints or availability, and
political/policy priority
shifts.The importance of asking this question is to revisit the previous step in
relations, given the possibility of an environmental

to prepare to consider the ideal network structure (step 8) to
and
dynamic,
manage environmental conditions successfully.
mapping
desired network
Strategic Orientation ofNetwork Members

In discussing themultisectoral
trilemma of network management, Herranz
(2007) identifies three potential strategic orientations of network members:
Determine
entrepreneurial, and community. A bureaucratic orientation is

characterized by a desire for legislated order, reliance on rules and procedure, and
hierarchical authority. An entrepreneurial orientation is characterized by a focus
on market mechanisms,
and an opportunistic de
pursuit of value maximization,
bureaucratic,
cision process. A community orientation is characterized by an emphasis on civil

a
participatory decision process.
society forces, pursuit of social equity, and
suggests a different preferred mode of behavior for network
is particularly the case, and thus a challenge, in networks
Each orientation
members,
which
sectors. The task in this step is to

assign each
involving individuals from different
an assumed orientation, which would then
member
with
network
prospective
inform the next step of how to structure and manage

orientations.
potential diversity of behavioral
the network given a
Structure of theNetwork
SelectManagement
Milward
and Provan (2006) identify three network governance
structures.
The final step in thenetworkdesignprocess is to identifytheoptimal structure

to
guide the network and allow
it to best achieve
its goals, based on assessment
fromtheprevious steps.The threestructuresidentified

byMilward and Provan
99
in Collaborative
Governance
are
self-governed, lead organization, and network administrative organization.

structure maintains no administrative core and is characterized
self-governed
a decentralized,
participatory decision process. A lead organization structure
by
is directed by a member of the network, both administratively and politically.
Decision making is centralized through the lead agency. A network administrative
structure utilizes the services of an independent

organization
facilitate decision making, communication,
and administration.
third party to
is no best
There
(2007) and
alignment between the strategic orientations identified by Herranz
and Provan (2006), particularly
the governance structures described byMilward
when there are multiple strategic orientations within a prospective network.
proper structure is dependent on dominant orientations in a multisectoral

network as well as on the size of the network, preexisting power or authority
as
relationships, and variant environmental dynamics. Careful analysis
suggested
a
to
is
customize
in this article
network
required for any emergent network
The
structure
unique
to the
particular
context.
StudentOutputfor theCommunity
Through analysisof theprojects findingsand based on theeight stepsjust
summarized,
students developed
several consensus
suggestions for network
They issueda final reportdivided

development in thechild-servingcommunity.
into eight primary sections. First, a review of literature on collaboration

and
was
in
This
review
the
presented.
networking
grounded
child-serving agencies
work of the class in a selection of academic literature. Overall, the review identified
some
across
positive examples from around the country in developing effective networks

child-serving agencies; it also identified drawbacks and challenges that
a review of current practices in Florida was offered.

the strengths, weaknesses,
and challenges
associated with other existing models of child-serving agency coordination and
collaboration. Third, data were presented from a survey of child-serving agencies
inOrange County. These data offered a glimpse into the diversity of agencies
and complexity of needs and barriers faced by the agencies as well as into the
need to be overcome.
In this section,
Second,
students described
across
agencies. The
relationships that existed
surveywas designed and administered
by theSurveyMapping Committee of theOrange County Children'sCabinet; a

total of 89 responses were
collected
from approximately
100 organizations
eitheraffiliatedwith the cabinet or concernedwith thewelfare of children in

the county.
In the next several sections, students analyzed interview data to report bn
several facets of network development
(see interview questions in the appendix).
were conducted with officials in the

Sixty-two interviews
nonprofit sector, private
sector, public/governmental
sector, and faith community. In the final section, the
report proposed a set of short-, intermediate-, and long-term recommendations,

a set of considerations,
along with
challenges, and action steps.
100
in Collaborative
Governance
of Course
Assessment
reflection journals were analyzed using qualitative analysis software,

8.0. For each reflection question, key themes were identified through
Student
NVivo
a
reading of student submissions

deemed to be similar inmeaning.
twice through and the pairing of statements

Statement is here defined as "a sentence or set
of sentences that form a complete thought." Once

theme categories were created,
were
a
student submissions
read
third time, and their content was sorted into
the identifiedcategories.
The firststeps inanalysiswere performedby thecourse
instructor (and article author); an independent third party sorted the statements
into identified theme categories at the same time but apart from the instructor.
The rate of agreement between the two coders was 92%. Most of the difference
in the placement of statements into more than one theme category.

Reflection questions are shown in Figure 2. As reported later in this article, much
of the student reflection aligned with the community service and instrumental
occurred
rationalesof servicelearningidentified
byDicke, Dowden, andTorres (2004).
Figure 2.
Student Reflection Questions
Journal 1
What
are your expectations
for this semester s service-learning project?
What do you personallyhope to contributeto theproject?

How do you anticipatebeing able to apply lessonsand theorieslearnedin class
to the
service-learning project?
Journal 2
your expectations regarding the project changed as you have read more
about networks and network management?
Have
on your
notes
structure and
readings and class lecture
regarding network
a
cross-sector
in
barriers
foresee
what
do
network of
you
management,
creating
child-serving agencies inOrange County?
Based
Journal3
What do you feelyou have learnedinbridgingcourse contentwith field re
search?
What
theories and or tools do you envision as being applicable
to the recom
mendationswe will bemaking to theChildren'sCabinet?

What do you feelyou or theclasswill be contributingto thechild servingcom
munity
inOrange
County?
101
Governance
LinkingStudentswithCommunityinCottaborative
Expectations and Hopes
The pre-project reflection questions focused on student expectations and
hopes
for the project. Table 1 summarizes the themes identified in these three
questions.
Table
1.
Expressed Expectations
and Hopes
What artyour expectations

for thissemesters
service-learning project?
AskNew Questions
ChallengingGroupWork Process
Create a Plan
Gain a BetterUnderstandingofCommunity
Help theChildren'sCabinet
Help theCommunity
Improvemy Skills
ProvideOpportunity forIncrementalProgress
Utilize Course Learning
1
4
6
11
5
10
8
2
2
What do youpersonallyhope tocontribute

to theproject?
Advance Career Path
Apply
Theory
CraftQuestions
Develop Ideas
Enthusiasm
Learn and Understand
Provide Information
Time
Expectations
Nine categories of expectations were identified, and eight of those categories
contained two or more statements from the journals. The most often expressed
expectations had a focus on community: Gain a better understanding of the
102
in Collaborative
Governance
community, and help the community. This finding is consistent with the community
service rationale for service learning (Dicke et al., 2004). Following these categories
were statements thatwere
as an
expectation to develop skills, an idea
categorized
that aligns with the instrumental rationale.
A community
who attempts to
focus is exemplified by the following statement from a student

bridge his work experience with the realities of what he expects
to find in the
community.2
From my years in the fire service, I have seen that children often bear
the brunt of society's failures. Although I have encountered hundreds
of children who are victims of abuse, poverty, neglect, injury, or
circumstance, I suspect that I have only seen the surface of what truly
exists in Orange
County. While
the facts are unfortunate,
I believe
that themembers of thisclasswill learn that thedemand forchild
services inOrange County far exceeds the capacity available. Even so,
we will
see that there is a
probably
dizzying array of services available,
a
to
and
critical need
coordinate those services so that the greatest
good
reaches those most
in need.
to instrumental skills
students considered how
development,
regard
to
to
from
enhance
skills
conflict management. One
ranging
writing
they expect
student summarized these perspectives through observation of the group-work
With
format of the class:

of the potential benefits I expect to receive from the process of
service learning is to build up my own social capital and network,
One
for the completion of the class assignment requires interaction and

us to the
cooperation among classmates, and the project itself brings
a host of
dynamics of relationship with
public, private and nonprofit
organizations.
I trustmy participation
and constant exposures
to the
people indifferent
organizationsand networks [will]help add tomy
own
capacity
in the future career development.
Hopes
statements were identified with respect to the question of

Eight categories of
to the
contributions
project. Four of these categories consisted
hoped-for personal
of two or more statements. At this point in the class and project, students were
would be conducting.Thus
stillgrapplingwith theboundariesof the studythey
their expressions of hoped-for personal contributions were ambiguous to some

some variation of the desire to
most students
expressed
provide
degree. Broadly,
information to the community or to develop new ideas that the class and community
103
in Collaborative
Governance
as
or
to use.
passion
They offered their professional background
might be able
statements of credibility for their intended contributions, such as strong research
or
interpersonal skills.
Barriers
Changed Expectations and Perceived
The second set of journal reflection questions were assigned a few weeks after
the first set, after students learned through reading and lecture the core theories
of networks and collaboration.
Some of this literature is summarized
earlier in
At this second stage,

describing the eight-step network development process.
students were asked to consider how their expectations have changed, given their
as barriers that
new theoretical
might confront
knowledge, and what they perceived
the community. The second question specifically asked students to apply course
contentand thus to begin thinkingthroughpossible recommendationsto the

child-serving
inTable 2.
community
in the county. Student
perceptions
are summarized
Changed Expectations
Seven themes emerged in student journals regarding their changed expectations,
new
As seen in
given their
knowledge of theory and network design tools.
2, the two most populated

categories suggest either student recognition
that the task before them ismore complex than initially thought, or that they
have experienced no change in expectation. These may be seen as two opposing
the one hand, students recognized that building collaborative
responses. On
Table
is not as simple as putting people in a room together. The students

who perceived no change in expectation mostly had roles in the service-learning
access to community members.
not
provide them direct
project that did
Thus we might interpret the enhanced awareness of project difficulty as a
networks
combination
of exposure
to community
of theoretical developments.
One student summarized
members,
combined
the challenge perspective
with awareness
in the following manner:
At thebeginningof thissemester,I thoughtthatthischildmaltreatment

problem could be solved ifthereisestablishedstrongnetworkbetween
all related agencies. It seemed to me that collaboration was a magic
solution to todays interconnected policy problems. I did not realize
how difficult itwas to build a strong network. However, after reading
in a
articles and listening to lectures, I realized that collaboration
network
is not an easy task.
Perceived Barriers
Based
on course
readings and exposure
to community members,
students
identified12 distinctbarriersthatconfrontthechild-servingcommunityand
104
LinkingStudentswithCommunityinCollaborativeGovernance
Table 2.
ExpressedChangedExpectationsand PerceivedBarriers
the
Have your expectations
projectchangedasyou
regarding
have read more about networks and network management?
Application ofTheory
Concern for
Willing Participation
More Challenging thanAnticipated
No Change
Optimistic forMeaningful Recommendations
Pessimisticfor
Meaningful Recommendations
of the
Work
Potential
Recognized
Based onyour readingsand classlecturenous regarding

network structure and management, what barriers do you
a cross-sector
networkof child-serving
foresee in creating
in
agencies OrangeCounty?
AchievingBuy-In
Coordination
across Cultures
Coordination
across Rules
ExternalLeadership
ExternalLegitimacy
Flow and Communication
Information
Maintaining link toPassion
Network
Evaluation
NetworkManagement Skills
RelationalConflicts
Resource Constraints
Size of ProspectiveNetwork
their effort to create a collaborative
network. Six barriers were
identified five or
more
times in student journals. Several students identified funding as a barrier,

current recessionary climate. However, some students considered
particularly in the
resource constraints as
condition. As
significant, regardless of the macroeconomic
an example,one studentofferedthefollowingperspective:
105
in ColUborative
Governance
first and foremost barrier that I foresee is one of survival or self
The
interest. Many
of these service providers are in reality competitors
for the same funding sources. If the networking structure indicates
thata specificorganization(s) need to focus theireffortsin a different
direction or that funding should be allocated toward an endeavor that

is not a core mission of an organization;
then that organization faces
the need for change or a lack of relevancy.
to
community members also
reading of the literature and exposure
on
their attention
the potential for relational conflicts, or lack of trust.
Students'
focused
For instance:
strives to find its role and maintain
each organization
relevance
in such a competitive culture where limited funding forces agencies
to compete
against each other. As performance
equals funding
will
seek to create new benchmarks for performance and
organizations
As
to maintain
their existence. This adversarial
funding
between
conflict
breeds
that may detract from
system
organizations
collaborative efforts and service provision.
work
to secure
an
to
to the barriers. For in
ability
apply theory
stance, the following journal excerpt addresses the barrier of coordination across
cultures.
organizational
Last, students demonstrated
A final challenge
various agencies
These
regarding the establishment

is the inherent differences
differences in sector orientation
of a network among the

in the sectors involved.
are
important because theywill

establishes priorities, interprets
likely affect how each organization
situations, commits funding, and interacts with other players. The
a collaborative network that can
challenge will be in designing
keep
to the network while
from each of the sectors committed
members
allowing enough flexibilityso thateach of theseorientationscan be

satisfied.
Lessons Learned, Applicable Theories, and Contribution to Community

Table 3 summarizes student reflections from the third and final journal as
was submitted
just before the finalization of recommendations
signment, which
to the
child-serving
community.
Students were asked to consider
lessons learned
throughbridgingcourse contentwith field research,identify

applicable theories
to assist the
nature of the contribution
child-serving community, and specify the
the class will be making to the community.
106
in Collaborative
Governance
Table 3.
ExpressedLessonsLearned,ApplicableTheories,and Contributionto theCommunity
What do youfeel you have learnedin bridgingcoursecontent

withfield research?
Application ofTheory
Community
Awareness
DifficultyDrawing Lessons
Social Awareness
SpecificTools or Skills
What theories
and or tookdo you envisionas <
to
we will bemaking to the
plicable therecommendations
Children'sCabinet?
CollaborativeAdvantage
ConflictManagement
Information Database
NetworkAnalysis
Network
Evaluation
Network
Formation
Network Management
StakeholderEngagement
to the
What do youfeel you or theclasswill be contributing
inOrangeCounty?
community
child-serving
A Plan forAction
Inform
Community
InspireThinking
Work
Lay Groundwork forFuture
13
4
2
3
9
3
6
5
2
6
9
9
7
8
7
6
1
Lessons Learned
Most
of the lessons learned by students dealt with the application of particular

or
the development of collaborative and network tools. Overall,
these
theories,
reflections show the apparent success of the service-learning approach in encouraging
the internalization of new knowledge. For example, the
following journal excerpt
relates to the application
of theory:
107
in Collaborative
Governance
I first started this class, I was thinking, "How hard could this
some
are interested in
network?get
people
together who
the cause and, presto?you
have a network." I didnt realize all the
When
be? A
that go into making a network successful. Because of this

components
course, I am now able to actually identify these factors and even ask
inmy interviews for the final project about other successful networks
the interviewee might be a part of and why.
the question because I understand
I am able
the deeper
after posing
a network.
to prompt
aspects of
or tools learned included those associated with group work as

Specific skills
well as the application of specific tools in network analysis. The following two
statements capture these perspectives.
Governance
learning ?pproach used in Cross-Sectoral
that students apply skills such as managing group dynamics,
among agencies, conflict
scheduling multiple events, communication
The
service
demands
resolution, and coordination of efforts. All of these skills are vital to

success in the
and they are very difficult to simulate in
workplace
the classroom. This
experience
is even more
valuable when
students
know that theireffortshave the probabilityof making a positive

in the community. It is an unfortunate reality that most
is simply a practice in "honing ones skills." Usually,
the instructor will see a students work. Through
the service
difference
academic
only
work
student efforts actually have
learning process,
tangible results in the
community.
Second:
found an opportunity to apply our theoretical learning to field
as a survey
we learnt
practices. For instance,
analysis group,
something
We
[a socialnetworkanalysissoftwareprogram] to look
aboutUCINET
at the network
between
ties and nodes.
However,
ifwe were
not
involvedin theprocessof enteringsurveydata toUCINET, we would
not
learn more
how
to enter data, how
to deal with data.
ApplicableTheories
To
assess
particular
student
lessons
to
interpret data,
learned with
[and] how
respect to theory, students
were asked to specifythose theories they thought to be most applicable for

the child-serving
community.
Students
identified eight theoretical
areas or
specific theories,which are listed inTable 3. This excerpt is a single brief

108
Journal ofPublic AffairsEducation

in Collaborative
Governance
a student discussion
in this area, taken in this case from the
example of
stakeholder engagement category:
I think that the network once
Finally,
citizens
that utilize
services
created needs
to learn from
some of the concerns
that they have

of citizen engagement that
regarding service delivery. Using methods

were discussed in class, the Cabinet can
towork with citizens to
begin
create a network that fits their needs, which is the ultimate purpose.
involve information exchange between citizens and service
(issue forums,
providers. Additionally,
using deliberative methods
to
citizens about
and
deliberative
learn
from
circles,
study
polling)
This might
what theyfeel theirneeds are and possible solutions thatmight be

useful; while
Contribution
also considering
the ideas of the "experts" in the field.
to
Community
Last, students were asked to reflect on what precisely, after all theirwork,
were
to the
they
contributing
child-serving community. Four specific contributions
were identified. First among those was the
a
development of plan for action for
the community. Second is a contribution of providing the community with new

information. Third is the hope that the research and report will inspire new
one student
thinking in the community. Last,
suggested that the contribution
the first step of several in laying the groundwork for future progress.
is
Conclusion
fourrationaleson theuse of
Dicke, Dowden, andTorres (2004) identify
strategies: (1) community service, (2) moral, (3)
service-learning pedagogical
The case reported herein offers documentation
and
instrumental.
(4)
political,
of how a course can be taught in furtherance of a community service objective
and an instrumental objective, primarily. Students reflected on the contributions
while also acknowledgingskillslearnedand applied inoffering

made tocommunity
a consultation
service to community members. Additionally,

students had the
on their role as
to
reflect
opportunity through journaling
emerging leaders in the
one student wrote in
As
administration
discipline.
public
defining his expectations
our
service learning project will be our road to becoming
for the project, "I think
citizens."
professional
As networks, collaboration, and cross-sector relations become topics increasingly
in Public Administration
classrooms, and as scholars continue
taught inMasters
to
to innovate in
researching these topics, it is important
apply these theories in
collaborative
universities and
between
practice. Developing
relationships
courses is a strategy
through service-learning and other client-based
that can enrich the learning environment and orient our faculty, staff,and stu
communities
dents towardthepursuitof publicwork and professionalcitizenship.
109
in Collaborative
Governance
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Footnotes
1
The
final report is available
to view and download
at:
http://www.cohpa.ucf.edu/pubadm/docu
ments/BRYERChildrensCabinetFINALREPORT.pdf
2
are confidential. Quotations

were
All quotations
gathered from student
semester at the University of Central Florida.
Summer
the
2009
ing
journal
entries made
dur
of Public Administra
Bryer is an assistant professor in the Department
tion at the University of Central Florida. His teaching and research focuses on
public participation with government, citizen engagement, cross-sector col
Thomas
laboration,and ethics.His work ispublished inPublicAdministration

Review,
Researchand Theory,
Administrative
JournalofPublicAdministration
Theory&
Praxis, Public Performance and Management
Review, American Review ofPublic
International
Administration,
JournalofPublic Participation,
JournalofHomeUnd
Security and Emergency Management,
and Management,
and
International
JournalofOrganizationTheoryand Behavior.He has also published
chapters in peer-reviewed books and award-winning

can be reached at
tbryer@mail.ucf.edu.
teaching simulations. He
JournalofPublicAjfairsEducation
111
in Collaborative
Governance
Appendix
Interview Guide
Community
Preface
a
on the
to seek your
input
interviewing you today
development of
possible network of child-serving agencies and organizations inOrange County. We
are students in the
University Name] Department of Public Administration, studying
with [instructor name] in a class entided Cross-Sectoral Governance. This summer,
We
are
our class is
to
working collaboratively with theOrange County Children's Cabinet
recommend how agencies across government, nonprofit, and private sectorsmight
inorderto (1) reducethenumberof childrenfalling

work together
differendy
on
terms of
getting needed services, and (2) enhance the focus
through the cracks in
us
a series of
to ask you to
prevention rather than treatment. I have
questions
help
I
accomplish this goal. Before begin, do you have any questions forme?
am
to let you know that I am
recording this interview. I
to ensure that we have an accurate record of what you say.All
only
digi
Before I start, I need
doing
so
talaudio fileswill be kept on Dr. [name]sUCF officecomputer in a password
name or agency name will never

protected folder, accessible only by him. Your
be associated with anything you say in any written report thatmay be generated
from this interview.
I?Identify
Section
Problem
or
Information
Needs
is the function of your agency/organization/church

with re
to
in
the
of
families
children
and
spect
Orange County?
well-being
In thinking about the needs of children inOrange County, what do
1. What
2.
you perceive to be the greatest needs?

are the barriers to
What
3.
achieving the needs you have identified?
a.
once
answer:
respondent completes
Sharing information
(Prompt
across
resources?
Lack
of
for scarce resourc
agencies?
Competition
to clients, for
example, children and families?)
and
your agency to better meet the needs you
help you
es?Outreach
4. What
would
have identified?
the Type of Network
II?Identify
Section
5. The Orange County Children's Cabinet has expresseda desire to

create a network, or a stronger set of relations, across
agencies
that
servechildrenand familiesinOrange County.Would you like to see
a network created that

a.
Allows
b.
Allows
for the sharing of information across agencies? Why
why not?
for the sharing of resources across agencies? Why
or
or
why not?
112
journal ofPublicAffairsEducation
c.
ficialsaswell as stateofficials?
Why orwhy not?
e.
Facilitates
f.
6.
Governance
to children and families in the county,

Jointly deliver services
or
across
agencies? Why
why not?
a
to promote with local government of
Develops
policy agenda
d.
the development
of a healthier community
prevention?
Why orwhy not?
you see another need that a network of agencies

tors
might address?
Do
III?Identify
Section
in Collaborative
Network
Possible
focused on
across sec
Members
a
to be involved
Thinking about
potential future network, who needs
some
in
form?What
agencies, organizations, and/or individuals?
(Interviewer: Allow the respondent to be as broad or specific as they

wish; you can seek types of organizations and types of people as well
as
specific names).
stakeholders have the greatest amount of interest in thework
7. What
of child-serving agencies and organizations?
8. What stakeholders
have power in thecountyand shouldbe included?
to
(e.g., if required, power

Section
IV?Existing
provide
resources, set policy, other).
Relations
do you havewith theorganizationsand

9. What kind of relationship
stakeholders just discussed? (e.g., ifneeded, share information?
Share resources? Jointly deliver services? Other?)
Section
V?Environmental
Conditions
factors in the environment or in the county might
10.What
influence the
as needed.)
to operate or achieve its
ability of the network
goals? (Prompt
a. Are the
to pin down
children
hard
families
and
problems facing
or frequently
changing?
events, like a severe economic downturn, limit your resourc

or are needs and
es or the needs of your clients on a
regular basis,
over time?
resources
relatively stable
b.
Do
c.
Do
employees
of child-serving organizations
and agencies
leave
That is, is therehigh turnover?

theirpositionsfrequently?
d. Do politicalprioritieschangeoftenwith respectto serving
childrenin thecounty?
Section
VI?Strategic
Orientation
do you
11.When you thinkaboutyourparticipationina possiblenetwork,
have expectations of how relationships will be managed?
a. Would you prefera networkthatisbound by clearlystated

Education
JournalofPublicAffairs
113
in Collaborative
Governance
rules and procedures for decision making

accountability mechanisms?
and some hierarchical
you prefer a less hierarchical and rule-based structure that

is built around teams with shared interests or goals?
b. Would
c. Would
structure where all or most

you prefer a decentralized
decisions are made by group consensus and dialogue?
Section
VII?Network
Structure
you envision a network being governed?

a. Would
you prefer a self-governed network with no adminis
trative core, inwhich all or most decisions are made through
dialogue and consensus?
12. How
would
inwhich a single member

you prefer a lead organization,
of the network serves as primary decision maker and face of the
b. Would
network?
you prefer that a network administrative organization
serve as a broker between network members,
commu
facilitating
c. Would
sharing information, and making decisions? A network

administrative organization would be a separate organization,
not a network member.
nication,
Section
VIII?Other
Thoughts
13. [Interviewer: Ask any additional
question
you feel to be relevant for
your respondent].
14. Do you have any additional thoughts to share thatmight assist us as
we prepare a recommendation
to the Children's Cabinet
regarding
the development
of a network of child-serving agencies inOrange
County?
114

A Report On A Service-Learning Class (Masters)

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Linking Students with Community in Collaborative Governance: A Report on a Service-Learning

Linking Students with Community

role of service learning in public administration programs. The teaching case is

forreplicatingthiskind of class.An analysisof the successof thecase isoffered

based on reflection journals written by students throughout

Collaborative governance is increasingly becoming a topic for scholarly research

States (Posner, 2009),

browse recent book

titlespublished in thepublic administration

comes with much substance. Research has

& Bingham,2009). The challengesofdevelopingsuccessful

Linking Students with Community

So farmissing from the literature, however, is an explicit linkage between

they exist. Institutions of higher education,

indeed, have commitments

faculty, staff, and students (Dewey, 1916).

programs has the potential to enrich the

and the role of service learning in public administration programs. The

is offered based on reflection journals written

(1916) advocates for institutions of higher education to adopt an

community.Since hiswriting in 1916, thework of strengtheninglinkages

and civic missions

of schools has continued.

and the urgency expressed in those writings, suggest that there

may be a long way

2000; Salamon, 2005).

firstis theconception of highereducation as publicwork (Boyte& Kari, 2000).

Linking Students with Community

leadership lies in taking hold of the first and commonest problems

be a problemof roads;of a poor school; of tuberculosis;of ugly signs

To suggest that higher education

is to say that universities?and

process, both informing decision making

citizen.He defined thisperson as follows (2005, p. 13):

saw a role for

professionalcitizensand providingthemwith threetypesof knowledge: (1) tool

citizens serve public causes, Salamon

articleshave been published on thespecifictopicof servicelearninginpublic

programs, or masters in public administration programs more

Linking Stridents with Community

objectives (D'Agostino, 2008).

courses are variants of

in the desire to have students become more

and ethical perspectives on, for instance, the

to exit the class with

skills and competences

next offers an assessment

and findings that align with the

journals,thecase studyoffersbroad lessonsbut does not dig deeply in any one

such as Lambright s (2008) emphasis on the instrumental rationale and

requires the combined

Linking Students with Community

the effective management

Academic and ScholarlyObjectives:

the size, trends, nature, structure, and constraints of the

the rationales for cross-sectoral governance arrangements.

of intergovernmental relations and cross-sectoral governance.

governance, consensus building, and conflict resolution

service and knowledge?with

Linking St?idents with Community

In designing the course as a service-learning course, the dual objective was

across sectors and

the theoretical and practical tools needed