Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Equipment:
Chart of Nuclides
Graph Paper
Theory:
The chart of nuclides is a display of the properties of the known nuclei at the positions
(Z, N) on a graphical plot of Z versus N. Because of the large number of nuclides, the
chart is usually shown in consecutive segments for convenience of handling.
The chemical element (symbol) is given at the extreme left of each horizontal row
in a heavy bordered square next to the proton (atomic) number Z (Figure 1). Below the
chemical symbol is the atomic weight of the element. Below the atomic weight is the
thermal neutron absorption cross section in barns (1 barn = 10-24 cm2). Thermal, or
slow, neutrons have an average speed on the order of 0.025 eV. (This is the average
energy of neutrons in a thermal nuclear reactor where fission neutrons are slowed down
by collisions with the moderator atoms until they are in thermal equilibrium with the
moderator.)
Each horizontal row in the chart represents the isotopes of a particular element
(same Z, different N). Similarly, a vertical column on the chart represents the nuclei of
different elements with the same number of neutrons. The neutron number N is given at
the bottom of the column.
At the top of each nuclide square or space, the symbol of the nuclide is listed,
followed by its mass number A ( A = Z + N ). For example, carbon-12 ( Z = 6, N = 6).
There is a great deal of information listed on the chart. Some of this information
is beyond the scope of the experiment. We will be concerned only with basic items.
General information on nuclide stability may be obtained at a glance from the shading or
color of the nuclide squares:
1. Gray-shaded squares isotopes that occur in nature and are generally considered
stable.
1 of 9
LPC Physics
Symbols
Radiations and Decay
alpha particle
negative electron
positron
+
gamma ray
n
neutron
p
proton
internal conversion electron
e
electron capture
IT
isometric transition
SF
spontaneous fission
1.00797
33
Stable
Pd 108
26.71
(.2 + 12)
107.9030
E2.38
microsecond (10-6s)
second
minute
hours
day
year
Po 218
RaA
Symbol
Half Life
3.05 m
a 6.00
218.0089
14 d
.161
e-
Mass
116.903
Symbol
Percent Abundance
7.61
IT .159
Half-Life
Modes of Decay,
Radiations and
Energies in Mev
18 y
, e
.068, .073
E .14
Time
s
s
m
h
d
y
Symbol
2 ofRadioactive
9
Radioactive Upper Isomer
Lower Isomer
LPC Physics
3 of 9
LPC Physics
Isomeric states have similar displays. Some charts of nuclides have color coding for the
range of half-lives and neutron absorption cross-sections. The half-life coding generally
appears in the upper half of the nuclide square and the cross-section coding in the bottom
half. The color codes are defined on the particular chart.
The arrangement of the chart of nuclides allows one to quickly determine the
nuclide change when a nuclear process occurs, either naturally or artificially induced.
This is done in accordance with the scheme illustrated in Figure 2.
1. Induced reactions. For an induced reaction, knowing the original nucleus and the
incident or in particle, the compound nucleus of the reaction is given in the square
of the in particle. For example, for the induced reaction of Be-9 being bombarded
by and alpha particle,
9
4 Be +
the compound nucleus is two squares diagonally upward to the right (refer to the
first diagram in Figure 2),
9
4
13
4 Be + 2 He ( 6 C*)
A neutron is the out particle in this reaction; hence, the product nucleus is one
square to the left of the compound nucleus C-13, which is the square of C-12:
(136 C*) 126 C + 01 n
In equation form the total reaction is
9
4
13
12
1
4 Be + 2 He ( 6 C*) 6 C + 0 n
or in abbreviated notation,
9
Be(, n )12 C
The second diagram in Figure 2 combines this process and the product nucleus is
given directly by the location of the reaction particles.
2. Radioactive decay. In this case we are concerned with only an out particle, and the
location of the daughter nucleus is obtained from the first diagram. For example, C14 (the parent nucleus) beta-decays (b-), so the daughter nucleus is one square
diagonally upward to the left (i.e. N-14).
Similarly, F-18 undergoes positron decay (b+, a positively charged
electron) and the daughter nucleus O-18 is one square diagonally downward
to the right.
Relative Locations of the Products of
Various Nuclear Processes
3
t out
out
He in
in
t in
- out
p in
d in
n out
Original
Nucleus
n in
d out
p out
+ out
He out
4 of 9
LPC Physics
,2n
He,n
,n
p,n
p,
d,n
3
He,np
,n
n,2n
Original
Nucleus
,np
,p
n,
n,3He
,np
t,n
3
He,p
d,p
n,
t,np
t,p
n,p
Figure 2 Diagrams showing the relative locations of the products of various nuclear
processes and displacements caused by nuclear reactions.
Experiment:
Use the Chart of Nuclides to answer the following questions:
1. How are the isotopes of an element arranged on the chart?
2. Nuclides with the same number of neutrons are called isotones. How are they
arranged on the chart?
3. Nuclides with the same mass number are called isobars. What would be the
orientation of a line connecting an isobaric series?
4. List all the naturally occurring generally stable nuclides* that have an odd number
of protons and an odd number of neutrons. Also, comment on the ratio of
neutrons to protons for increasingly heavier nuclides.
5. List the percent abundances of the naturally occurring nuclides of (a) oxygen; (b)
uranium. Do they add up to 100 percent? If not, explain.
6. List the elements that have only one stable isotope.
7. Which element(s) has the greatest number of stable isotopes? Give the number of
isotopes.
Stable or with extremely long half-lives (>109 years). List the stable nuclides and the long-life nuclides
separately.
5 of 9
LPC Physics
8. Which element(s) has the greatest number of radioactive isotopes? Give the
number of isotopes.
9. List an example radioactive nuclide and its half-life for each of the following halflife ranges:
a. ms (microseconds, 10-6 s)
b. s
c. min
d. h
e. days
f. years
10. Which nuclide on the chart has (a) the shortest half-life; (b) the longest half-life?
List their half-lives.
11. How many nuclides are the products of slow neutron fission of U-235 or Pu-239,
and how many of these nuclides are stable?
12. Beginning with the following radioactive parent nuclei, trace their decay
processes and depict the mode and direction of each decay process on the chart.
For example,
14
N-
14
(a) O-20, (b) Fe-52, (c) Po-197, (d) Dy-150 (list the energies of the emitted alpha
particles in this decay process beside the directional arrows), (e) Ho-162.
13. Beginning with the following radioactive parent nuclei, trace the decay chains.
List the modes and direction of the process on the chart as in Step 12. The first
three decay chains are found in nature, but the fourth chain is not. When you
have completed its decay processes, explain why the fourth chain is not found in
nature. (a) U-238 (uranium series), (b) U-235 (actinium series), (c) Pu-244
(plutonium series originally called the thorium series beginning with Th-232
before Pu-244 was discovered), (d) Np-237 (neptunium series). Why is this series
not found in nature?
14. Using the chart of nuclides, supply the product nucleus of each of the following
reactions. Also give the compound nucleus of each reaction.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
10
B(n,)
O(n,p)
7
Li(p,)
17
O(,np)
32
S(n,p)
3
H(d,n)
2
H(t,n)
16
6 of 9
LPC Physics
Results:
Write at least one paragraph describing the following:
what you expected to learn about the lab (i.e. what was the reason for conducting
the experiment?)
your results, and what you learned from them
Think of at least one other experiment might you perform to verify these results
Think of at least one new question or problem that could be answered with the
physics you have learned in this laboratory, or be extrapolated from the ideas in
this laboratory.
7 of 9
LPC Physics
Clean-Up:
Before you can leave the classroom, you must clean up your equipment, and have your
instructor sign below. How you divide clean-up duties between lab members is up to
you.
Clean-up involves:
Completely dismantling the experimental setup
Removing tape from anything you put tape on
Drying-off any wet equipment
Putting away equipment in proper boxes (if applicable)
Returning equipment to proper cabinets, or to the cart at the front of the room
Throwing away pieces of string, paper, and other detritus (i.e. your water bottles)
Shutting down the computer
Anything else that needs to be done to return the room to its pristine, pre lab form.
I certify that the equipment used by ________________________ has been cleaned up.
(students name)
______________________________ , _______________.
(instructors name)
(date)
8 of 9
LPC Physics
Pre-Lab Assignment
Read the experiment and answer the following questions before coming to
class on lab day.
1. What is a nuclide?
3. How are natural stable isotopes and natural long-lived radioactive isotopes
distinguished on the chart?
4. How are artificially produced isotopes and natural short-lived radioactive isotopes
distinguished on the chart?
5. What are nuclear isomers, and how are they distinguished on the chart?
6. What is the difference between the mass number and atomic weight of a nuclide?
7. List the change(s) in the proton number (Z) and/or the neutron number (N) for the
following nuclear processes and give the relative location of the daughter nucleus
to that of the parent nucleus on the chart:
(a) alpha decay
(b) beta minus (-) decay
9 of 9