An algorithm for design of deadbeat controllers

of spatially invariant systems

Petr Augusta

Krzysztof Gakowski

Institute of Information Theory and Automation

Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
Prague, Czech Republic
Email: augusta@utia.cas.cz

Institute of Control and Computation Engineering

University of Zielona Gora
Zielona Gora, Poland
Email: k.galkowski@issi.uz.zgora.pl

(m) and is a constant (m2 s1 ) equal to

=
,
cp

Abstract In the paper we deal with control of spatially

invariant systems described by parabolic partial differential
equations with one temporal and one spatial variables. We
propose an algorithm for design of deadbeat controllers. The
algorithm is based on polynomial methods. It consists in solving
a linear equation with bi-variate polynomials. Numerical example
and simulations are included.

where is the thermal conductivity (W m1 K1 ), is

the density (kg m3 ) and cp is the heat capacity per unit
mass (J K1 kg1 ). Initial and boundary conditions can be
considered in the form u(0, x), u(t, 0), u(t, L) with L denoting
dimension in the x direction of area, where the heat is
conducted. A heat equation has applications in various fields of
the industry. One of the examples is a multizone crystal growth
furnace, described in [13], [14]. The furnace is depicted in
Fig. 1. Block diagram of the closed-loop system is in Fig. 2.
The problem consists in control of N zone temperatures by
N energy inputs. The aim is to produce the temperature
profile within the furnace, prescribed by N command signals
r1 , r2 , . . . , rN .
This paper proposes an algorithm for the design of deadbeat
controller of a spatially invariant system. The goal of the
deadbeat control is to bring the system output to the steady
state in the smallest number of time steps. It supposes the
digital implementation of control and design method based
on the discrete-time model. Furthermore, the control action

I. I NTRODUCTION
We shall concentrate on linear time-invariant spatially invariant systems. In particular, in the paper we consider systems
described by parabolic partial differential equations (PDEs)
with constant coefficients with one temporal variable and one
spatial variable. The original PDE can be transformed to the
description in the form of state-space equations or transfer
function. Then, the coefficients in the state-space matrices
and the coefficients in the transfer functions are elements of
a ring. Hence, these systems can be studied within a class
of linear systems over rings. Papers [1][5] belongs to the
pioneer publications in this area. Comprehensive methodology
for analysis and synthesis of spatially distributed systems is
given in [6]. After several years of pause, papers, e. g., [7]
[9] found the topics on systems over rings being interesting.
These papers propose new applications of spatially distributed
systems. The control action is based on an array of actuators
and sensors. Spatial symmetry of systems is assumed. The
so-called spatially localised controllers are defined based on
only a finite number of error and actuator signals at nearby
actuator cells. A related fields are repetitive systems [10] and
the iterative learning control (ILC). Use of ILC for control of
spatio-temporal dynamics is demonstrated in [11], [12].
In the case of one temporal and one spatial variables, the
parabolic PDE has the form

Fig. 1.

u
u
u
2
u = f,
(1)
t
x
x
where , , , are positive constants, u(t, x) is a solution
and f (t, x) is the right-hand side. A particular example of (1)
is a heat equation

A sketch of a multizone crystal growth furnace

zone
1

zone
2

zone
3

zone
N 1

zone
N

controller

controller

controller

controller

controller

r1

r2

r2

rN 1

rN

...

u
2u
2 = f,
(2)
t
x
where u denotes a solution output, temperature ( C), f the
input heat ( C s1 ), t is the time (s), x is the spatial coordinate

978-1-4799-5081-2/14/$31.00 2014 IEEE

Fig. 2.

22

Block diagram of the closed-loop system.

applied by an array of actuators and sensors naturally calls

for the model discrete in the space. So, the model discrete
in both time and space must be derived. Modelling as well as
control design and simulations will be demonstrated by means
of the example of a heat conduction in a rod. This systems is
described by the heat equation (2) and its structure is depicted
in Fig. 3.
The paper is organised as follows. The next section deals
with modelling, including the discretisation, the z-transform
and deriving the transfer function. An algorithm for the
deadbeat control design is proposed in Sec. III. Sec. IV shows
the simulations of a heat conduction in a rod controlled by the
deadbeat controller. The Sec. V concludes the paper.

a system of equations at each time level. This can be done

using the numerical iterative methods proposed by [17].
Since we consider high values of the sampling time period
for the purpose of the deadbeat control, we prefer an unconditionally stable approximation by the implicit schemes. One
of them is Crank-Nicolson discretisation. It was derived by
Crank and Nicolson [18]. It replaces time derivative by
uk+1,l uk,l
u

t
T
and second order space derivative by

(3)

uk,l+1 2 uk,l + uk,l1

u2

+
x2
2 h2
(4)
uk+1,l+1 2 uk+1,l + uk+1,l1
,
+
2 h2
where T is sampling time period (s) and h is sampling space
period (m). In Fig. 4 we show how the stable region of splane (the left-half plane) is mapped to z-plane under the
above relation (3). We can see that all stable region of s-plane
mapped into z-plane does not lie within the stable region of
z-plane. In other words, stable continuous-time system can be
transformed to unstable discrete-time system.
Discretisation consists in substituting (3) and (4) into the
original PDE. This results in a partial recurrent equation. In
the case of (2) the partial recurrent equation reads

II. M ODELLING
The model of a spatially invariant system will be derived
in the form of the transfer function. The derivation consists in
three steps,
Crank-Nicolson discretisation,
von Neumanns analysis of stability,
the z-transform and manipulations.
A. Crank-Nicolson discretisation
The discretisation of the original PDE uses well-known
finite difference methods, described in, for instance, [16].
Roughly speaking, the principle consists in replacing derivatives by differences applying so-called difference scheme. This
results in recurrent equation in the case of parabolic PDE. The
recurrent equation can be solved or simulated by the iterative
method. The difference scheme can be explicit or implicit [16].
The explicit scheme is easier for numerical simulations, but
it is conditionally stable. The condition to be satisfied is a
relation between sampling time and sampling space periods.
The implicit scheme results in unconditionally numerically
stable approximation of system dynamics, i. e., both space
and time sampling periods can be chosen arbitrarily. However,
more than one unknown values of the solution have to be
computed at new time level. Moreover, all values on new
level must be obtained simultaneously, what leads to solving

uk,l+1 2 uk,l + uk,l1

uk+1,l uk,l
=
+
T
2 h2
(5)
uk+1,l+1 2 uk+1,l + uk+1,l1
+
f
.
+
k,l
2 h2
In Fig. 5 we show the computation mask associated with (5).
Points needed for computation are plotted. Input mask is
marked by red points, the output values currently being
computed are marked by the white colour.
B. Von Neumanns analysis of stability
Von Neumanns analysis of the numerical stability, described in, e. g., [19], is a standard tool to analyse the convergence of discretised models. Despite the fact that (5) was
Im
1

1 Re

1
Fig. 3. [15] Distributed control of a distributed parameter system: a rod with
an array of heaters and temperature sensors and a distributed controller (an
array of controllers)

Fig. 4. An image of the stable region of s-plane under Crank-Nicolson

discretisation (3)

23

With the above assumption, we can define the z-transform

as follows. Let fk,l be a real-valued function and fk,l = 0 for
all k < 0. The z-transform of fk,l is given as

k+2
k+1

F (d, w) =
k

+ X
+
X

fk,l wl dk .

(7)

k=0 l=

We consider u to be output, and f to be input in (6).

Performing the z-transform (7) on the recurrence equations (5)
and manipulating we obtain (6) with

l+2

l+1

l1

l2

k1

b(d, w) = T d


T
1
w

2
+
w

2 h2


T
d w 2 + w1 .
d
2
2h
III. C ONTROL DESIGN

a(d, w) = 1
Fig. 5. The computation mask associated with (5). Input mask is marked
by red points, the output values currently being computed are marked by the
white colour.

obtained using implicit difference scheme and is unconditionally stable, we analyse its convergence in this section. The
analysis gives a relation between T and h, whose satisfaction
guarantees the convergence of the discrete model to the
original one. In the case of (5), the analysis should result
in a condition, which is always satisfied. To proceed von
Neumanns analysis we consider the zero right-hand side, (5)
becomes

The aim of this section is to design a controller which

1) guarantees that output yk tracks a step reference rk ,
2) drives the control error ek to zero in a least number of
steps.
For the deadbeat control we consider the scheme of Fig. 6. A
plant is given by the transfer function (6). Let the controller
be series connection of two parts. The first part is fixed. It
guarantees the above requirement no. 1 and has the transfer
function
1
CI (d, w) =
.
(9)
1d

uk,l+1 2 uk,l + uk,l1

uk+1,l uk,l
=
+
T
2 h2
uk+1,l+1 2 uk+1,l + uk+1,l1
+
.
2 h2

The second part of the controller is subject of design and has

the transfer function

k jl

Now, we substitute g e
for uk,l . The difference scheme is
numerically stable if and only if |g| 1. We have

C(d, w) =

k j(l+1)
g k+1 ej l g k ej l
=
g e
2ej l + ej(l1)
2
T
2h

+ 2 g k+1 ej(l+1) 2ej l + ej(l1) .

2h
h2 + T (cos 1)
.
h2 T (cos 1)

One can make sure that |g| 1 is always satisfied.

e=

C. Transfer function
The transfer function of a system will be derived in the form
P (d, w) =

b(d, w)
,
a(d, w)

n(d, w)
,
m(d, w)

(10)

where m and n are bi-variate polynomials. The design procedure must take into account the above requirement no. 2. Its
description follows.
The number of steps driving the control error to zero is
commensurable to the degree of transfer function from input
reference rk to control error ek . It follows from the scheme
of Fig. 6 that this transfer function reads

Manipulation and using Eulers relations leads to

g=

(8)

1
(1 d) a m
r=
r.
1 b n
(1 d) a m + b n
1+
1d a m

(11)

Since we supposse the reference to be step, i. e.,

1
r0 (w),
1d

r(d, w) =

(6)

i. e., in the form of a fraction of two bi-variate polynomials

b and a. We have assumed the system is spatially invariant,
that is the parameters of the system do not depend on location. Spatial invariance assumes the infinite domain, i. e., the
boundaries at infinite distance. This assumption is not realistic,
but it leads to a reasonable simplification of the control design.
Simulations and verification of controllers should follow the
design procedure.

rk

ek

n
C= m

1
1d

vk

P = ab

yk

controller

Fig. 6. Control scheme, rk input reference, ek control error, vk control

action, yk output of the plant

24

IV. S IMULATIONS

the control error (11) becomes

e=

am
r0 .
(1 d) a m + b n

The above described concept is demonstrated by means of

a numerical example in this section. We consider the system
of a heat conduction in a rod described by (2). For the

(12)

To guarantee the driving ek to zero in a least number of steps,

(12) has to be a polynomial in the variable d. In other words,
the denominator of (12) has to be equal to a constant s in the
ring R[w][d],

21

(1 d) a m + b n = s(w).

(13)
20.8

reference (C)

Now, the control error becomes

r0
e = am .
s

20.6

20.4

20.2

A crucial step of the controller design is to find a solution

to the bi-variate polynomial equation (13). It follows from
well-known Hilberts nullstellensatz, see e. g. [20], that (13)
is solvable if and only if (1 d) a and b vanish implies s
vanishes.
It is well known, see, e. g., [21], that if (13) has a solution,
it has infinitely many solutions. To minimise the number of
steps driving the control error to zero, a solution minimising
a degree in the variable d of m must be found. It was shown
in [22] that the algorithms for the uni-variate polynomial
equations can be applied to solve bi-variate polynomial equations. In our case we consider polynomials a, b, m, n, s in
the variables d and w to be uni-variate polynomials in the
variable d with the non-constant coefficients being functions
of the variable w. Algorithms for the uni-variate polynomial
equations minimising the degree of m can be found in,
e. g., [23], [24]. The controller design can be summarised as
follows.
Algorithm 1 (Deadbeat controller): Input: polynomials a, b
describing the plant. Output: polynomials m, n describing the
controller

20
10
8

2
6
4

1
2

x 10

0.5
0

x (node)

t (s)

Input reference rk

Fig. 7.

21.4
21.2

temperature (C)

21
20.8
20.6
20.4
20.2
20
19.8
19.6
12
10

8
1.5

6
1

4
0

x (node)

2) Solve (1 d) a m + b n = s for m, n. Take the solution

minimising degree of m.

t (s)

Output of the plant yk

Fig. 8.

The deadbeat controller is then given by substitution of m and

n into (9) and (10).
As a numerical example we consider a system of a heat
conduction in a rod described by (6) with polynomials a and
b given by (8). Let the polynomial s be

x 10

0.5

1) Choose s that (1 d) a m + b n = s is solvable.

0.5

e (C)

s(w) = 2 h2 K T (w 2 + w1 ).
The polynomial equation (13) is solvable and the solution
minimising the degree of m is

0.5

1
10

m = 2 h2




6
2K
4K
3
n= 2
+
w + w1
T
2
h
T
h






4K
2
2K
1

d+

d w + w1 .
h2
T
h2
T

1.5

2
6

1.5
4

(14)

1
2
0

x (node)

Fig. 9.

25

Control error ek

x 10

0.5
t (s)

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0.02
0.015

control action

0.01
0.005
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
10
8

2
6

1.5
4

1
2

x (node)

Fig. 10.

x 10

0.5
0

t (s)

Control action vk

purpose of the numerical simulation, we discretise (2) in the

spatial variable only using (4). The time variable is continuous.
We consider the controller given by the series connection of
transfer functions (9) and (10) with polynomials m and n
of (14). The controller is discrete in time and space and is
connected with the plant via zero-order hold block.
We choose = 230, = 2700, cp = 900 and h = 1/12.
Number of nodes is 10. Zero boundary and initial conditions
are considered. Let the sampling time period be T = 3600 s,
that is one hour.
The closed-loop system is stable even though the value of
the sampling time period T is large. The input reference and
output of the plant are plotted in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively.
One can see that output tracks the input reference. The control
error goes to zero in a small number of steps, see Fig. 9.
The control action is plotted in Fig. 10. It has a very small
amplitude, however, it operates during a long time period, so,
small amplitude does not imply low overall input energy.
V. C ONCLUSIONS
The algorithm for the deadbeat control design for spatially
invariant systems was proposed in the paper. The design
method is based on solving a linear equation with bi-variate
polynomials. The design was illustrated by mean of numerical
examples and simulations. A heat conduction in a rod was controlled by the deadbeat controller. Systems with one temporal
and one spatial variable were considered in the paper, however,
the proposed algorithm can easily be extended to more than
one spatial variable.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The work of the first author was financially supported by the
Czech Science Foundation under the project GPP103/12/P494.
R EFERENCES
[1] Y. Rouchaleau, Linear, discrete time, finite dimensional, dynamical
systems over some classes of commutative rings. 1972.
[2] E. W. Kamen, On an algebraic theory of systems defined by convolution
operators, Theory of Computing Systems, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 5774, 1975.

26