Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
620-311
Metric Spaces
Lecture Notes
Semester 1, 2004
Notes by:
Kris Wysocki
This compilation has been made in accordance with the provisions of Part
VB of the copyright act for the teaching purposes of the University. For
the use of students of the University of Melbourne enrolled in the subject
620-311.
Contents
1 Introduction
Metric Spaces
3 Continuity
18
4 Complete Spaces
22
34
6 Topological Spaces
40
44
8 Connected Spaces
46
9 Product Spaces
50
56
11 Appendix
59
12 Problem Sheets
12.1 Problem Sheet
12.2 Problem Sheet
12.3 Problem Sheet
12.4 Problem Sheet
12.5 Problem Sheet
12.6 Problem Sheet
12.7 Problem Sheet
69
69
71
73
74
76
77
79
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12.8 Problem
12.9 Problem
12.10Problem
12.11Problem
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
8
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80
81
83
84
Introduction
Metric Spaces
Basic Concepts
By a metric space we mean a set X together with a function d : X X
[0, ) which satisfies the following axioms:
M1 d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;
M2 d(x, y) = d(y, x) for every x, y X;
M3 d(x, z) 6 d(x, y) + d(y, z) for every x, y and z X.
Elements of X are called points, a function d is called a metric on X,
and the value d(x, y) is called a distance between x and y. The axiom M2
says that a metric is symmetric, and the axiom M3 is called the triangle
inequality since it reflects the geometrical fact that the length of one side
of a triangle is less or equal to the sum of the lengths of the other two sides.
Examples
Example 2.1. The most important example of a metric space is the set of
all real numbers R with the metric d(x, y) = |x y|. In the following we will
call this metric the usual metric in R.
dY (x, y) = d(x, y)
The pair (Y, dY ) is called a metric subspace of (X, d). We will refer to Y
as a subspace of X, rather than (Y, dY ) as a subspace of (X, d).
n
X
di (xi , zi ) 6
i=1
n
X
i=1
di (xi , yi ) + di (yi , zi ) = d(x, y) + d(y, z)
as required. The pair (X, d) defined above is called a metric product (or
just a product) of (Xi , di ), 1 6 i 6 n, andQthe metric d is called a product
metric. (Other metrics are also used on ni=1 Xi ).
|xi |
xi yi 6
i=1
i=1
i=1
Proof.
06
=
=
=
n
X
(xi yj xj yi )2 =
i,j=1
n X
n
X
n
X
i,j=1
n
n
n X
n
XX
X
x2i yj2 +
x2j yi2 2
xi xj yi yj
i=1 j=1
i=1 j=1
i=1 j=1
X
2
n
n
n
X
X
2 2
2 2
y
xi +
x
yj 2
xi yi
i=1
j=1
i=1
X
2
n
2
2
2
x
y
2
xi yi
i=1
As a corollary we have
Corollary 2.9.
x + y
6
x
+
y
7
for all x, y Rn .
i=1
i=1
i=1
n
X
2
2
2
2
xi yi +
y
6
x
+ 2
x
y
+
y
= x +2
i=1
= (
x
+
y
)2 .
Consequently,
#1/2
" n
X
(xi yi )2
d(x, y) =
x y
=
i=1
Rn .
defines a metric on
the standard metric.
for f, g B(X).
d(xn , x) <
Proposition 2.13. Let {xn } be a sequence in a metric space (X, d). Then
there is at most one point x X such that {x n } converges to x.
for n k.
n
X
di (xi , yi )
i=1
x, y X.
(1)
for m k and j = 1, . . . , n.
m
So xm
j xj as required. Conversely, assume that x j xj for j = 1, . . . n.
Hence for a given > 0, there exists k(j) N such that
dj (xm
j , xj ) < /n
for m k(j).
if and only if
d0 (xn , x0 ) 0.
d(x, y)
,
1 + d(x, y)
x, y X.
(2)
n
X
di (xi , yi ),
i=1
Set
x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) X.
11
Example 2.19. The empty set and the whole space X are open in any
metric space X. If X is equipped with the discrete metric d, then any subset
of X is open.
Example 2.20. The set Q is not open in R with the usual metric but it
is open in (R, d), where d is the discrete metric in R. Indeed, if x Q and
r > 0, then for large n N, we have
2
x<x+
<x+r
n
y
r
x
PSfrag replacements
R
12
Example 2.26. A subset of metric space may be neither open nor closed.
For instance, [0, 1) is neither open nor closed in R. The same is true for Q.
On the other hand, a subset may be open and at the same time closed. In a
metric space equipped with the discrete metric any subset is both open and
closed.
The relation between interior and adherent points is given in the next proposition.
13
and
X \ A = X \ A.
(a0 ) A A
(c) A B = A B
(c0 ) A B = A B
(b) (A ) = A
(b0 ) A = A
(d) (A B) = A B
!
[
[
(e)
Ai
Ai
iI
(f )
iI
Ai
(d0 ) A B = A B
(e0 )
iI
iI
Ai
(f 0 )
iI
Ai
iI
Ai
iI
Ai
Ai
iI
Proof. (a) follows immediately from the definition of the interior point. To
see (b) note that A is an open. (c): If A B and x A , then B(x, r)
A B. So x B . (d): Note that (A B) A and (A B) B
so (A B) A B . On the other hand A B is open and contained
in A B,so by (b), A B (A B) . Proofs of (e) and (f) are left as
exercises. Proofs of (a)-(f) follows from the corresponding statements for
interiors by taking complements.
14
(c) {Ai }m
i=1 open
(c0 ){Ai }m
i=1 closed
iI
m
\
Ai open
i=1
iI
m
[
Ai is closed
i=1
contained in A
containing A
F is closed in X and B = Y \ [Y A] = Y \ A = Y [X \ A] = X F as
required.
Theorem 2.32. Let X be the product of metric spaces (X i , di ), 1 6 i 6 m.
Q
(a) If Ai is open in Xi ,Q
1 6 i 6 m, then the product A = ni=1 Ai is an
open subset of X = ni=1 Xi .
Q
(b) If Fi is closedQin Xi , 1 6 i 6 m, then F = m
i=1 Fi is closed in the
m
product X = i=1 Xi .
Proof.
(a) We prove the result for the product of two metric spaces X 1 and X2 .
Let a = (a1 , a2 ) A X. Since Ai is open in Xi , there exists ri such that
an open ball B(ai , ri ) in Xi is contained in Ai . Let r = min{r1 , r2 }. We
claim that B(a, r) A. Indeed, if x = (x 1 , x2 ) B(a, r), then d(a, x) < r
where x = (x1 , x2 ),and since di (ai , xi ) < d(a, x) < r 6 ri we conclude that
xi B(ai , ri ). Hence xi Ai , i = 1, 2, so that x A.
(b) The proof follows from Proposition 2.14
2
1
Qc .
x 6= x + Q and x 6= x +
n
n
Since
it follows that x
So Q
= Q. If x Qc , then x+1/n Qc
and there exists a sequence of rational numbers x n such that
QQc.
QQc
16
Example 2.40. The sets of all natural numbers N or all integers Z are
nowhere dense in R with the usual metric. The set of real numbers R is
nowhere dense in R2 with the standard metric.
Example 2.41. [Cantor set] The Cantor set is subset of [0, 1] constructed
as follows:
Consider the interval C0 = [0, 1]. At the first step divide C0 into three equal
intervals [0, 1/3], [1/3, 2/3] and [2/3, 1] and remove the middle open interval
(1/3, 2/3). Denote the remaining intervals by C 1 = [0, 1/3] [2/3, 1]. The
length of intervals which constitute C 1 is equal to 2/3. In the second step we
perform the same operations as in the first step on each of the intervals of C 1 .
We remove intervals (1/9, 2/9) and (7/9, 8/9). Denote the four remaining
intervals by C2 . Having finished the step (n 1), we perform the nth step
and obtain the set Cn consisting of 2n intervals.
Each of the sets Cn is closed and bounded, and Cn+1 Cn . The Cantor set
is defined as
\
C=
Cn
n=1
17
Continuity
(3)
(4)
for all n k.
(5)
for x X.
since |f 0 (t)| 6 1. Hence for given , choose = . Then for any x, y sych
that d(x, y) = |x y| < , we have
d(f (x), f (y)) = |f (x) f (y)| 6 |x y| = d(x, y) < = .
So f is uniformly continuous.
and
y = 1/,
for all n N .
(6)
(7)
Complete Spaces
Definition 4.1. Let (X, d) be a given metric space and let {x n } be a sequence of points of X. We say that {xn } is Cauchy (or satisfies the
Cauchy condition) if for every > 0 there exists k N such that
d(xn , xm ) <
for all n, m k.
Proposition 4.4. If {xn } is Cauchy and it contains a convergent subsequence, then {xn } converges.
Proof. Assume that {xn } is Cauchy and xkn x. We will show that xn
x. Let > 0. Since {xn } is Cauchy, there exists k 0 such that d(xn , xkn ) < /2
for all n k 0 . Also since xkn x, there exists k 00 such that d(xkn , x) < /2
for all n k 00 . Set k = max{k 0 , k 00 }. Then for n k,
d(xn , x) 6 d(xn , xkn ) + d(xkn , x) < /2 + /2 =
showing that xn x.
A Cauchy sequence need not converge. For example, consider {1/n} in the
metric space ((0, 1), | |). Clearly, the sequence is Cauchy in (0, 1) but does
not converge to any point of the interval.
Definition 4.5. A metric space (X, d) is called complete if every Cauchy
sequence {xn } in X converges to some point of X. A subset A of X is called
complete if A as a metric subspace of (X, d) is complete, that is, if every
Cauchy sequence {xn } in A converges to a point in A.
By the above example, not every metric space is complete; (0, 1) with the
usual metric is not complete.
Theorem 4.6. The space R with the usual metric is complete.
Proof. Let {xn } be a Cauchy sequence in R. Then it is bounded, say |x n | 6
M . Set yn = inf{xk | k n}. Then {yn } is increasing and yn 6 M for all
n. Hence {yn } converges, say to x (see Proposition 11.11 in Appendix). We
23
claim that also xn x. To see this choose N so that |xn xm | < /2 for
n, m N . In particular,
xN /2 < xk < xN + /2
for all k N .
xN /2 6 yn 6 xN + /2
for all n N .
Hence
Let n . Then
xN /2 6 x 6 xN + /2,
particular, y B(x1 , r1 ) T
B(x, r) and y B(xn+1 , rn+1 ) Un for all n.
Consequently, y B(x, r) n1 Un , and the proof is finished.
Applications
Theorem 4.15. Let (X, d) be a complete metric space, and let {f n } be a
sequence of continuous functions f n : X R. Assume that the sequence
{fn (x)} is bounded for every x X. Then there exists a non-empty open set
U X on which the sequence {fn } is bounded, that is, there is a constant
M such that |fn (x)| 6 M for all x U and all n N.
Proof. Since the function fn is continuous, the set fn1 ([m, m]) = {x X |
|fn (x)| 6 m} is closed for any pair of positive integers n and m. Thus,
\
Em = {x X | |fn (x)| 6 m for all n N} =
f 1 ([m, m])
n
of the Baire theorem, one of the sets E m has non-empty interior, say Em .
the conclusion follows.
Setting U = Em
Theorem 4.16. There exists continuous function f : [0, 1] R which is
not differentiable at every point point x [0, 1).
Proof. Recall that f has a right-hand derivative at x, if
lim [(f (x + h) f (x))/h] exists.
h0+
h0+
we have
f (x + h) f (x)
= f+0 (x),
h
f (x + h) f (x)
= |f+0 (x)|.
lim
h
h0+
(1)
Take an integer k 2 such that |f+0 (x)| 6 k and x [0, 1 1/k]. In view of
(1), there exists 0 < < 1/k such that
|f (x + h) f (x)| 6 k h for all 0 6 h 6 .
Since f is continuous on a closed and bounded interval, there is C > 0
such that |f (x)| 6 C for all x [0, 1] (this is proved in the section on
28
2C
2C
6
h 6 k 0 h.
(2)
for all h [0, 1/m]. Since {xk } [0, 1 1/m], there exists a subsequence
which converges to some point x [0, 1 1/m] . Without loss of generality
we may assume that xk x [0, 11/m]. Hence, by the triangle inequality
and by (2),
|f (x + h) f (x)| 6 |f (x + h) f (xk + h)| + |f (xk + h) fk (xk + h)|
graphs
of functions
f and g
Figure 2: The black curve is the graph of f and the grey curve is the graph
of g.
X
i d(x1 , x0 )
6 n + n+1 + + m1 d(x1 , x0 ) 6
i=n
= n
X
i=0
i
d(x1 , x0 ) =
n d(x
1 , x0 )
.
1
n d(x1 , x0 )
.
1
(10)
Thus,
d(f (p), p) 6 d(f (p), xn+1 ) + d(xn+1 , p) = d(f (p), f (xn )) + d(xn+1 , p)
6 d(p, xn ) + d(xn+1 , p) 6
= n
(1 + )d(x1 , x0 )
0,
1
and therefore p = f (p). The inequality (9) follows from (10) by taking
n = 0.
Here is an application of Banach fixed point theorem to the local existence
of solutions of ordinary differential equations.
Theorem 4.18 (Picards Theorem). Let U be an open subset of R 2 and
let f : U R be a continuous function which satisfies the Lipschitz condition
with respect to the second variable, that is,
|f (x, y1 ) f (x, y2 )| 6 |y1 y2 |
31
for all (x, y1 ), (x, y2 ) U , and some > 0. Then for a given (x 0 , y0 ) U
there is > 0 so that the differential equation
y 0 (x) = f (x, y(x))
has a unique solution y : [x0 , x0 + ] R such that y(x0 ) = y0 .
Proof. Note that it is enough to show that there are > 0 and a unique
function y : [x0 , x0 + ] R such that
Z x
y(x) = y0 +
f (t, y(t))dt.
x0
Fix (x0 , y0 ) U , then there exists > 0 and b > 0 such that if I =
[x0 .x0 +] and J = [y0 b, y0 +b], then IJ U . Since f is continuous and
I J is closed and bounded, f is bounded on I J. That is, |f (x, y)| 6 M
for some M and all (x, y) U . Take smaller so that < 1 and M < b.
Denote by X the set of all continuous functions g : I J. The set X with
the metric (g, h) = sup{|g(x) h(x)|, x I} is a complete metric space.
For g X, let
Z
x
(T g)(x) = y0 +
f (t, g(t))dt.
x0
x1
For x0 6 x 6 x0 + ,
Z x
Z
|(T g)(x) y0 | =
f (t, g(t))dt 6
x0
x0
Completions
The space (0, 1) with the usual metric is not complete but is a subspace
of the complete metric space [0, 1] with the usual metric. This example
illustrates the general situation: every metric space X may be regarded as
e
e in such a way that X = X.
a subspace of a complete metric space X
We will need the following concept.
for all x, y X.
Theorem 4.21. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then (X, d) has a completion. The completion is unique in the following sense: If ((X 1 , d1 ), 1 ) and
((X2 , d2 ), 2 ) are completions of (X, d), then (X1 , d1 ) and (X2 , d2 ) are isometric. That is, there exists an isometry : X 1 X2 such that 1 = 2 .
Proof.
Existence: Let B(X) be the space of bounded functions defined on X
equipped with the uniform norm (f, g) = supyX |f (y) g(y)|. Fix a point
a X. With every x X we associate a function f x : X R defined by
fx (y) = d(y, x) d(y, a),
33
y X.
We have
|fx (y)| = |d(y, x) d(y, a)| 6 d(x, a)
so that fx is bounded. Since
|fx1 (y) fx2 (y)| 6 d(x1 , x2 )
for all y X,
(fx1 , fx2 ) = supyX {|fx1 (y) fx2 (y)|} 6 d(x1 , x2 ). On the other hand,
(fx1 , fx2 ) |fx1 (x2 ) fx2 (x2 )| = d(x1 , x2 ).
Hence
(fx1 , fx2 ) = d(x1 , x2 ),
and the map : X C(X, R) defined by (x) = f x is an isometry onto
(X),
((x1 ), (x2 )) = d(x1 , x2 ).
Denote by X 0 the closure of (X) in B(X) and let d0 be the metric on X 0
induced by . Since (B(X), ) is complete and X 0 is closed in B(X), the
space (X 0 d0 ) is complete.
Uniqueness:
The isometry 1 : X 1 (X) has an inverse 1
1 : 1 (X) X. Then
is
an
isometry
from
(X)
onto
X
.
Since 1 (X) is dense in
2 1
1
2
1
1
(X1 , d1 ), 2 1 extends to the map : X1 X2 satisfying
d2 ((x), (y)) = d1 (x, y),
x, y X1 .
34
Proof. Without loss of generality we may assume that I = [0, 1]. Bisect the
interval [0, 1] and consider the two intervals [0, 1/2] and [1/2, 0]. One of these
subintervals must contain xn for infinitely many n. Call this subinterval I 1 .
Now bisect I1 . Again, one the two subintervals contains x n for infinitely
many n. Denote this subinterval I2 the interval containing xn for infinitely
many n. Proceeding in this way we find a sequence of closed intervals I n ,
each one contained in the preceding one, each one half of the length of the
preceding one, and each containing x n for infinitely many n. Choose an
integer n1 so that xn1 I1 . Then choose n2 > n1 such that xn2 I2 .
Then choose n3 > n2 such that xn3 I3 , and so on. Continuing this way
we choose we find a sequence {xnk } such that xnk Ik . If i, j k, then
xni , xnj Ik and so
|xni xnj | 6 1/2k .
Hence {xnk } is Cauchy and since [0, 1] is complete, {x nk } converges to a
point in [0, 1]
Proof. Let {yn } be any sequence in f (K), and let {xn } be a sequence in K
of points such that f (xn ) = yn . Since K is compact, {xn } has a converging
subsequence to a point in K, say xnk x with x K. Since f is continuous,
f (xnk ) f (x). That is, ynk f (x) and since f (x) f (K), f (K) is
compact.
As a corollary we get
Corollary 5.8. Let f : X R be a continuous function on a compact
metric space. Then f attains a maximum and a minimum value, that is,
there exist a and b X such that f (a) = inf{f (x)| x X} and f (b) =
sup{f (x)| x X}.
Proof. By Theorem 5.7, f (X) is compact and so, it is bounded and the
sup{f (x)| x X} is finite. Set C = sup{f (x)| x X}. By definition of
supremum, for every n N, there exists x n such that C 1/n 6 f (xn ) 6
C. The sequence {xn } has a converging subsequence, xnk b because
X is compact. In view of the continuity of f , f (x nk ) f (x), and since
C 1/n 6 f (xn ) 6 C, f (x) = C. Similarly, f (a) = inf{f (x)| x X}.
Theorem 5.9. Suppose f : (X, d) (Y, d 0 ) is a continuous mapping defined
on a compact metric space X. Then f is uniformly continuous.
Proof. Suppose not. Then there is some > 0 such that for all > 0 there
exist points x, y with d(x, y) < but d 0 (f (x), f (y)) . Take = 1/n
and let xn , yn be points such that d(xn , yn ) < 1/n but d0 (f (xn ), f (yn )) .
Compactness of X implies that there is a subsequence {x nk } converging to
some point x X. Since d(xnk , ynk ) < 1/nk 0 as k , the sequence
{ynk } converges to the same point x. Continuity of f implies that the
sequences {f (xnk )}, {f (ynk )} converge to f (x). Then d0 (f (xnk ), f (x)) < /2
and d0 (f (ynk ), f (x)) < /2 for k large, and so,
d0 (f (xnk , f (ynk )) 6 d0 (f (xnk ), f (x)) + d0 (f (x), f (ynk )) <
for k large, contradiction that d0 (f (xn ), f (yn )) for all n.
Definition 5.11. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let A X. Then A has
the Heine-Borel property if S
for every open cover {U i }iI of A, there is a
finite set F I such that A iS Ui .
Example 5.12. Consider a set X with a discrete metric. Then every onepoint set is open and the collection of all one-point sets is an open cover of
X. Clearly, this cover does not have any proper subcover. Hence, a discrete
metric space X has the Heine-Borel property if and only if X consists of a
finite number of points.
Theorem 5.15. Let A be a subset of a metric space (X, d). Then the
following conditions are equivalent:
(a) A is compact.
(b) A is complete and totally bounded.
(c) A has the Heine-Borel property.
Proof. We will show that (a) implies (b), (b) implies (c), (c) implies (a).
(a) implies (b):
Let {xn } be a Cauchy sequence in A. We have to show that it converges to
38
Topological Spaces
Our next aim is to push the process of abstraction a little further and define
spaces without distances in which continuous functions still make sense.
The motivation behind the definition is the criterion of continuity in terms
of open sets. This criterion tells us that a function between metric spaces
is continuous provided that the preimage of an open set is open. We make
the following definition.
Definition 6.1. Let X be a non-empty set. A topology on a set X is a
collection T of subsets of X satisfying the following properties:
O1 and X T ;
O2 if {Ui }iI T , then
Ui T ;
T
O3 if U1 , U2 , . . . , Un T , then ni=1 T ;
iI
Example 6.3. Let X be any non-empty set. The collection of all subsets of
X, P(X), is a topology on X. This topology is called the discrete topology. Every subset U of X is an open set. On the other extreme, consider
X and the collection {, X}. It is also a topology on X, and is called the
indiscrete topology or the trivial topology.
Example 6.4. Let X = R and let Tu be a collection of subsets of X consisting of , R, and the unbounded open intervals (, a) for all a R. Then
Tu is a topology on R. Similarly, we can define a topology T l consisting of
, R and all unbounded intervals (a, ), a R.
Example 6.5. Let (X, T ) be a topological space and Y X. Then
TY = {U Y | U T } is a topology on Y . It is called the subspace
topology or relative topology induced by T .
Definition 6.6. Suppose that T and T 0 are two topologies on X. If T T 0
we say that T 0 is finer or larger than T . In this case we also say T is
coarser or smaller than T 0 . Topologies T and T 0 are comparable if
T 0 T and T T 0
Along with a concept of open sets there is the companion concept of closed
set. If X is a topological space, then a set F X is closed if F c = X \ F
is open. By de Morgans laws, the family of closed sets is closed under
arbitrary intersection of closed sets and finite unions. More precisely, the
class of closed sets has the following properties:
C1 X and are closed;
T
C2 If Fi is a closed set for every i I, then iI Fi is closed;
S
C3 If F1 , . . . Fn are closed, then ni=1 Fi is closed.
41
B1
x
B3
B2
PSfrag replacements
Proof. Any basis satisfies (1) since the whole space X is open, and (2) since
the intersection of two open sets B1 B2 is open. Conversely, assume that
B is a collection of subsets of X with properties (1) and (2). Define T to be
42
the collection of all subsets of X that are unions of sets in B. We shall show
that T is topology. The condition (1) guarantees that X T . Clearly, an
arbitrary union of sets in T belongs to T in view of definition of T . Assume
that U, V T . We have to show that U V is the union of sets in B. Take
any x U V . Since U and V are unions of sets in B, there exist B 1 , B2 B
such that x B1 U and x B2 V . So x B1 B2 , and, in view of
(2), there exists Bx B such that x B3 B1 B2 . Hence Bx U V ,
and consequently,
[
U V =
Bx .
xU V
Continuity
Continuous functions in metric spaces were characterized in terms of open
and closed sets (see Theorem 3.4 and Theorem 3.5).This suggest the definition of continuity in topological spaces.
Definition 6.10. Let X and Y be topological spaces and let f : X Y .
The map f is continuous at a point x0 if for every neighbourhood U of
f (x0 ) in Y there exists a neighbourhood V of x 0 in X such that f (V ) U .
Global continuity of f is defined in terms of open sets: f is continuous if
f 1 (U ) is open in X for every open set U in Y .
43
Connected Spaces
A 2-valued function is a function from X to {0, 1}, where {0, 1} is considered with discrete topology.
Theorem 8.3. A space X is connected if and only if every 2-valued continuous function on X is constant. Equivalently, X is disconnected if and only
if there exists a 2-valued continuous function from X onto {0, 1}
47
48
49
Product Spaces
(11)
Observe that the intersection of two such sets is again a set of this form.
Indeed,
(U1 Un ) (V1 Vn ) = (U1 V1 ) (Un Vn )
Consequently, the family (11) forms a basis. Let j : X Xj be the
projection of X onto the jth factor, defined by
j (x1 , . . . , xn ) = xj ,
(x1 , . . . , xn ) X.
(U1 V1 ) (U2 V2 )
X2
PSfrag replacements
U2
V2
U1
V1
X1
is a finite intersection of open sets and hence is open. Since the inverses of
functions preserve unions, the inverse image of any open set is open, and
consequently, f is continuous.
We next study which properties of topological spaces are valid for the product X = X1 Xm whenever they hold for X1 , X, . . . , Xm .
Theorem 9.4. Let X be the product of Hausdorff spaces X 1 , . . . , Xn . Then
X is Hausdorff.
Proof. Take two different points x = (x 1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ), and
choose an index i so that xi 6= yi . Since Xi is Hausdorff, there exist open
sets Ui and Vi in Xi such that Ui Vi = . Then i1 (Ui ) and i1 (Vi ) are
open and disjoint sets containing x and y, respectively. Consequently, X is
Hausdorff as required.
Theorem 9.5. Let X be the product of path-connected spaces X 1 , . . . , Xn .
Then X is path-connected.
Proof. Take two points x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) in X. Since each
Xj is path-connected, for each 1 6 j 6 n there exists a path j : [0, 1] Xj
from xj to yj . Define : [0, 1] X by setting
(t) = (i (t), . . . , n (t)),
t [0, 1].
52
Proof. We prove the theorem for the product of two connected spaces X 1 and
X2 . We apply Theorem 8.8. Take two points a = (a 1 , a2 ), b = (b1 , b2 ) X
and consider sets C1 = {(x, b2 ) X | x X1 } and C2 = {(a1 , y) X | y
X2 }. By the above remark, the sets C1 , C2 are connected. Then, in view of
Theorem 8.7, C = C1 C2 is connected since C1 C2 = {(a1 , b2 )}. Applying
Theorem 8.8, the space X is connected since a, b C.
To study compactness of the product of compact spaces we need the following lemma.
Lemma 9.7. Let Y be a topological space and let B be a basis for the topology
of Y . If every open cover of Y by sets in B has a finite subcover, then Y is
compact.
Proof. Let {Ui }iI be an open cover of Y . For each y Y , choose V y B
and an index j so that y Vy Uj . The family {Vy }yY forms an open
cover of Y by sets belonging to B. In view of the assumption, there exists a
finite number of the Vy s that cover Y . Since each of these V y s is contained
in at least one of the Uj s, we obtain a finite number of Uj s that cover Y .
Hence Y is compact.
Theorem 9.8 (Tichonoff s Theorem for the finite product). Let X
be the product of compact spaces X1 , . . . , Xn . Then X is compact.
Proof. We consider only the product of two compact spaces X 1 and X2 . let
R be a cover of X1 X2 by basic open sets of the form U V , U open in X 1
and V open in X2 . In view of Lemma 9.7, it is enough to show that R has a
finite subcover. Fix z X2 . The slice X1 {z} is compact. Hence there are
finitely many sets U1 V1 , . . . , Un Vn in R covering the slice X {z}. We
may assume that z Vj for all 1 6 j 6 n. The set V (z) = V1 Vn is
an open set containing z, and the set 21 (V (z)) is covered by sets Uj Vj ,
1 6 j 6 n. The collection {V (z)}zX2 is an open cover of X2 , and since
X2 is compact, X2 = V (z1 ) V (zl ) for some finite number of points
zj X2 . Then X = 21 (V (z1 )) 21 (V (zl )). Each 21 (V (zj )) is
covered by finitely many sets in R. Consequently, X can be covered by
finitely many sets in R, and, in view of Lemma 9.7, X is compact.
53
54
10
(12)
0 < p < 1,
(13)
0 < p < 1.
(14)
Next we shall construct the function f which is continuous and such that
the sets Up are level sets of f on which f assumes the value p. Define
f (x) = 0 if x Up for all p > 0 and f (x) = sup{p| x 6 Up } otherwise.
Clearly, 0 6 f 6 1, f (x) = 0 for all x A and f (x) = 1 for all x B. It
remains to show that f is continuous. Take x X. We only consider the
case that 0 < f (x) < 1. (The remaining cases f (x) = 0 and f (x) = 1 are
left as an exercise). Let > 0 and choose dyadic rationals p and q such that
0 < p, q < 1 and
f (x) < p < f (x) < q < f (x) + .
Then x 6 Ur for dyadic rationals r between p and f (x) so that, in view
of (12), x 6 U p . On the other hand x Uq . So W = Uq \ U p is an open
neighbourhood of x. Then p 6 f (y) 6 q for any y W which shows that
|f (x) f (y)| < for all y W . Hence f is continuous and the proof is
completed.
57
C0 = {a A| f (a) a0 /3}.
Since f is continuous on A and A is closed, the sets B and C are closed and
disjoint subsets of X. Taking a linear combination of constant function and
the function from Uryshons lemma, we find a continuous function g 0 : X
R such that a0 /3 6 g0 6 a0 /3, g0 = a0 /3 on B0 and g0 = a0 /3 on C0 .
In particular,
|g0 | 6 a0 /3
|f g0 | 6 2a0 /3.
Iterating this process we construct the sequence of functions {g n } satisfying
|gn | 6 2n a0 /3n+1
|f g0 g1 gn | 6 2
n+1
a0 /3
(15)
n+1
on A.
(16)
|f g0 g1 gn | 6 2an1 /3
on A.
n 1.
If n > m, then
n
m+1
a0
2
2
+ +
|hn hm | = |gm+1 + + gn | 6
3
3
3
m+1
2
6
a0 .
3
58
n
X
k=0
a0 X 2 n
|gk | 6
= a0 ,
3
3
k=1
f (x)
,
f (x) + g(x)
xX
11
Appendix
Sets
A set is considered to be a collection of objects. The objects of a set A are
called elements (or members) of A. If x is an element of a set A we write
x A, and if x is not an element of A we write x 6 A. Two sets A and B
are called equal, A = B, if A and B have the same elements. A set A is a
subset of a set B, written A B, if every element of A is also an element
of B. The empty set has no elements; it has the property that it is a
subset of any set, that is, A for any set A. Given two sets A and B we
define:
59
AF
A = {x | x A for all A F }.
iI
iI
iI
The set of all subsets of a given set X is called the power set and is denoted
by P(X).
If X and Y are sets, their cartesian product X Y is the set consisting
of ordered pairs (x, y) with x X and y Y .
Given two sets X and Y , a relation from X to Y is subset R of X Y . We
say that R is a relation on X if X X, that is, R X X. Quite often we
write xRy instead of (x, y) R.
The most important example of a relation is a function. A relation f from
X to Y is called a function if for each x X there exists exactly one y Y
60
f 1
f
iI
(A ) = f
iI
c
Ai
f 1 Ai .
iI
(A)
c
61
Define
bn =
if ann 6= 1
if ann = 1
1
2
Proposition 11.3. Let A be a non-empty set. Then the following are equivalent:
(a) A is countable.
(b) There exists a surjection f : N A.
(c) There exists an injection g : A N.
Proof. Assume that A is countable. If A is countably infinite, then there
exists a bijection f : N A. If A is finite, then there is bijection h :
{1, . . . , n} A for some n. Define f : N A by
(
h(i)
if 1 6 i 6 n,
f (i) =
h(n)
if i > n.
62
63
65
() + () = ,
for r R
and () + () = .
and
() + ()
()() = .
n kn
n kn
68
12
12.1
Problem Sheets
Problem Sheet 1
if x1 = y1 and x2 6= y2 or if x1 6= y1 and x2 = y2 ;
1/2
d(x, y) = 1
if x1 6= y1 and x2 6= y2 ;
0
otherwise.
Verify that d is a metric and that the rectangles in the figure hav different
area if d is used to measure the length of sides.
4.
(a) Show that if 0 6 a 6 b, then
a
b
6
.
1+a
1+b
b
c
a
6
+
.
1+a
1+b 1+c
is a metric on X.
e y) =
d(x,
d(x, y)
1 + d(x, y)
for x, y X
Qn
i=1 Xi .
Define
12.2
Problem Sheet 2
the above inequality does not hold. Use the above fact to show that
d1 (x, y) =
n
X
i=1
d2 (x, y) =
"
|xi yi |
n
X
i=1
|xi yi |2
#1/2
are equivalent on X = Rn .
3 Consider the set X = [1, 1] as a subspace of R a metric subspace of
R with the standard metric. Which of the following sets are open in X?
Which are open in R? Which are closed in X and which are closed in R?
(a) A = {x X | 1/2 < |x| < 2}
(b) B = {x X | 1/2 < |x| 6 2}
(c) C = {x R | 1/2 6 |x| < 1}
(d) D = {x R | 1/2 6 |x| 6 1}
(e) E = {x R | 0 < |x| 6 1 and 1/x 6 Z}
4. Sketch (where possible) the following sets, and decide whether it is an
open subset, or a closed subset, or neither of R 2 with the standard metric:
(a) A = {(x, y)| 1 < x 6 1 and 1 < y < 1}
(b) B = {(x, y)| xy = 0}
(c) C = {(x, y)| x Q, y R}
(d) D = {(x, y)| 1 < x < 1 and y = 0}
S
(e) E =
n=1 {(x, y)|x = 1/n and |y| 6 n}
5. Find the interior, the closure and the boundary of each of the following
subsets of R2 with the standard metric:
72
iI
Ai
iI
iI
Ai
iI
iI
iI
Ai
Ai
iI
12.3
Problem Sheet 3
5. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let a be a fixed point of X. Show that
|d(x, a) d(y, a)| 6 d(x, y)
(17)
for all x, y X.
6 Use (17) to show the following result. Let A be a dense subset of (X, d).
Show that a sequence {xn } of points on X converges to x if and only if
d(xn , a) d(x, a)
for all a A.
7. Use (17) to show that the function f : X R defined by f (x) = d(x, a),
x X, is continuous.
8. Define f : R R and g : R R by
(
1 if x 0
and
f (x) =
1 if x < 0
g(x) =
x
1
if x 0
if x < 0.
12.4
Problem Sheet 4
(b) g(x) =
x
1 + nx
(b) gn (x) =
xn
1 + xn
5. Let (X, d) and (Y, ) be metric spaces and let f : X Y . Show that f
is uniformly continuous if and only if for any two sequences {x n } and {yn }
such that d(xn , yn ) 0 it follows that (f (xn ), f (yn )) 0.
6. Suppose that {xn } is a sequence in a metric space (X, d) such that
d(xn , xn+1 ) 6 2n for all n N. Prove that {xn } is a Cauchy sequence.
7. Suppose that {xn } and {yn } are Cauchy sequences in a metric space
(X, d). Prove that the sequence of real numbers {d(x n , yn )} converges.
75
12.5
Problem Sheet 5
(iii) diam(Fn ) 0
12.6
Problem Sheet 6
1.
(a) Let f (x) = x2 for x (0, a], and let X = (0, a] with the usual metric.
Find for what values of a is f a contraction. Show that f : X X
does not have a fixed point.
1
for x 1, and let X = [1, ) with the usual metric
x
d. Show that f : X X, that d(f (x), f (y)) < d(x, y) for all x 6= y
but f does not have a fixed point.
(T f )(x) = ex +
1
f (x)
,
2 1 + f (x)2
x [0, 1].
Show that (T f ) C([0, 1], R) and that T : C([0, 1], R) C([0, 1], R) is a
contraction. Use this fact to show that there exists exactly one function
f C([0, 1], R) such that
1
f (x)3 ex f (x)2 + f (x) = ex
2
for all x [0, 1].
77
5. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let X be the set of Cauchy sequences
x = {xn } in (X, d). Define a relation in X be declaring x = {xn } y =
{yn } to mean d(xn , yn ) 0.
(a) Show that is an equivalence relation.
e denote the
Denote by [x] the equivalence class of x X , and let X
set of these equivalence classes.
e define
For [x], [y] X,
for all m kn .
Set x = {x1k1 , x2k2 , x3k3 , . . .}. Then show that x is Cauchy in (X, d) and
D([xn ], [x]) 0.
78
12.7
Problem Sheet 7
y 0 (x0 ) = y1
79
if and only if
y(x) = y0 + (x x0 )y1 +
x0
x I.
(b) Assume, in addition, that f satisfies the Lipschitz condition with respect
to the second variable, |f (x, y1 )f (x, y2 )| 6 |y1 y2 | for all (x, y1 ), (x, y2 )
U , and some > 0. Prove that for given y 0 , y1 R there exists > 0 such
that the equation y 00 (x) = f (x, y(x)) has a unique solution y : [x 0 , x0 +
] R satisfying y(x0 ) = y0 and y 0 (x0 ) = y1 .
4. Let (X, d) be a metric space with the property that if Y is any nonempty closed subset of X and f : Y Y is any contraction, then f has a
fixed point. Show that (X, d) is complete.
12.8
Problem Sheet 8
1.
Show that if (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) are compact metric spaces, then the product metric space (X Y, d) is compact. (Here d is the product metric).
2.
Show that if A1 , . . . ,Ak are compact subsets of a metric space (X, d), then
S
k
i=1 Ai is compact.
3.
Which of the following subsets of R and R 2 are compact? (R and R2 are
80
4.
Consider (Q, d) where d is the usual metric. Give an example of a set in this
metric space that is closed and bounded but is not compact.
5.
Let A be a non-empty compact subset of a metric space (X, d).
(a) Let x X. Show that d(x, A) = d(x, a) for some a A.
(b) Let U X be open and A U .
Show that there exists > 0 such that S = {x X|d(x, A) < } U . Does
this hold if A is only closed but not compact?
6.
Show that if A is a totally bounded subset of a metric space (X, d), then
for every
Sn > 0 there exists a finite subset {a 1 , . . . , an } of A such that
A i=1 B(ai , ).
7.
Show that a metric space (X, d) is totally bounded if and only if every sequence {xn } X contains a Cauchy subsequence.
8.
Let X be a compact metric space and let U be an open cover of X. Show
that there exists a number r > 0 with the property: For every x X, there
exists U U such that B(x, r) U . The number r is called a Lebesgues
number of the cover U.
12.9
Problem Sheet 9
1.
Show that (X, T ) is a topological space.
(a) Let X be infinite set. Let
T = {A X| A = or A = X or X \ A is finite}.
This is called co-finite topology or finite complement topology.
81
3.
Let T = {A R| 0 6 A or A = R}. Show that T is a topology on R. What
are the closed sets in (R, T )? What is {1}? Is this topology Hausdorff?
4.
Let A, B be a subsets of a topological space (X.T ). Show that A B AB
and A B = A B.
5.
Let A X where (X, T ) is a topological space. Show that X \ A = X \ A
and (X \ A) = X \ A.
6.
Prove the following statements about continuous functions and discrete and
indiscrete topological spaces.
(a) If X is discrete, then every function f : X Y , where Y is any topological spaces, is continuous.
(b) If X is not discrete, then there exists a topological space Y and a function f : X Y that is not continuous.
(c) If Y is an indiscrete topological space, then every function f : X Y ,
where X is any topological space, is continuous.
(d) If Y is not indiscrete, then there exists a topological sapce X and a
function f : X Y that is not continuous.
7
Let X be infinite set and let T be a co-finite topology on X. Show that any
continuous function f : X R is constant. (R is equipped with the usual
metric topology).
82
8.
Let X and Y be topological spaces and let B be a base of open sets for Y .
Show that a function f : X Y is continuous if and only if f 1 (U ) is open
in X for every U B.
9.
(a) Show that (a, b) is homeomorphic to (c, d), (c, ) and R. (All spaces
are equipped with the usual topology).
(b) Show that R2 \ {(0, 0)} is homeomorphic to R2 \ B((0, 0), 1).
10.
A topological property is a property that, if possessed by a topological
space X, is also possessed by any topological space homeomorphic to X.
(a) Show that if f : X Y is a homeomorphism, then f (U ) is open in Y
for any open set U X.
(b) Show that Hausdorff is a topological property.
(c) Is completeness a topological property of metric spaces?
12.10
Problem Sheet 10
1.
Let (X, T ) be a compact topological space and let A, B are closed subsets
of (X, T ). Show that A B is compact.
2.
Let X = (0, 1) and let
4.
Consider (R, M), where M is the usual metric topology in R. Let
T = {A R| A = or R \ A is compact in (R, M)}.
(a) Show that T is a topology on R.
83
5.
Let A be closed and let B be compact in (X, T ). Show that AB is compact.
6.
Let (X, T ) be compact and let f : X R be a continuous function. Show
that f is bounded, that is, there is M > 0 such that |f (x)| 6 M for all
x X. Show that f attains its maximum and its minimum value.
7.
Let (X, T ) be compact and (Y, S) Hausdorff. Show that if f : X Y is a
continuous bijection, then f is a homeomorphism.
8.
Let (X, T ) be a compact Hausdorff space and let T 0 be another topology on
X. Show that:
(a) if T T 0 but T 6= T 0 , then (X, T 0 ) is Hausdorff but not compact.
(b) if T 0 T but T 6= T 0 , then (X, T 0 ) is compact but not Hausdorff.
Hint: Use Problem 7.
9.
Let X be infinite set with the co-finite topology T . Show that (X, T ) is
connected.
10.
Is the topological space (R, T ) from Problem 4 connected?
12.11
Problem Sheet 11
1.
Show that if A is a connected subspace of a topological space (X, T ) and if
A B A, then B is connected.
2.
If A and B are connected subsets of a topological space (X, T ) such that
A B 6= , then A B is connected.
3.
Let {An } be a sequence of connected subsets of a topological
space (X, T )
S
such that An An+1 6= for all n N. Prove that nN An is connected.
4.
Let (X, d) be a metric space. Call a function f : X R locally constant if
for every x there exists r > 0 such that f | B(x,r) : B(x, r) R is constant.
84
Show that if (X, d) is connected, then every locally constant function is constant.
5.
A metric space (X, dX ) is called a chain connected if for every pair x, y
of points in X and every > 0, there are finitely many points x = x 0 , x1 ,
x2 , . . . xn = y such that dX (xi+1 , xi ) < for i = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Prove that
a compact, chain connected metric space is connected.
6.
A point p X is called a cut point if X \ {p} is disconnected. Show that
the property of having a cut point is a topological property.
7.
Show that no two of the intervals (a, b), (a, b], and [a, b] are homeomorphic.
8.
Show that R and R2 are not homeomorphic (R and R2 are equipped with
the usual topologies) .
9.
Let A be countable set. Show that R2 \ A is path connected.
10.
Show that if A is an open connected subset of R n , then A is path connected.
References
[Mu] J. R. Munkres, Toplogy , Prentice Hall, 2000.
[M] B. Mendelson, Introduction to topology, Dover Publications.
[C] F. Croom, Introduction to topology , .
85
Welcome to 620-311. Please use the index on the left to find out more about this
course.
Course
Objectives
Swarup Gadde
Room 173 Richard Berry
Email: gadde at ms.unimelb.edu.au
Lecture Notes
Assessment
Second class test: Friday May 14th from 9.05am to 9.55am during class.
References
Class Times/
Consultation
Hours
Corrections/Other Handouts:
Solutions:
Student Rep.
Solutions 1
Solutions 2
Solutions 3
Solutions 4
Student Survey
Results
Solutions 5
Solutions 6
Solutions 7
Solutions 8
Solutions 9
Solutions 10
Solutions 11
Revision Questions:
Questions
Note: All email addresses on this Web page are disguised: For example, the email address j.blow@ms.unimelb.edu.au is given as j.blow at ms.unimelb.edu.au
http://www.ms.unimelb.edu.au/~s620311/index.html5/3/2005 21:19:46
if x1 = y1 and x2 6= y2 or if x1 6= y1 and x2 = y2 ;
1/2
d(x, y) = 1
if x1 6= y1 and x2 6= y2 ;
0
otherwise.
Verify that d is a metric and that the rectangles in the figure have different
area if d is used to measure the length of sides.
Solution: The first two axioms are trivially satisfied. To see that d satisfies
the triangle inequality we argue by contradiction and assume that there are
x, y, z R2 such that
d(x, z) > d(x, y) + d(y, z).
II
1
1/2
I
1/2
b
a
6
.
1+a
1+b
a
b
c
(b) If a, b, c 0 and a 6 b + c, show that
6
+
.
1+a
1+b 1+c
(c) Use (b) to show that if d is a metric on X, then
(a) Show that if 0 6 a 6 b, then
e y) =
d(x,
d(x, y)
1 + d(x, y)
for x, y X
is a metric on X.
Solution: (a) Consider f (x) =
to f 0 (x) =
1
(1 + x)2
x
for x 0. The derivaitve of f is equal
1+x
> 0 for all x 0. So f is increasing on [0, ) and this
a
b
6
as required.
1+a
1+b
(b) Since 0 6 a 6 b + c, it follows from (a) that
a
b+c
b
c
b
c
6
=
+
6
+
1+a
1+b+c
1+b+c 1+b+c
1+b 1+c
b
b
c
c
since
6
and
6
.
1+b+c
1+b
1+b+c
1+c
(c) The first two axiom of a metric are evident. To see that de satisfies the
triangle inequality take x, y, z X. Then d(x, z) 6 d(x, y) + d(y, z), and in
view of (b),
d(x, y)
d(y, z)
d(x, z)
6
+
,
1 + d(x, z)
1 + d(x, y) 1 + d(y, z)
e z) 6 d(x,
e y) + d(y,
e z)
that is, d(x,
Q
5. Let (Xi , di ) be a metric space for 1 6 i 6 n and let X = ni=1 Xi . Define
X
1/2
n
2
d2 (x, y) =
di (xi , yi )
,
i=1
i=1
Since
X
n
d2 (x, z) =
1/2
X
n
6
(bi + ci )
i=1
i=1
1/2
1/2 X
X
n
n
b2i
+
a2i
6
i=1
i=1
b2i
1/2
X
n
i=1
c2i
X
n
i=1
1/2
c2i
1/2
1
o
1
o
So, diam B(x0 , r) 6 2r. Consider, X = Z with the usual metric d(x, y) =
|x y|. Then B(0, 1/2) = {0} so that diam B(0, 1/2) = 0.
n
X
i=1
d2 (x, y) =
"
|xi yi |
n
X
i=1
|xi yi |2
#1/2
are equivalent on X = Rn .
Solution: If d(xn , x) 0, then 0 6 d0 (xn , x) 0 since 0 6 d0 (xn , x) 6
d(xn , x) 0. If d0 (xn , x) 0, then 0 6 d(xn , x) 0 since 0 6 d(xn , x) 6
(1/) d(xn , x) 0. So d and d0 are equivalent. Consider on R metrics
d(x, y) = |x y|
d0 (x, y) =
and
|x y|
.
1 + |x y|
Then d and d0 are equivalent but there is no constant > 0 such that
d(x, y) 6 d0 (x, y),
for all x, y R.
n
X
i=1
i.e.,
d (x, y) 6 d1 (x, y) 6 n d (x, y),
and
d (x, y) 6 d2 (x, y) 6
Combining these inequality we get
n d (x, y).
1
d1 (x, y) 6 d2 (x, y) 6 n d1 (x, y).
n
So d1 , d2 and d are equivalent.
3 Consider the set X = [1, 1] as a subspace of R a metric subspace of
R with the standard metric. Which of the following sets are open in X?
Which are open in R? Which are closed in X and which are closed in R?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Solution:
Solution:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
1
1
-1
d
1
e
Figure 1
See Fig 1.
5. Find the interior, the closure and the boundary of each of the following
subsets of R2 with the standard metric:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Solution:
iI
Ai
iI
iI
iI
Ai
iI
iI
Ai
Ai
iI
S
S
S
Solution:
iI Ai
iI Ai : Let x S iI Ai . Then x Ai for
some i. Hence B(x,S
r) Ai and so, B(x, r) iI Ai . Consequently, x is
an interior point of iI Ai .
T
T
T
T
iI Ai
iI Ai : Let x
iI Ai . So for every B(x, r) iI Ai 6=
which means that B(x, r) Ai 6= for all i I. Hence x is an adherent
T
point of Ai for all i I, that is, x Ai for all i I. Therefore, x iI Ai .
T
T
T
T
iI Ai :
Let x
iI Ai
iI Ai . So B(x, r)
iI Ai .
Hence
T B(x, r) Ai for all i I, that is x Ai for all i I. Therefore,
x iI Ai .
S
S
S
x Aj for
iI Ai . Then
iI Ai : Let x
iI Ai
some j I, and
S
so, B(x, r) Aj 6= . Consequently, B(x, r)
6= . This mean
iI Ai
S
S
that x is an adherent point of iI Ai , i.e., x iI Ai .
(1)
for all x, y X.
Solution: By the triangle inequality,
d(x, a) 6 d(x, y) + d(y, a)
for all x, y X. So
But x, y are arbitrary,
for all n k.
So d(xn , x) 0.
7. Use (1) to show that the function f : X R defined by f (x) = d(x, a),
x X, is continuous.
Solution:
Let x0 X. Take > 0 and set = . Then, in view of (1),
|d(x0 , a) d(x, a)| 6 d(x0 , x) < =
for all x such that d(x0 , x) < . Hence f is continuous at x0 and since x0
was an arbitrary point, f is continuous on X.
8. Define f : R R and g : R R by
(
(
x
1 if x 0
and g(x) =
f (x) =
1
1 if x < 0
if x 0
if x < 0.
Y = {x X|d(x, Y ) = 0}.
f (x) = d(x, Y )
is continuous on X. Conclude that
(a) B(Y, ) = {x X| d(x, Y ) < } is open in X, and
(b) B[Y, ] = {x X| d(x, Y ) < } is closed in X.
Solution: Let x Y . Then there exists {x n } Y such that d(x, xn ) 0.
By the definition of d(x, Y ), 0 6 d(x, Y ) 6 d(x, x n ) 0. So d(x, Y ) = 0.
Conversely, let d(x, Y ) = 0. Then for every n N, there exists x n Y so
that d(x, xn ) < 1/n. (Note that if there is no such x n , then d(x, Y ) 1/n
contradicting d(x, Y ) = 0). Hence d(x, x n ) 0 showing that x Y . To see
that f is continuous, take x, y X. Then by the triangle inequality,
d(x, Y ) 6 d(x, z) 6 d(x, y) + d(y, z)
This mean that |f (x) f (y)| 6 d(x, y). Now take > 0 and set = . Then
if d(x, y) < , then |f (x) f (y)| 6 d(x, y) < = . So f is continuous. (in
fact, the above shows that f is uniformly continuous).
2. Let A and B be disjoint non-empty closed subsets of a metric space X.
Define
d(x, A)
f (x) =
for x X.
d(x, A) + d(x, B)
Show that f is a continuous function on X whose image is in [0, 1], and that
f (x) = 0 if and only if x A and f (x) = 1 if and only if x B. Next define
sets U = f 1 ([0, 1/2)) and V = f 1 ((1/2, 1]). Show that U and V are open
and disjoint, and that A U , B V .
Solution: By Problem 1, functions x 7 d(x, A) and x 7 d(x, B) are
continuous. Hence x 7 d(x, A) + d(x, B) is continuous, and since d(x, A) +
d(x, B) > 0, the function f (x) = d(x, A)/(d(x, A) + d(x, B)) is continuous
on X. If x A, then d(x, A) = 0, and so f (x) = 0. Conversely, if f (x) = 0,
then d(x, A) = 0 and so, in view of Problem 1, x A since A is closed.
If x B, then d(x, B) = 0 and d(x, A) > 0, again in view of Problem 1.
So f (x) = 1. Conversely, if f (x) = 1, then d(x, B) = 0, so that x B.
Summing up, f 1 {0}) = A and f 1 ({1}) = B. Since f : X [0, 1] and
[0, 1/2) and (1/2, 1] are open sets in [0, 1] equipped with the usual metric,
U = f 1 ([0, 1/2)) and V = f 1 ((1/2, 1]) are open in X. If x U V ,
1
=
|h(x) h(y)| 6
1
1
2
for all x, y 1 /2 and |x y| < 2 . So h is uniformly continuous on
[1 /2, ). Now if = min{1 , 2 } and x, y [0, ) satisfy |x y| < , then
|h(x) h(y)| < so that h is uniformly continous on [0, ).
(d) Take = 1/2. If k is uniformly continuous, then there is > 0 so that
if x, y (0, 1) and |x y| < , then |k(x) k(y)| < 1/2. Set x n = 1/(n)
and yn = 1/((n + 1/2)). Since xn 0 and yn 0 as n , there exists
n such that xn , yn < /2 so that |xn yn | 6 xn + yn < /2 + /2 = . On
the other hand, k(xn ) = sin n = 0 and k(y) = sin((n + 1/2)) = (1) n . So
|k(x) k(y)| = 1 > . Hence k is not uniformly continuous.
for all n k.
If d(xn , yn ) 0, then there exists k N such that d(x n , yn ) < for all
n k. So, in view of (1), we have that (f (x n ), f (yn )) < for all n k,
as required. Conversely, arguing by contradiction assume that f is not
uniformly continuous. Then there exists > 0 such that for all > 0 there
are points x, y X satisfying d(x, y) < but (f (x), f (y)) . Choose =
1
n . Then by the above there exist points x n , yn X such that d(xn , yn ) <
1/n but (f (xn ), f (yn )) . So, d(xn , yn ) 0 but (f (xn ), f (yn )) 6 0.
6. Suppose that {xn } is a sequence in a metric space (X, d) such that
d(xn , xn+1 ) 6 2n for all n N. Prove that {xn } is a Cauchy sequence.
X 1
1
1
1
1
1
6 n + n+1 + + m1 6
= n1 6 k1 .
j
2
2
2
2
2
2
j=n
So if > 0 choose k N such that 1/2k1 < . Then, in view of the above
inequality,
1
d(xn , xm ) < k1 <
2
for all n, m k. Hence {xn } is Cauchy.
7. Suppose that {xn } and {yn } are Cauchy sequences in a metric space
(X, d). Prove that the sequence of real numbers {d(x n , yn )} converges.
d(xn , xm ) < /2
and
d(yn , ym ) < /2
is complete.
d is a metric on X that is equivalent to d, and that (X, d)
Solution: The sequence {xn } with xn = 1/n is Cauchy in (X, d) but does
not converge. Indeed, for > 0 choose k N so that 1/k < /2. Then, for
n, m k,
1
1 6 1 + 1 6 2 < .
n m n m
k
If there is x X such that d(xn , x) 0, then
1
1
1
0 < |x| 6 x + = d(xn , x) + 0,
n
n
n
if x [a, (a + b)/2];
0
fn (x) = n(x (a + b)/2)
if x [(a + b)/2, (a + b)/2 + 1/n];
1
if x [(a + b)/2 + 1/n, 1].
1
Then, for > 0 there is k N such that 1/k < , and for n, m k,
Z b
1 1
1 1
d(fn , fm ) =
|fn (x) fm (x)|dx = 6 < .
2 n m
k
a
R (a+b)/2
so that a
|f (x)|dx = 0, and since |f (x)| is continuous and 0, we
get that f (x) = 0 for all x [a, (a + b)/2. If (a + b)/2 < s 6 b, then
(a + b)/2 + 1/n < s for n large, and
Z b
Z b
Z b
|fn (x) f (x)|dx 0,
|fn (x) f (x)|dx 6
|1 f (x)|dx =
s
Rb
(a+b)/2
(a+b)/2
contradiction.
(i) Consider X = (0, 1] with the usual metric d. Then (X, d) is not complete.
Take Fn = (0, 1/n]. Then Fn is
T closed in X, Fn+1 Fn for all n 1, and
diamFn = 1/n 0. However, n1 Fn = .
(ii) In R with the usual metric d consider F n = (0, 1/n].
Then diamFn =
T
1/n 0 and Fn is not closed in R. The intersection n1 Fn = .
(iii) In R with the usual metric d consider
T F n = [n, ). Then Fn is closed
in R, Fn+1 Fn but diamFn = , and n1 Fn = .
e are metric spaces and that f : X Y is
4. Suppose that (X, d) and (Y, d)
a bijection such that both f and f 1 are uniformly continuous. Show that
e is complete.
(X, d) is complete if and only if (Y, d)
e
Solution: Suppose that (X, d) is complete and {y n } is Cauchy in (Y, d).
e
We have to show that there exists y Y such that d(yn , y) 0 as n .
For every n there exists xn X such that f (xn ) = yn . We claim that {xn }
is Cauchy. Indeed, let > 0. Then there exists > 0 such that
(1)
e b) <
d(f 1 (a), f 1 (b)) < for all a, b Y satisfying d(a,
e there is
since f 1 is uniformly continuous. Since {yn } is Cauchy in (Y, d),
N such that
(2)
Observe that fn1 ([k, k]) is closed since fn is continuous, and consequently
Fk is closed since
\
fn1 ([k, k]).
Fk =
nN
Moreover, Qc
irrational x. So
kN Fk
rQ
S
for all n, m k. Hence x0 Fk and Fk is closed. Moreover, X = k1 Fk
since for every x X, {fn (x)} converges. In view of Baire theorem, F k 6=
for some k. Thus, there exists y and r > 0 such that B(y, r) F k . Put
U = B(y, r). If x U , then for all n, m k,
d(fn (x), fm (x)) 6 /2 < .
1.
(a) Let f (x) = x2 for x (0, a], and let X = (0, a] with the usual metric.
Find for what values of a is f a contraction. Show that f : X X
does not have a fixed point.
1
(b) Let f (x) = x+ for x 1, and let X = [1, ) with the usual metric
x
d. Show that f : X X, that d(f (x), f (y)) < d(x, y) for all x 6= y
but f does not have a fixed point.
Reconcile (a) and (b) with Banach fixed point theorem.
Solution:
(a) For x, y (0, a],
|x2 y 2 | = |x + y| |x y| 6 [|x| + |y|] |x y| 6 (2a) |x y|
so that f is a contraction if a < 1/2. Observe that if x (0, a] with a < 1/2,
then clearly 0 6 x2 6 a2 < a so that f : (0, a] (0, a]. If x2 = x, then
x = 0 and x = 1. Hence f : X X does not have a fixed point in X. Note
that (X, d) is not complete.
1
(b) Clearly, x + 1 for x 1 so that f : X X. Observe next that
x
1
1
1
x+
y+
= 1
(x y)
x
y
xy
so that
|f (x) f (y)| =
1
1
xy
|x y| < |x y|
since 1 1/(xy) < 1 for all x, y 1. Assume that f has a fixed point x.
1
1
Then x + = x, so = 0, contradiction. Note that f is not a contraction
x
x
since otherwise 1 1/(xy) 6 for some constant < 1 and all x, y 1.
Taking y = 1 and x large we get contradiction.
2. Consider f : R2 R2 given by f (x) = Ax, where
0.7
0.8
.
A=
0.2 0.05
Is f a contraction if R2 is equipped with the metric d1 , d2 , d ?
Solution: If x = (a1 , b1 ) and x = (a2 , b2 ), then
a
0.7
0.8
a1
0.7
0.8
2
f (x) f (y) =
b2
0.2 0.05
b1
0.2 0.05
= 0, 7(a1 a2 ) + 0.8(b1 b2 ), 0.2(a1 a2 ) 0.05(b1 b2 ) .
1
So
d1 (f (x), f (y)) = |0, 7(a1 a2 ) + 0.8(b1 b2 )| + |0.2(a1 a2 ) 0.05(b1 b2 )|
6 0.9 |a1 a2 | + 0.85 |b1 b2 | 6 0.9 [|a1 a2 | + |b1 b2 |]
= 0.9 d1 (x, y).
n
X
sin(akj xj ),
1 6 k 6 n.
j=1
j=1
n
X
j=1
|akj | |xj yj | 6
j=1
X
n
j=1
|akj |2
1/2
X
n
j=1
1/2
1/2 X
n
2
2
|xj yj |
|akj |
d2 (x, y),
and
(d2 (f (x), f (y))2 =
n
X
k=1
j=1
X
n
|akj |2 (d2 (x, y))2
16j,k6n
1
f (x)
,
2 1 + f (x)2
x [0, 1].
Show that (T f ) C([0, 1], R) and that T : C([0, 1], R) C([0, 1], R) is a
contraction. Use this fact to show that there exists exactly one function
f C([0, 1], R) such that
1
f (x)3 ex f (x)2 + f (x) = ex
2
2 1 + f (x)2 1 + g(x)2 2
for all x [0, 1]. Consequently,
d((T f ), (T g)) 6
1
d(f, g)
2
e define
For [x], [y] X,
for all m kn .
Set x = {x1k1 , x2k2 , x3k3 , . . .}. Then show that x is Cauchy in (X, d)
and D([xn ], [x]) 0.
(d) If x X, let (x) be the equivalence class of the constant sequence
x = (x, x, x, . . .). That is, (x) = [x] = [x, x, x, . . .]. Show that
: X (X) is an isometry.
e D).
(e) Show that (X) is dense in (X,
e
Hint: Let [x] X with x = {x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .}. Denote by xn the
constant sequence {xn , xn , xn , . . .} and show that D([xn ], [x]) 0.
Solution:
(a) Let x = {xn }, y = {yn } and z = {zn } X . Since d(xn , xn ) = 0,
x x, and since d(xn , yn ) = d(yn , xn ) we conclude that x y implies
y x. Finally, if x y and y z, then d(x n , yn ) 0 and d(yn , zn ) 0 so
that d(xn , zn ) 0 since d(xn , zn ) 6 d(xn , yn ) + d(yn , zn ) 0. Hence x z,
and is indeed an equivalence relation.
(b) Let x = {xn } and y = {yn } X . Since
d(xn , yn ) 6 d(xn , xm ) + d(xm , ym ) + d(ym , yn )
Since
d(xn , yn ) 6 d(xn , x0n ) + d(x0n , yn0 ) + d(yn0 , yn ),
we get
(2)
Interchanging xn with
x0n
We claim that x is Cauchy in (X, d). Indeed, denoting by x nkn the constant
sequence {xnkn , xnkn , xnkn , . . .}, we have
(4)
1
.
n
for n, m N .
Then,
n
m
d(xnkn , xm
km ) = D([xkn ], [xkm ])
d(xnkn , xm
km ) < /2
(7)
for all n, m k.
(8)
for n, m k.
So, for n k,
Solution:
Since B(x0 , r0 ) is closed in a complete metric space (X, d), (B(x 0 , r0 ), d) is
complete. Hence it suffices to show that f : (B(x 0 , r0 )) B(x0 , r0 ). Take
any x B(x0 , r0 ). We have to show that d(f (x), x0 ) 6 r0 . Indeed,
d(f (x), x0 ) 6 d(f (x), f (x0 )) + d(f (x0 ), x0 ) 6 d(x, x0 ) + r0 (1 )
6 r0 + (1 )r0 = r0 .
and so,
(1)
xI
which implies that d and are equivalent. In view of (1), (C(I, R), d) is
complete since (C)I, R), ) is.
(b) If y : [x0 , x0 + ] J and x0 6 x 6 x0 + , then
Z x
|T y(x) y0 | 6
|f (t, y(t))|dt 6 C 6 b,
x0
xI
y 0 (x0 ) = y1
if and only if
y(x) = y0 + (x x0 )y1 +
x
x0
x I.
(b) Assume, in addition, that f satisfies the Lipschitz condition with respect
to the second variable, |f (x, y1 )f (x, y2 )| 6 |y1 y2 | for all (x, y1 ), (x, y2 )
U , and some > 0. Prove that for given y 0 , y1 R there exists > 0 such
that the equation y 00 (x) = f (x, y(x)) has a unique solution y : [x 0 , x0 +
] R satisfying y(x0 ) = y0 and y 0 (x0 ) = y1 .
Solution:
(a) Integrating y 00 (t) = f (t, y(t)) from x0 to s I we get
Z s
Z s
0
0
y (s) = y (x0 ) +
f (t, y(t))dt = y1 +
f (t, y(t))dt.
x0
x0
sf (s, y(s))dt
= y0 + (x x0 )y1 + x
= y0 + (x x0 )y1 +
x0
x
x0
f (t, y(t))dt
x0
x0
x0
sf (s, y(s))ds
x0
Rx
Conversely, differentiating y(x) = y 0 + (x x0 )y1 + x0 (x s)f (s, y(s))ds
R
x
we get y 0 (x) = y1 + x0 f (s, y(s))ds. Differentiating again y 00 (x) = f (x, y(x))
for x I.
(b) Fix y0 , y1 R and let J = [y0 b, y0 + b]. Let C = sup{|f (t, y)|| (t, y)
I J}. For y C([I, J) define
Z x
T y(x) = y0 + (x x0 )y1 +
(x s)f (s, y(s))ds.
x0
s)f
(s,
y(s))ds
(x
s)f
(s,
y(s))ds
2
1
x0
x0
Z x1
Z x2
Z x2
=
(x1 s)f (s, y(s))ds
(x1 s)f (s, y(s))ds +
(x2 x1 )f (s, y(s))ds
x
x0
x0
Z x2
Z x01
|f (s, y(s))|ds
|x1 s| |f (s, y(s))|ds + |x2 x1 |
6
x0
x2
6 |x x0 ||y1 | + |x x0 |2 C 6 |y1 | + 2 C
with respect to d(f, g) = sup{|f (t) g(t)||t I}. Indeed, if z 1 , z2 C(I, J),
then
Z x
Z x
|T z1 (x) T z2 (x)| = (x s)f (s, z1 (s))ds
(x s)f (s, z2 (s))ds
x0
Zx0x
= (x s) f (s, z1 (s)) f (s, z2 (s)) ds
x
Z x0
|x s| |f (s, z1 (s)) f (s, z2 (s))|ds
6
x0
Z x
6
|x s| |y1 (s) z2 (s)|ds
x0
Z x
6 d(z1 , z2 )
|x s|ds
x0
6 |x x0 | d(z1 , z2 ) 6 2 d(z1 , z2 )
5. Let A be a dense subset of a metric space (X, d), and let (Y, ) be complete. Consider a uniformly continuous function f : A Y . Show that
there exists a unique uniformly continuous function F : X Y such that
F (x) = f (x) for all x A.
Solution:
Let x X. Then there exists {xn } A such that d(xn , x) 0. Hence
{xn } is Cauchy in (A, d). Since f : A Y is uniformly continuous, {f (x n )}
is Cauchy in (Y, ). Since (Y, ) is complete. there exists y Y such that
f (xn ) y. Set F (x) = y. We have to show that this definition is independent of the choice of a sequence {xn }. If {x0n } A is another sequence such
that d(xn , y) 0. Then d(xn , x0n ) 0 and since f is uniformly continuous
(f (xn ), f (x0n )) 0. Since (f (xn ), y) 0, (f (x0n ), y) 0. Observe that
if x A, then F (x) = f (x) since a constant sequence {x, x, x, . . .} converges
to x. Let > 0 Since f is uniformly continuous, there is > 0 such that
(2)
Take arbitrary x, y X such that d(x, y) < /2. There are sequence
{xn }, {yn } A such that d(xn , x) 0 and d(yn , y) 0. Hence there
is k N such that d(xn , x) < /4 and d(yn , y) < /4 for all n k. So
d(xn , yn ) 6 d(xn , x) + d(x, y) + d(y, yn ) < /4 + /2 + /4 =
for n N .
Since f (xn ) F (x) and f (yn ) F (y) in (Y, ), there exists m N such
that
(4)
for all x, y satisfying d(x, y) < /2. To see that there is exactly one extension
of f , assume that F, G : X Y are uniformly continuous and F (x) =
f (x) = G(x) for all x A. Let x X. Then there exists {x n } A such that
d(xn , x) 0. Hence F (xn ) F (x) and G(xn ) G(x) in (Y, ) since F, G
are uniformly continuous (for this you only need that they are continuous).
But F (xn ) = f (xn ) = G(xn ). So f (xn ) F (x) and f (xn ) G(x) imply
that F (x) = G(x).
1.
Show that if (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) are compact metric spaces, then the product metric space (X Y, d) is compact. (Here d is the product metric).
Solution:
Let {xn , yn } X be any sequence in X Y . Since (X, d X ) is compact,
there exists a subsequence {xnk } converging to some point x in (X, dX ).
Since (Y, dY ) is compact, then a sequence {ynk } has a subsequence {ynkl }
{ynk } converging to some point y Y . Then a subsequence {(x nkl , ynkl )}
of {(xn , yn )} converges to (x, y) in the product metric d. Hence (X Y, d)
is compact.
2.
Show that if A1 , . . . ,Ak are compact subsets of a metric space (X, d), then
Sk
i=1 Ai is compact.
Solution: S
Let {xn } ki=1 Ai . Then one of the sets contains xn for infinitely many n.
Say {xnk } Ai . Since Ai is compact, {xnk } has a converging subsequence,
S
S
say {xnkl } converges to x Ai ki=1 Ai . Consequently, ki=1 Ai is compact.
3.
Which of the following subsets of R and R 2 are compact? (R and R2 are
considered with the usual metrics).
(a) A = Q [0, 1]
(b) B = {(x, y) R2 |x2 + y 2 = 1}
(c) C = {(x, y) R2 |x2 + y 2 < 1}}
(d) D = {x||x| + |y| 6 1}
(e) E = {x|x 1 and 0 6 y 6 1/x}
Solution:
(a) Q [0, 1] is not closed, and hence not compact
(b) B is closed and bounded in R2 , therefore compact
(c) C is open so not compact
(d) D is closed and bounded, therefore compact
(e) E is not bounded, therefore not compact.
4.
Consider (Q, d) where d is the usual metric. Give an example of a set in this
metric space that is closed and bounded but is not compact.
Solution:
Take, for example, A = Q [0, 1]. Since [0, 1] is closed in R with the usual
metric, A is closed. It is also bounded. However, A is not compact. Indeed,
for any irrational number there is a sequence of rational numbers converging
to it. So take an irrational number x [0, 1] and let {x n } be a sequence of
1
rational numbers in [0, 1] such that d(x n , x) 0. However, {xn } does not
converge in (Q, d) and so A is not compact.
5.
Let A be a non-empty compact subset of a metric space (X, d).
(a) Let x X. Show that d(x, A) = d(x, a) for some a A.
(b) Let U X be open and A U .
Show that there exists > 0 such that S = {x X|d(x, A) < } U . Does
this hold if A is only closed but not compact?
Soluton:
Clearly, d(x, A) 6 d(x, a) for all a A since, by definition, d(x, A) =
inf{d(x, y)| y A}. Conversely, for every n N, there exists a n A
such that d(x, an ) 6 d(x, A) + 1/n since otherwise d(x, A) + 1/n is a lower
bound of {d(x, a)| a A}. Since A is compact, there exists a subsequence
{ank } and a A such that d(ank , a) 0. So
d(x, a) 6 d(x, ank ) + d(ank , a) 6 d(x, A) + 1/nk + d(ank , a).
Taking a limit k , we get d(x, a) 6 d(x, A) since 1/n k and d(ank , a) .
Arguing by contradiction assume that for every n there exists x n S such
d(xn , A) < 1/n but xn 6 U . In view of (a), there exists an A such that
d(xn , an ) = d(xn , A). Since A is compact, there exists a subsequence {a nk }
and a A such that d(ank , a) 0. Then
d(xnk , a) 6 d(xnk , ank ) + d(ank , a) < 1/nk + d(ank , a)
and since the left side converges to 0, the left side d(x nk , a) 0. Since
a A U and U is open, there exists > 0 such that B(a, r) U . Since
d(xnk , a) 0, there exists k such that xnk B(a, ) contradiction xn 6 U
for all n.
n
n
Take R with
S the usual metric and let A = N. Let U n = (n 1/2 , n + 1/2 )
and U = n1 Un . Then A is not compact in R since it is not bounded.
S
Then for any > 0, S = n1 (n , ). For given > 0 take k such that
1/2k < . Then k + 1/2k S since k + 1/2k (k , k + ). However,
k + 1/2k 6 Un for all n N , i.e., k + 1/2k 6 U .
6.
Show that if A is a totally bounded subset of a metric space (X, d), then
for every
> 0 there exists a finite subset {a 1 , . . . , an } of A such that
S
A ni=1 B(ai , ).
Solution:
Let > 0. Since A is totally bounded
S in X, there exists a finite number
of points x1 , . . . , xk such that A 16i6k B(xi , /2). For each 1 6 i 6
k, B(xi , /2) A is non-empty so let ai B(xi , ) A. We claim that
B(xi , /2) B(ai , ). Indeed, if y B(xi , /2), then
d(ai , y) 6 d(ai , xi ) + d(xi , y) < /2 + /2 = .
Hence
A
16i6n
as required.
B(xi , /2)
B(ai , )
16i6n
7.
Show that a metric space (X, d) is totally bounded if and only if every
sequence {xn } X contains a Cauchy subsequence.
Solution:
Assume that (X, d) is totally bounded. Let {x n } be any sequence in X.
Since (X, d) is totally bounded, X can be covered by finitely many balls One
of these balls, say B(y1 , 1), contains xn for infinitely many ns. . Choose
n1 N such that xn1 B(y1 , 1). Since X can be covered by finitely many
balls of radius 1/2, B(y1 , 1)B(y2 , 1/2) for some y2 contains xn for infinitely
many ns. Choose n2 > n1 such that xn2 B(y1 , 1)B(y2 , 1/2). Proceeding
in this way we find a sequence {nk } of positive integers such that nk+1 > nk
for all k, a sequence of balls B(yk , 1/2k ), and a subsequence {xnk } satisfying
xnk B(y1 , 1) B(yk , 1/2k ). We claim that {xnk } is Cauchy. First
note that d(xnk , xnk+1 ) 6 d(xnk+1 , yk ) + d(yk , xnk ) < 1/2k + 1/2k = 1/2k1
since xnk+1 B(y1 , 1) B(yk , 1/2k ) B(yk+1 , 1/2k+1 ) B(y1 , 1)
B(yk , 1/2k ). For l > k,
d(xnk , xnl ) 6 d(xnk , xnk+1 ) + d(xnk+1 , xnk+2 ) + + d(xnl1 , xnl )
<
2i = 1/2k2 .
i=k1
Take > 0 and choose N N such that 1/2 N 2 < . Then for l, k 6 N ,
d(xnk , xnl ) 6 1/2N 2 < .
Consequently, {xn } has a Cauchy subsequence. Conversely, arguing by contradiction assume that (X, d) is not totally bounded, there is such that X
is not equal to a finite union of balls of radius . Take any point x X and
call it x1 . Then there exists a point x2 6 B(x1 , ). So d(x2 , x1 ) .
Since X 6= B(x1 , ) B(x2 , ), there exists x3 6 B(x1 , ) B(x2 , ).
That is d(x3 , x1 ) and d(x3 , x2 ) . Continuing this way we find
a sequence {xn } such that xn+1 6 B(x1 , ) B(xn , ). That is,
d(xn+1 , x1 ) , . . . , d(xn+1 , xn ) . The sequence {xn } has the property that d(xm , xn ) for all n 6= m, so it does not contain a Cauchy
subsequence.
8.
Let X be a compact metric space and let U be an open cover of X. Show
that there exists a number r > 0 with the property: For every x X, there
exists U U such that B(x, r) U . The number r is called a Lebesgues
number of the cover U.
Solution:
Since U is an open cover of X, for every x X, there is U U such that
x U and since U is open, there exists r x > 0 such that B(x, 2rx ) U . The
collection of balls {B(x, rx )}xX is a cover of X. Since (X, d) is compact,
there are x1 , . . . , xk such that
Take
1.
Show that (X, T ) is a topological space.
(a) Let X be infinite set. Let
T = {A X| A = or A = X or X \ A is finite}.
Solution:
S
(a) Let {Ai } T . We will show
S that TiI Ai T . We may assume that
Ai 6= RTand Ai 6= . Then X \ iI Ai = iI [X \Ai ] X \Ak for
S any k I.
Hence iI [X \ Ai ] is empty T
or finite sinceSX \ Ai is finite. So iI Ai T .
If A1 , . . . , An T . Then X \ 16i6n Ai = 1i6i6n [X \ Ai ], and since a finite
T
T
union of finte sets is finite, X \ 16i6n Ai is finte. So 16i6n Ai T .
S
T
(b) Let {Ai } TS. Then X \ iI Ai = iI [X \ Ai ] X \ Ak for any
k I.The set X \ iI Ai is countable
as a subset
S of a countable set X \ A k .
T
If A1 , . . . , An T . Then X \ 16i6n Ai = 1i6i6n [X \ Ai ], and since a
T
finite union of countable sets is countable, X \ 16i6n Ai is counatble and
T
so 16i6n Ai T .
(c) Let {Ai }iI where Ai =S
(ai , ) with ai R. If the set {ai |i I} is not
bounded
from
below,
then
iI Ai = R; if it is not bounded from below,
S
then iI Ai = (a, ),
where
a = inf{ai | i I}. If Ai = (ai , ) with ai R
T
for 1 6 i 6 n, then 16i6n Ai = (a, ) T , where a = max{ai | 1 6 i 6 n}.
Hence (R, T ) is a topological space.
2.
Let B = {[a, b)| a, b R}. Show that B is a basis for a topology on R. This
topology, denoted Tl , is called the lower-limit topology on R. Show that
the lower-limit topology is larger than the usual topology on R . Find the
closures of [a, b), (a, b), (a, b] and [a, b] in (R, T l ).
Solution:
(a) If x R, then x [x, x + 1) B. Let x [a 1 , b1 ) [a2 , b2 ). Then
x [a, b), where a = max{a1 , a1 } and b = min{b1 , b2 }. So B is a basis
for a topology on R. Next we will show that T T l but T 6= Tl , where
T is the usual topology on R.
S Consider (a, b). Then there is N such that
a + 1/N < b, and (a, b) = nN [a + 1/n, b) Tl . Consider [a, b) Tl .
The point a is not an interior point of [a, b) since (c, d) [a, b) c 6= for any
(c, d) T containing a. So [a, b) 6 T , and T l 6= T .
1
S
[a, b) = [a, b) since [a, b) is closed. Indeed, (, a) = n1 [n, a) is open
since it is a union open sets, and similarly, [b, ) is open since [b, ) =
S
c
n1 [b, n). So, [a, b) closed since [a, b) = (, a) [b, ) is open.
(a, b) = [a, b) since a is a boundary point of (a, b), and [a, b) is closed since the
complement [a, b)c is open as a union of open sets, [a, b) c = (a) [b, ).
(a, b] = [a, b]. Indeed, (a, b) is the interior of (a, b] and a, b are the only
boundary points of (a, b] so that ov(a, b] = (a, b] (a, b] = {a, b} (a, b) =
[a, b].
[a, b] = [a, b], since [a, b] is closed in view of (a, b] = [a, b] and the general
fact that the closure of a set is closed.
3.
Let T = {A R| 0 6 A or A = R}. Show that T is a topology on R. What
are the closed sets in (R, T )? What is {1}? Is this topology Hausdorff?
Solution:
Clearly, and R T . Let {Ai }iI T . If one of the sets Ai = R, then
the union is S
equal to R. If not of them
S is equal to R, then 0 6 A i for all i
so that 0 6 iI Ai . In either
case,
iI Ai T . If A1 , . . . , An T , and
T
0 6 Ai forTsome k, then 0 6 iI Ai . If 0 Ai for all i, then Ai = R for all
i, and so iI Ai = R. Hence T is a topology on R. Closed sets in (R, T )
are complements of open sets. So and all sets C R such that 0 C are
closed. The closure of {1} is the smallest closed set containing {1}. Since
any non-empty closed set has to contain 0, {1} = {0, 1}.
The topology T is not Hausdorff since if x = 0, then the only open set
containing x is R, and for any open set A containing y 6= 0, R A = A 6= .
4.
Let A, B be a subsets of a topological space (X.T ). Show that A B AB
and A B = A B.
Solution:
Since A A, X \ A X \ A . Hence, X \ A X \ A = X \ A since
X \ A is closed (A is open). Conversely, let B be any closed set containing
X \ A. Then X \ B is open and X \ B A. Hence X \ B A since A is
the largest open set contained in A. Then, taking compliments, X \ A B.
Since this holds for any closed set containing X \A, we have X \A X \ A.
6.
Prove the following statements about continuous functions and discrete and
indiscrete topological spaces.
(a) If X is discrete, then every function f : X Y , where Y is any topological spaces, is continuous.
(b) If X is not discrete, then there exists a topological space Y and a function f : X Y that is not continuous.
(c) If Y is an indiscrete topological space, then every function f : X Y ,
where X is any topological space, is continuous.
(d) If Y is not indiscrete, then there exists a topological sapce X and a
function f : X Y that is not continuous. mbox
Solution:
(a) For any set A Y , f 1 (A) is open in discrete topology. So f is continuous.
(b) Take Y to be the set X with the discrete topology. Then any subset A
of Y is open. Take f : X Y to be the identity map, that is, f (x) = x for
all x X. Since X is not discrete, there is a set A X which is not open.
However, A is open in Y and f 1 (A) = A. So f is not continuous.
(c) There are only two open sets in Y , namely, and Y . Clearly, f 1 () = ,
and f 1 (Y ) = X. So f is continous.
(d) Since Y is indiscrete, there is a subset A different than and Y which
is open in Y . Take X to be the set Y with the indiscrete topology, and let
f : X Y be the identity map. Than f 1 (A) = A is not open so that f is
not continuous.
7
Let X be infinite set and let T be a co-finite topology on X. Show that any
continuous function f : X R is constant. (R is equipped with the usual
metric topology).
Solution:
Let f : X R be continuous. Arguing by contradiction assume that f
is not constant. So there are a, b f (X) so that a 6= b. There is also
r > 0 such that open intervals I = (a r, a + r) and J = (b r, b + r).
Since f is continuous and I, J are open then, f 1 (I), f 1 (J) are open sets
in (X, T ). The set f 1 (J) is open in (X, T ). So R \ f 1 (J) is finite and
f 1 (J) is infinite since X is infinite. Similarly, f 1 (I) is open which means
that X \ f 1 (I) is finite. However, since J I = , J R \ I so that
f 1 (J) f 1 (R \ I) = R \ f 1 (I) which says that an infinite set is contained in a finite set, contradiction.
8.
Let X and Y be topological spaces and let B be a base of open sets for Y .
Show that a function f : X Y is continuous if and only if f 1 (U ) is open
in X for every U B.
Solution:
Assume that f : X Y is continuous. Let U B. Then U is open in Y
and so, f 1 (U ) is open in X. Conversely, suppose that f 1
S (U ) is open in
X for every U B. Take an open set W Y . Then W = xW Ux , where
S
S
Ux B. Then f 1 (W ) = f 1 ( xW Ux ) = xW f 1 (Ux ). By assumption,
S
f 1 (Ux ) is open in X, so xW f 1 (Ux ) is open in X, and f 1 (W ) is open
in X. Hence f is continuous.
9.
(a) Show that (a, b) is homeomorphic to (c, d), (c, ) and R. (All spaces
are equipped with the usual topology).
(b) Show that R2 \ {(0, 0)} is homeomorphic to R2 \ B((0, 0), 1).
Solution:
dc
(x a) + c. Then f : (a, b) (c, d) is a bijection. f
(a) Take f (x) =
ba
ba
and its inverse f 1 (x) =
(x c) + a are continuous.
dc
Note that g defined by g(x) = 1/x 1 is a homeomorphism from (1, 0)
onto (0, ). By previous part there is a homeomorphism from (a, b) to
1
(x a). Then g f : (a, b) (0, ) is
(1, 0), for example take f (x) =
ba
a homeomorphism. Finally, Take h(x) = gf (x)+c. Then h : (a, b) (c, )
is a homeomorphism.
The map g(x) = tan x is a homeomorphism from (/2, /2) onto R.
a
a
Hence f
: R
2 \ {(0, 0)} R2 \ B((0, 1), 1). For b = (x, y) R2 \ B((0, 0), 1),
b
1
let a =
b
b. Then a 6= (0, 0), and f (a) = b. Hence f is onto. If
f (a) = f (b), then
f (a)
= 1 +
a
= 1 +
b
=
f (b)
.
Hence
a
=
b
, and since f (a) = f (b), we get that a = b. So f is
one-one. Consequently,
f is a bijection. The inverse f 1 of f is given by
b
1
1 are continuous, f is a homeomor
f 1 (b) =
b
b. Since f and f
phism.
10.
A topological property is a property that, if possessed by a topological
space X, is also possessed by any topological space homeomorphic to X.
(a) Show that if f : X Y is a homeomorphism, then f (U ) is open in Y
for any open set U X.
(a) Show that Hausdorff is a topological property.
(b) Is completeness a topological property of metric spaces?
Solution:
(a) Since f : X Y is a homeomorphism, f 1 : Y X is continuous. Hence for any open set U X, (f 1 )1 (U ) is open in Y . But
(f 1 )1 (U ) = f (U ), so f (U ) is open.
(b) Let f : X Y be a homeomorphism and let X be Hausdorff. Take
any two points a, b Y . Since f is a bijection, there are x, y X such that
x 6= y and f (x) = a and f (y) = b. Since X is Hausdorff, there are open sets
U and V X such that x U and y V and U V = . By (a), f (U ) and
f (V ) are open in Y . Moreover, a f (U ), b f (V ), and f (U ) f (V ) =
since if c f (U ) f (V ), then, in view that f is one-one, there is x U V
such that c = f (x). But this contradicts the fact that U V = .
(c) Let d be the standard metric d(x, y) = |x y| , x, y R. The map
f (x) = arctan x, x R is a bijection of R onto (/2, /2). Moreover,
f ; (R, d) ((/2, /2), d) and the inverse map f 1 : ((/2, /2) d)
(R, d), f 1 (x) = tan x, are continuous. So (/2, /2) d) and (R, d) are
homeomorphic. However, (R, d) is complete and ((/2, /2), d) is not complete since (/2, /2) is not closed in (R, d).
1.
Let (X, T ) be a compact topological space and let A, B are closed subsets
of (X, T ). Show that A B is compact.
Solution:
S
S
Let {Ui }iI be an open cover of A B. Then A iI Ui and B iI Ui .
Since
A and B are
S
S compact, there are finite sets J, K J such
S that A
iJ Ui and B
iI Ui . Then J K is finite and A B
iJK Ui . So
A B is compact.
2.
Let X = (0, 1) and let
T = {A R| A = or R \ A is countable}.
Solution:
The set [0, 1] is not compact in this topology. For example take the following
open cover. Let UnS= R \ {1/k|
S k n}. Then R \ Un = {1/k| k n} so
that Un T , and n1 Un = n1 [R \ {1/k| k n}] = R. So {Un }nN
is an open cover of [0, 1]. If [0, 1] were compact in (R, T , then [0, 1]
U1 U2 UN for some N > 1. However, U1 UN = R\{1/k|k N }
and [0, 1] 6 R \ {1/k| k N }, contradiction.
We claim that the only compact subsets of (R, T ) are finite sets. Clearly, if
F R is finite, then it is compact. Conversely, let A be any inifite subset
of R. Hence it contains a sequence {a n } such that an 6= am for all n 6= m.
Let xn = a2n , and let Un = R \ {xk | : k n}. Then R \ UnS= {xk | : k n}
is countable and so Un is open in this topology. Moreover, n1 Un = R, so
S
A n1 Un . If A were compact, then A U1 UN for some N > 1.
Since U1 UN = R \ {xk |k N }, x1 , x2 , . . . , xN 1 A but not in
U1 UN . Hence A is not compact in this topology. Consequently, A is
compact in (R, T ) if and only if A is finite.
1
4.
Consider (R, M), where M is the usual metric topology in R. Let
T = {A R| A = or R \ A is compact in (R, M)}.
(a) Show that T is a topology on R.
(b) Show that (R, T ) is compact but not Hausdorff.
Solution
(a) Clearly, and R T . Let {Ui }iI be any subcollection
of T
T . We may
S
assume that Ui 6= and Ui 6= R for all T
i. Then R \ iI Ui = iI [R \ Ui ]
with R \ Ui compact for all i. The set iI [R \ Ui ] is closed since it is the
intersection
of closed sets and it is bounded. T
So it is compact,
implying that
S
Tn
n
iI Ui T . If U1 , . . . Un are in T , then R \ i=1 Ui =
i=1 [R \ Ui ] is closed
and bounded since the
finite
union
of
closed
and
bounded
T sets is closed and
T
bounded. Thus, R \ ni=1 Ui is compact implying that ni=1 Ui T .
(b) Suppose not. Then there is an open cover {U i }iI of R without a finite
subcover. We may assume that Ui s are non-empty and not equal to R. Set
C
Tn = R \ Ui . Then each Ci is compact in
T R and forSevery finite set F I,
iF Ci 6= since otherewise R = R \
iF Ci =
iF Ui , contradiction.
Fix k I and consider collection of non-empty sets C k Ci , i I. Each
of this sets is closed in Ck and by above the family
{Ck Ci }iI has a fiT
nite
intersection
property.
Since
C
is
closed,
(C
k
iIS k Ci ) = .SHence
T
T
iI Ui ,
iI [R \ Ci ] =
iI Ci 6= . But this mean that R 6= R \ iI Ci =
contradicting the fact that {Ui }iI covers R.
Let x, y be distinct points of R. Suppose that U, V T are such that x U ,
y V and U V = . Then R = R \ (V V ) = [R \ U ] [R \ V ]. The sets
R \ U , R \ V are compact, so they are bounded, and their union is bounded
contradicting that R is unbounded.
5.
Let A be closed and let B be compact in (X, T ). Show that AB is compact.
Solution:
Let {Ui }iI be an open cover of A B. The set U = X \ A is open and the
sets {U } {Ui }iI form an open cover of B since B (X \ A) (A B).
Since B is compact, there are Ui1 , . . . , Uin such that B U Ui1 Uin .
Since U = X \ A, it does not contain points of A B and since A B B,
A B Ui1 Uin . Hence A B is compact.
6
Let (X, T ) be compact and let f : X R be a continuous function. Show
that f is bounded, that is, there is M > 0 such that |f (x)| 6 M for all
x X. Show that f attains its maximum and its minimum value.
Solution:
Since f is continuous, for every x X there exists an open set U x X
such that |f (y) f (x)| < 1 for all y U x . Clearly, {Ux }xX forms an
open cover of X. Hence X = Ux1 Uxn since (X, T ) is compact. Let
M = max{|f (x1 )|, . . . , |f (xn )|} + 1. If x X, then x Uxi for some xi , and
Solution:
(a) Let x, y X. Since (X, T ) is Hausdorff, then there are U, V T
such that x U, y V and U, V are disjoint. Since T T 0 , U, V T 0
and so (X, T 0 ) is Hausdorff. Let f be the identity map, that is, f (x) = x
for all x. Then f : (X, T 0 ) (X, T ) is a bijection and continuous since
T T 0 . If (X, T 0 ) is compact, then f is a homeomorphism. Hence the map
f 1 : (X, T (X, T 0 ) is continuous. The inverse f 1 is the identity map,
f 1 (x) = x, x X. But the continuity of the identity map from (X, T to
(X, T 0 ) means that T 0 T . This together with the assumption T T 0
gives T = T 0 , contradiction with T 6= T 0 . So (X, T 0 ) is not compact.
(b) Let f : (X, T ) (X, T 0 ) be the identity map. Since T 0 T , f is
continuous. By the assumption (X, T ) is compact, so f (X) is compact in
(X, T 0 ). But f (X) = X. So (X, T 0 ) is compact. If (X, T 0 ) is Hausdorff,
then f is a homeomorphism since (X, T ) is compact and f is a bijection
and is continuous. So the inverse f 1 : (X, T 0 ) (X, T ) is continuous.
The inverse f 1 is the identity map, f 1 (x) = x for all x. The continuity
of the identity map from (X, T 0 ) to (X, T ) means that (X, T ) (X, T 0 ).
This together with (X, T 0 ) (X, T ) gives (X, T 0 ) = (X, T ), contradiction.
Hence (X, T 0 ) is not Hausdorff.
9.
Let X be infinite set with the co-finite topology T . Show that (X, T ) is
connected.
Solution:
Suppose that X = U V for some disjoint open sets U, V T . If U 6= and
U 6= X, then X \ U is finite. So V = X \ U 6= is finite, and so, V 6 T . So
either U = (and then V = X) or U = (and then V = ). Hence (X, T )
is connected.
10.
Is the topological space (R, T ) from Problem 4 connected?
Solution:
Suppose that R = U V for some non-empty disjoint open sets U, V T .
Then R \ U and R \ V are compact in (R, M). In particular, R \ U and R \ V
are bounded. Since R = U V and U V = , U = R \ V and V = R \ U .
Thus, U and V are bounded, and their union is also bounded, contradicting
that R is unbounded.
1.
Show that if A is a connected subspace of a topological space (X, T ) and if
A B A, then B is connected.
Solution:
Let f : B {0, 1} be any continuous function. We will show that f is constant. Assume not. Then f (B) = {0, 1}. Let g = f | A : A {0, 1}. Then g
is continuous and since g is constant, say g(A) = {0}, i.e., f (A) = {0}. Since
f (B) = {0, 1}, there is x B such that f (x) = 1. Since f is continuous and
{1} is open in {0, 1} (with the discrete topology). f 1 ({1}) = U is open in
B. Since x U and x B A, U A 6= . Take any y U A, then
on one hand f (y) = 0 (since y A) and on the other hand f (y) = 1 (since
y U ), contradiction.
2.
If A and B are connected subsets of a topological space (X, T ) such that
A B 6= , then A B is connected.
Solution:
Let x A B. Say Y = A B is disconnected. Then there exists a continuous surjection, f : Y {0, 1}, where {0, 1} is considered with discrete
topology. Since A is connected, so f (A) ( {0, 1}. Say f (A) = {0}. Further, f (B) ( {0, 1} since B is connected and so f (B) = {1} since otherwise
f (A B) = {0} contradictiong that f is a surjection. But, f is continuous;
in particular, f 1 ({1} is open in A B since {1} is open in {0, 1} ({0, 1} is
equipped with the discrete topology). Set U = f 1 ({1}. Then x U since
x B. Since also x A, then U A 6= . If y U A, then f (y) = 0 since
f (A) = {0}. But this contradicts that f is equal to 1 on U . Hence f cannot
be surjection, and so, Y is connected.
3.
Let {An } be a sequence of connected subsets of a topological
space (X, T )
S
such that An An+1 6= for all n N. Prove that nN An is connected.
Solution:
S
Let Y = nN An be disconnected. Then there exists f : Y {0, 1} where f
is a continuous surjection and {0, 1} is considered with the discrete topology.
Hence there are x, y Y such that f (x) = 0 and f (y) = 1. Since each A k
is connected and f |Ak : Ak {0, 1} is continuous, f (Ak ) is equal either {0}
or {1}. Since f is a surjection, there are n 6= m such that f ({A n ) = {0} and
f (Am ) = {1}. We may assume that n < m. We have f (A n ) = {0} and since
An An+1 6= , f (An+1 ) = {0}, then f (An+2 ) = {0} since An+1 An+2 6= ,
and so forth. So f (Am ) = {0}, contradicting f (Am ) = {1}.
4.
Let (X, d) be a metric space. Call a function f : X R locally constant if
for every x there exists r > 0 such that f | B(x,r) : B(x, r) R is constant.
1
Show that if (X, d) is connected, then every locally constant function is constant.
Solution: Fix x0 X and let f (x0 ) = a. Consider U = {x X | f (x) = a}.
Then U is nonempty since x0 U , and is open and closed since f is locally
constant. Indeed, if x U , then there is a ball B(x, r) on which f is constant, that is, for any y B(x, r), f (y) = f (x) = a. So B(x, r) U and
U is open. To see that U is closed, let x X \ U . Then f (x) 6= a and f
is constant on some ball B(x, r). So for any y B(x, r), f (y) 6= a since
f (y) = f (x) 6= a. This means that B(x, r) X \ U , Thus X \ U is open and
U is closed. Since X is connected, U = X.
5.
A metric space (X, dX ) is called a chain connected if for every pair x, y
of points in X and every > 0, there are finitely many points x = x 0 , x1 ,
x2 , . . . xn = y such that dX (xi+1 , xi ) < for i = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Prove that
a compact, chain connected metric space is connected.
Solution:
Assume not. So, there is a continuous surjective function f : X {0, 1}.
We consider {0, 1} with the discrete metric d. Since (X, d X ) is compact,
then f is uniformly continuous. Let 0 < < 1, there is > 0 such that if
dX (x, y) < , then d(f (x), f (y)) < . Since f is a surjection, there are x and
y such that f (x) = 0 and f (x) = 1. Since X is chain connected, there is a
finite set of points x0 = x, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = y such that dX (xi , xi+1 ) <
for all 0 6 i 6 n 1. Thus, d(f (xi , xi+1 ) < for 0 6 i 6 n 1. Since d
is the discrete metric, f (xi ) = f (xi+1 ) for all 0 6 i 6 n 1. This mean
that f (x) = f (x0 ) = f (x1 ) = = f (xn1 ) = f (xn ) = f (y), contradicting
f (x) = 0 and f (y) = 1. So, X is connected.
6.
A point p X is called a cut point if X \ {p} is disconnected. Show that
the property of having a cut point is a topological property.
Solution:
Let X be a topological space with a cut point, say p X, and let f : X Y
be a homeomorphism. We claim that f (p) is a cut point of Y . Since X \ {p}
is disconnected, there are two disjoint sets U and V such that U and V are
open in X \ {p}, U V = X \ {p}. Then g = f | X\{p} : X \ {p} Y \ {f (p)}
is a homeomorphism, and so g(U ) and g(V ) are open in Y \ {f (p)}. Since
g(U ) g(U ) = , and Y \ {f (p)} = g(U ) g(V ). Hence Y \ {f (p)} is disconnected, and f (p) is a cut point of Y .
7.
Show that no two of the intervals (a, b), (a, b], and [a, b] are homeomorphic.
Solution:
Consider, (a, b) and (a, b]. Assume that f : (a, b] (a, b) is a homeomorphism. Let c = f (b). Then c is a cut-point of (a, b). So by the previous
problem, f 1 (c) = b is a cut point of (a, b], that is (a, b] \ {b} = (a, b) is
disconnected, contradiction.
The proofs for (a, b) and [a, b] is similar.
Consider (a, b] and [a, b]. Assume that f : [a, b] (a, b] is a homeomorphism. Since f is one-one, one of the points f (a), f (b) belongs to (a, b).
Say f (a) (a, b). Then f (a) is a cut point of (a, b) and so f 1 (f (a)) is a
cut point of [a, b]. But [a, b] \ {f 1 (f (a))} = [a, b] \ {a} = (a, b] which is
connected, contradiction. Hence (a, b], and [a, b] are not homeomorphic.
8.
Show that R and R2 are not homeomorphic (R and R2 are equipped with
the usual topologies) .
Solution:
First notice that R2 \{a} is connected since any two points x, y R 2 \{a} can
be joint by a continuous path. So R2 \ {a} is connected. Assume now that
R and R2 are homeomorphic. Then there is a homeomorphism f : R 2 R.
Denote x = f (0). The map g = f |R2 \{0} : R2 \ {0} R \ {x} is a homeomorphism. Since, by above, R2 \ {0} is connected, f (R2 \ {0}) = R \ {x} is
connected, contradiction.
9.
Let A be countable set. Show that R2 \ A is path connected.
Solution:
Let x, y R2 so that x 6= y. Since A is countable and there uncountably
many lines passing through x, there are uncountably many lines passing
hrough x and containing no point of A. Take one of such lines, say L.
Then L X \ A. If y L, then (t) = (1 t)x + ty L for t [0, 1],
(0) = x, (1) = y, so that x and y get be joint by a continuous path in
R2 \ A. Assume now that y 6 A. There are uncountably many lines through
y which dont intersect A and are not parallel to L. Pick one of them, say
K. Then y K, K R2 \ A, and K intersects L at a point z. Now let
(t) = (1t)x+tz, (t) = (1t)z+ty for t [0, 1]. Then (t), (t) R 2 \A,
(0) = x, (1) = z, (0) = z, and (1) = y. Finally, define
(
(2t)
0 6 t 6 1/2,
(t) =
(2t 1) 1/2 6 t 6 1.
Then is a continuous path in R2 \ A joining x with y.
10.
Show that if A is an open connected subset of R n , then A is path connected.
Solution:
Fix a point x0 A and let U be the collection of all x A such that there
is a path : [0, 1] A from x0 to x, that is (0) = x0 and (1) = x. The
set U is not empty since x0 U , and we claim that U is open. Indeed, let
x U . Since A is open, there is a ball B(x, r) such that B(x, r) A. We
will show that B(x, r) U . Take y B(x, r). Then there is a continuous
path (t) = (1 t)x + ty B(x, r), 0 6 t 6 1, joining x with y. Since there