Industrial Chemistry

1. Industrial chemistry processes have enabled scientists to develop replacements

for natural products.

Point 1.1 Discuss the issues associated with shrinking world resources with
regard to one identified natural product that is not a fossil fuel, identifying
the replacement materials used and/or current research in place to find a
replacement for the named material.
AND

Point 1.2 - Identify data, gather and process information to identify and
discuss the issues associated with the increased need for a natural resource
that is not a fossil fuel and evaluate the progress currently being made to
solve the problems identified.
The worlds natural resources are decreasing in supply due to the
overwhelming demand from the rapidly increasing worlds population. Through
history, natural resources such as wool, cotton were extensively used in the
Industrial Revolution. Since then there has been huge demand for other
resources such as (e.g. sperm whale oil, ivory, nitrate deposits etc.) for a
variety of applications. Thus because these natural resources are running out,
there is an increasing need to find replacement materials which can be used in
the same applications as its natural counterpart.
Wood is a natural product which is very important and heavily used in society.
It is prevalent in our society with applications such as: furniture, paper,
bridges and railroad ties, fence posts and electrical poles and textile fabrics.
Although wood is a renewable resource, the huge demand for wood by society
has exceeded our forests ability to supply wood. Adding to the problem is the
rapid deforestation happening in countries such as Brazil where areas of trees
the size of a football field are being cleared every minute. In the world, there is
an average net destruction of 40 million acres of trees. Because of woods
wide acceptance in many applications, the demand for wood remains high.
Therefore alternatives need to be found else we risk losing this natural
resource altogether. Some problems of the huge demand for wood:
Deforestation thereby destroying natural habitats and severely
affecting organisms. Leads to erosion because when trees are clear-cut,
there are neither roots to hold the soil in place nor vegetation to
protect soil from hard rain.
Clearance of old growth forests exacerbates climate change problem as
this is responsible for 22% of the global carbon dioxide emissions.
Social problems taking over indigenous lands to obtain wood.
Progress 1: Alternative materials
Construction and building industries account for 25% of the worlds wood
harvest. Materials such as steel and concrete have potential to replace wood
mainly in building materials. Steel is a metal alloy which contains iron, carbon
and other elements including nickel and aluminium. This makes it stronger and
more durable than wood thus it can be used to make bridges and other
construction works. It also costs less and is easier to erect. Unlike timber, steel
is readily available and is one of the strongest construction materials
available.
Considerable potential also exists for replacing wood with non-fibre
alternatives such as straw in paper and Kenaf (an African fibrous plant) in
paper manufacture. Disadvantage is that it is expensive.

Industrial Chemistry
Progress 2: Replacing old-growth forests with plantations
Now new source of wood where 80% is used for furniture by industry. However
disadvantage is that plantations are not beneficial to wildlife and can change
the landscape + resource base for local inhabitants. When old-growth forests
are destroyed and replaced by plantations, leads to significance rise of CO 2 in
atmosphere. Thus its not really solving problem.
Progress 3: Recycling and reuse of wood products
Recycling allows maximum use of wood with minimum waste. However wood
fibres can only be recycled 5-7 times before the fibres become too weak to
use. An Australian company called Equinox has been looking into ways of
improved methods of recycling wood products efficiently and into useful
materials. Along with the CSIRO, Equinox has developed a way to combine
pulped waste paper and waste plastic. Thus not as many trees need to be cut
down for wood.
For current research and progress to be successful and on the right track,
there needs to be evidence of the community along with the government
actively seeking solutions which address the problems. By doing this the
impact on the environment needs to be minimal and there has to be evidence
of continuing research to find better alternatives to wood.
The current progress of solving problems posed by the huge demand of wood
has been excellent and successful. Scientists are continuously researching
various alternative materials which can be used as a replacement for wood
such as steel and Kenaf. Further research is needed to find even better
alternative materials which contain superior properties.

2. Many industrial processes involve manipulation of equilibrium reactions.

Point 2.1 - Explain the effect of changing the following factors on identified
equilibrium reactions: pressure, volume, concentration and temperature.
Lets consider the Haber process reaction: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
+ 92kJ

2NH3 (g)

Pressure:
We can see on the reactants side, there are 4 moles of gas. On the products
side, there are only 2 moles of gas. If increased pressure is added to the
reaction, then the equilibrium will shift to the right. This can be explained by
using Le Chateliers principle: If a change is imposed on a closed
equilibrium system, then the system will alter in a way to counteract
and minimise the added change. In this case, the increased pressure is
the change. Increasing pressure means that you are increasing the moles of
gas in a given volume. Thus the system wants to counteract this change by
reducing the number of moles of gas. Since there are less moles of gas on the
products side, the equilibrium shifts to the product side thus increasing
concentration of the product and decreasing concentration of the reactants.
However if pressure is reduced the equilibrium will shift to the left where there
are more moles of gas. It wants to counteract this change by increasing
pressure. This is predicted by Le Chateliers principle. Thus the concentrations
of the reactants increase and the concentration of the product decreases.

Industrial Chemistry
Volume:
Increasing volume is the same thing as decreasing pressure. If volume is
increased (pressure decreased), system wants to increase pressure thus
shifting equilibrium to the left where there are more moles of gas. Thus the
concentrations of the reactants increase and the concentration of the product
decreases.
If volume is decreased (pressure increased), system wants to decrease
pressure thus shifting equilibrium to the right where there are less moles of
gas. Thus the concentrations of the reactants decrease and the concentration
of the product increases.
Concentration:
If the concentration of one of the reactants is increased, system wants to
decrease its concentration so the equilibrium shifts to the right to use up the
reactant and produce more products. Thus the concentrations of reactants
decrease and the concentration of the product increases. If the concentration
of one of the reactants decreases, then the system wants to produce more of
the reactant thus the equilibrium shifts to the left reducing concentration of
the product and increasing concentration of the reactants.
However if the concentration of ammonia (product) is increased, the system
wants to decrease concentration of ammonia. Thus the equilibrium shifts to
the left to use up the ammonia. The concentration of ammonia decreases and
the concentration of the reactants increase. If concentration of product
decreases, system wants to increase concentration of product thus the
equilibrium shifts to the right increasing the concentration of the product and
decreasing the concentration of the reactants.
Temperature:
Since the reaction is exothermic, increasing temperature would cause
equilibrium to shift to the left where it can absorb the heat added. Thus the
concentration of the product decreases and the concentration of the reactants
increase. Decreasing temperature would cause the equilibrium to shift to the
right to release heat. Thus it favours exothermic reaction (forward reaction).
The concentration of the reactants would decrease and the concentration of
the product would increase.

Point 2.2 - Interpret the equilibrium constant expression (no units required)
from the chemical equation of equilibrium reactions.
The equilibrium constant (K) is the ratio of the product of the concentrations of
the products to the product of the concentrations of the reactants under a
constant temperature. In a certain reaction:

aA + bB

cC + dD

The equilibrium constant expression for the above general reaction will be:

[C]c x [D]d
[A]a x [B]b

Industrial Chemistry
Consider the Haber process reaction: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
+ 92kJ

2NH3

(g)

The equilibrium constant (K) expression for this reaction would be:

[NH3]2
[N2] x [H2]3
By looking at the equilibrium constant (K) of an equilibrium reaction, we can
determine the relative concentrations between the reactants and the
products. If K is large (e.g. >103) the equilibrium lies to the right so the
concentration of products is high and concentration of reactants is low. This
means the reaction goes almost to completion. If K is small (e.g. <10 3) the
equilibrium lies to the left so the concentration of reactants is high. This
means there is very little reaction.
We can also determine the relative strengths of acids using the equilibrium
constant (K). When most acids dissociate in water, they form an equilibrium
reaction. Consider the constant values for the following acids: HCl: 1.0 x 103
and acetic acid: 1.8 x 10-5.
The high equilibrium constant (K) for HCl suggests that when it dissociates in
water, the reaction goes almost to completion: HCl + H2O Cl- + H3O+.
Thus the concentrations of the products are high and the concentrations of
the reactants are low. Because of this we can conclude that nearly if not most
of the HCl molecules dissociate in water thus it is a strong acid.
However when we look at the equilibrium constant (K) for acetic acid, it is
really low. This suggests that only a very small % of its molecules dissociate in
the water. Thus the concentrations of the reactants are high and
concentrations of the products are low. Because most of the acetic acid
molecules stay intact, it is a weak acid.
Therefore the equilibrium constant (K) can tell us whether an acid is strong or
weak at a constant temperature.

Point 2.3 - Identify that temperature is the only factor that changes the value
of the equilibrium constant (K) for a given equation.
A change in concentration, pressure or catalyst does not affect the equilibrium
constant (K) of an equilibrium reaction. It is only the temperature which
affects the equilibrium constant. The value of the equilibrium constant (K)
depends on whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic.
Consider the following exothermic reaction: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
(g) + 92kJ

2NH3

If the temperature is increased in the above reaction then the equilibrium

constant (K) decreases. The system wants to counteract the rise in
temperature so it shifts equilibrium to the left to absorb the heat. Thus the
concentration of the reactants increase and the concentrations of the product
decrease. Because the equilibrium constant (K) is [products] / [reactants],
the equilibrium constant decreases when the temperature increases in an
exothermic reaction.
However If the temperature is decreased in the above reaction then the
equilibrium constant (K) increases. The system wants to counteract the fall in

Industrial Chemistry
temperature so it shifts equilibrium to the right to release heat. Thus the
concentration of the reactants decrease and the concentrations of the product
increase. Because the equilibrium constant (K) is [products] / [reactants],
the equilibrium constant increases when the temperature decreases in an
exothermic reaction.
Consider the following endothermic reaction: C (s) + H2O
(g) + H2 (g)

(l)

+ heat

CO

If the temperature is increased in the above reaction then the equilibrium

constant (K) increases. The system wants to counteract the rise in
temperature so it shifts equilibrium to the right to release heat. Thus the
concentration of the reactants decrease and the concentrations of the product
increase. Because the equilibrium constant (K) is [products] / [reactants],
the equilibrium constant increases when the temperature increases in an
endothermic reaction.
However if the temperature is decreased in the above reaction then the
equilibrium constant (K) decreases. The system wants to counteract the fall
in temperature so it shifts equilibrium to the left to absorb heat. Thus the
concentration of the reactants increase and the concentrations of the product
decrease. Because the equilibrium constant (K) is [products] / [reactants],
the equilibrium constant decreases when the temperature decreases in an
endothermic reaction.
Just as a general rule:

In exothermic reactions, the equilibrium constant (K) shares an inverse

relationship with temperature.
In endothermic reactions, the equilibrium constant (K) heads in the
same direction as the temperature.

Point 2.4 - Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to

model an equilibrium reaction.
We had 2 jars containing beads. One had red coloured beads (reactants) and
the other contained blue beads (products). One person removed a red bead
and put it into products jar to model the forward reaction. Another person
removed a blue bead out of the products jar and put it into the reactants jar to
model the reverse reaction. An excess of red beads was added (increase in
concentration) and there was a larger number of transferences of red beads
than blue beads as system wants to counteract change in concentration by
favouring products side. Eventually each person was transferring each
respective bead at the same speed and this represents that the system has
achieved equilibrium when the rates of forward and reverse reactions are
equal.
Advantages of models:

Gives a simple representation of a chemical theory or principle

Helps us to visualise ideas
Helps us to understand mechanisms of chemical reactions
Can be used to make further predictions

Disadvantages of models:

Models are just ideas and depend on how people interpret it.
Over simplifications to get ideas across
May be based on incorrect information

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Models are just assumptions and not fact

Point 2.5 - Choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to

gather information and qualitatively analyse an equilibrium reaction.
We utilised the following equilibrium reaction:

Fe3+ (aq) + SCN- (aq)

Yellow

FeSCN2+ (aq) + heat

colourless

deep red

Equipment:

0.1M iron (III) chloride

0.1M ammonium thiocyanate
0.5M iron (III) chloride
0.5M ammonium thiocyanate
0.5M sodium hydrogen phosphate
Distilled water
6 test tubes
100mL beaker

Method:
I. In the beaker, make up a solution by adding 4 drops of 0.1M iron (III)
chloride and 4 drops of 0.1M ammonium thiocyanate. Make the total
volume up to 50mL by adding distilled water. This is the equilibrium
mixture.
II. Divide 30mL of the solution into the 6 test tubes so that there is about
the same amount in each.
III. Add 3-4 drops of 0.5M iron (III) chloride into test tube 1. Observe any
changes.
IV. Add 3-4 drops of 0.5M ammonium thiocyanate into test tube 2. Observe
any changes.
V. Add 0.5M sodium hydrogen phosphate to test tube 3. Observe any
changes (phosphate ions react with Fe3+ ions to produce colourless ions).
VI. Add hot tap water into test tube 4. Observe any changes.
VII. Place test tube 5 in an ice bath and observe any changes.
VIII. Keep last test tube as a control to compare any changes.
IX. Repeat experiment 10 times for more reliable results.
Explanation of results:
o
o

o
o
o

When drops of 0.5M iron (III) chloride added to equilibrium mixture in test
tube 1, solution turned deep red as equilibrium shifts to the right to use
up the added iron (III) chloride (Le Chateliers principle).
When drops of 0.5M ammonium thiocyanate added to equilibrium
mixture in test tube 2, solution turned deep red as equilibrium shifts to
the right to use up the added ammonium thiocyanate (Le Chateliers
principle).
When drops of sodium hydrogen phosphate added to equilibrium mixture
in test tube 3, solution turned colourless as the phosphate ions react with
the Fe3+ ions to produce colourless Fe(PO4)22-.
When test tube 4 was heated, solution gradually turned a pale yellow
colour as equilibrium shifts to the left to absorb heat (Le Chateliers
principle).
When test tube 5 was cooled, solution gradually turned deep red as
equilibrium shifts to right to release heat (Le Chateliers principle).

Industrial Chemistry

Point 2.6 - Process and present information from secondary sources to

calculate K from equilibrium conditions.
As mentioned above the equilibrium constant (K) for equilibrium reaction is:

[Products] / [reactants]

Solution:

K = [HI] 2 / [H2] x [I2]

= [0.192] 2 / [0.0228] x [0.0284]
= 56.93

Question:
Find the equilibrium constant for the following reaction, carried out in a 3L
container at 250C.

PCl5 (g)

PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)

At equilibrium, the number of moles of each gas present was: 0.0070 moles
of PCl5 and 0.106 moles each of PCl3 and Cl2.
Solution:

K = [PCl3] x [Cl2] / [PCl5]

= [0.035] x [0.035] / 0.0023 (Divide every value by 3 as it is in 3L)
= 0.535

3. Sulfuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals.

Point 3.1 Outline three uses of sulfuric acid in industry.

Manufacture of fertiliser
Sulfuric acids major use is to make fertilisers such as superphosphate
and ammonium sulfate. Superphosphate is one of the most widely used

Industrial Chemistry
fertilisers in Australia. It is produced by reacting rock phosphate with
sulfuric acid and ammonium sulfate is formed by neutralising ammonia
with sulfuric acid shown in the equation below:

2NH3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) (NH4)2SO4 (aq)

Manufacture of detergents
Sulfuric acid is also used to produce anionic detergents. Concentrated
sulfuric acid is reacted with an alkylbenzene to produce the functional
group alkylbenzene sulfonate which has a SO3- group attached to an
alkylbenzene molecule.

Anionic detergents are used in a variety of purposes including laundry

detergents and dishwashing liquids.
Pickling of iron and steel
Usually on steel or iron, there is an iron oxide layer which coats the
substance. Thus to remove this corrosion iron oxide layer, it is pickled by
sulfuric acid. This is essential before the iron or steel is galvanised or
electroplated.

Point 3.2 Describe the processes used to extract sulfur from mineral
deposits, identifying the properties of sulfur which allow its extraction and
analysing potential environmental issues that may be associated with its
extraction.
Sulfur is an element which can be found naturally in the Earths crust. Thus in
order to obtain sulfur for production of sulfuric acid, the Frasch Process is
often used. It is described below.

The 1st step in the Frasch process is to pump superheated steam at about
160C into the outside pipeline shown above. This high temperature causes the
sulfur in the rock deposits to melt because sulfur has a low melting point
(112C).

Industrial Chemistry
Then through another pipe, compressed, pressurised air is pumped into the
sulfur deposit which causes the sulfur (now molten) to produce foam with the
water (from the superheated steam condensing) because sulfur has low
density.
Finally this pressurised air forces the sulfur-water mixture rises to the surface
where sulfur solidifies because it is insoluble in water. It is then removed and
collected in large bins where it is transported to a sulfuric acid plant.
Sulfur can also be obtained from natural gas and petroleum deposits which
contain quantities of sulfur as well as smelting ores containing sulfur- e.g.
galena (PbS).
Environmental issues

Perhaps the most significant environmental problem of using the Frasch

process to extract sulfur from mineral ores is thermal pollution caused
by the usage of superheated steam. This may have implications on the
surrounding environment especially in waterways where a rise in
temperature may mean the death of aquatic organisms such as fish,
crab. Therefore it is essential that this heat produced is recycled.

The Frasch process may contribute to earth subsidence and damage as

there is removal of rock beds containing sulfur.

The production of sulfur dioxide when sulfur reacts with oxygen in the air.
Sulfur dioxide can cause respiratory problems such as asthma and
bronchitis while also contributing to acid rain. However in this process,
this is a minimal environmental problem.

Point 3.3 Outline the steps and conditions necessary for the industrial
production of H2SO4 from its raw materials.
(This dot point connected to dot point 3.9). Sulfuric acid is produced in
industry using the Contact process. The raw materials for this process are
sulfur, oxygen and water.
The first step in the reaction is the production of sulfur dioxide. Molten sulfur
from the Frasch process is sprayed into a combustion furnace where it is
reacted with dry air containing oxygen:

S (l) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

However sulfur dioxide can also be obtained as a product from the smelting of
sulfide ores. This is a more economical and efficient method of obtaining sulfur
dioxide.
The next step in the contact process is the production of sulfur trioxide.
Sulfur dioxide obtained from the previous step is reacted with more oxygen in
a converter to produce sulfur dioxide. It is an equilibrium reaction and
exothermic.

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)

2SO3 (g) + heat

The catalyst used in the above reaction is vanadium (V) oxide V 2O5. The
conversion tower in which this reaction occurs is multi layered with the
reaction continuously proceeding on each level. On each successive bed, the
temperatures are lowered to increase the yield of sulfur trioxide obtained. The

Industrial Chemistry
main conditions in this vessel are: temperatures around 400-550C,
atmospheric pressure at around 100kPa and the catalyst in pellet form to
increase the surface area on which the reaction can occur.
The next step is producing oleum by dissolving sulfur trioxide in concentrated
sulfuric acid (recycled):

SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) H2S2O7 (l)

Finally in the last step in the reaction, the oleum is reacted with water (diluted)
to produce concentrated sulfuric acid:

H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (l)

The final concentration of the sulfuric acid from the Contact process is
approximately 98%.

Point 3.4 Describe the reaction conditions necessary for the production of
SO2 and SO3.
In this dot point, 2 steps are analysed in more detail; the production of sulfur
dioxide and sulfur trioxide.
Sulfur dioxide production
Sulfur dioxide in the contact process is produced from the reaction of molten
sulfur (extracted by the Frasch process) and dry air which contains oxygen.
The air is dried by passing it through sulfuric acid which acts as a dehydration
agent, removing moisture from the air. This is done to prevent SO 2 reacting
with moisture in the air to form unwanted sulfurous acid.

S (l) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) + heat

Sulfur trioxide production
This is a more complex reaction where sulfur dioxide obtained in the previous
step is reacted with excess oxygen in the presence of vanadium (V) oxide
catalyst as well as reaction conditions of around 400-550C, atmospheric
pressure (100kPa). The reactant gases are passed over successive levels, each
with a lower temperature to increase yield. It is an equilibrium reaction as well
as being exothermic. Thus for industry there needs to be a compromise
between equilibrium yield of sulfur trioxide and the rate of reaction.

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)

2SO3 (g) + heat

Point 3.5 Apply the relationship between rates of reaction and equilibrium
conditions to the production of SO2 and SO3.
The production of sulfur dioxide is essentially a complete reaction heavily
favouring the products side. Basically this reaction involves the oxidation of
sulfur into sulfur dioxide and this occurs in a combustion furnace where molten
sulfur is sprayed into dry air rich in oxygen. To increase the rate of reaction,
excess oxygen is used.
However the production of sulfur trioxide is an equilibrium reaction thus the
rate of reaction and equilibrium yield of sulfur trioxide needs to be considered.

Industrial Chemistry
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)

2SO3 (g) + heat

From the above reaction we can see that the reaction is exothermic. These are
the following ways of increasing the yield of sulfur trioxide:

Decreasing temperature; This would cause the equilibrium to shift to

the right to release more heat (Le Chateliers principle) which results in
an increase in concentration of sulfur trioxide.
Adding excess oxygen; This would also cause the equilibrium to shift to
the right to use up some of the added oxygen thus the yield of sulfur
trioxide would increase.
Increasing pressure; This would cause the equilibrium to shift to the
right where there is less number of molecules of gas to reduce
pressure. Thus there is an increase in yield of sulfur trioxide.

However if the temperature is decreased to increase the yield of sulfur

trioxide, the rate of reaction will be slow. Thus in order to create a balance
between yield and rate of reaction, the following conditions are used:
Moderate temperatures of around 400-550C.
Pressures around 1-2 atm of pressure.
A vanadium (V) oxide catalyst on porous silica pellets to increase
surface area.

Point 3.6 Describe, using examples, the reactions of sulfuric acid acting as:
an oxidising agent, a dehydrating agent.
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid and can act as an oxidising agent or a
dehydration agent.
An oxidising agent (or oxidant) is a substance which causes the oxidation in
another substance with itself being reduced. Sulfuric acid is a strong oxidant
and can react and oxidise less active metals such as copper. The products are
a sulfate, sulfur dioxide and water.
Full chemical equation:

Cu (s) + 2H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Net ionic equation: (crossing out one SO42- spectator ion):

Cu (s) + H2SO4 (aq) + 2H+ (aq) Cu2+ (aq) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Half equations:

Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- (oxidation)

H2SO4 (aq) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e- SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) (reduction)
(The reaction above is reduction of sulfuric acid in most cases). Thus we can
see that copper is oxidised and sulfuric acid is reduced therefore sulfuric acid
is an oxidising agent. Concentrated sulfuric acid also oxidises bromide and
iodide ions.
A dehydrating agent is a substance which absorbs moisture from the
surroundings. Sulfuric acid can act as a dehydrating agent because it has a
strong affinity for water. For example, in the 1st step of the contact process,

Industrial Chemistry
liquid sulfur is sprayed into dry air which has been achieved by passing it
through concentrated sulfuric acid.
It also acts as a dehydrating agent in the production of ethene from ethanol:

C2H5OH (l) C2H4 (g) + H2O (l)

When concentrated sulfuric acid is added to sucrose (sugar), the oxygen and
hydrogen atoms are removed from the sucrose molecule to form water,
leaving behind carbon. Therefore in this reaction it is also acting as a
dehydrating agent:

C12H22O11 (s)

12C (s) + 11H2O (l)

H2SO4

Point 3.7 Describe and explain the exothermic nature of sulfuric acid
ionisation.
Sulfuric acid is a strong, diprotic acid which ionises in two steps:

H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) HSO4- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

HSO4- (aq) + H2O (l)

SO42- (aq) + H3O- (aq)

Since sulfuric acid is a strong acid, the first reaction essentially goes to
completion as all of its molecules are ionised. However the second ionisation
step is an equilibrium reaction as HSO4- is a weak acid and only a small
proportion of its molecules are ionised.
The ionisation of sulfuric acid is exothermic (heat released) because the
energy released when the hydronium ions are formed is much greater than
the energy absorbed to break the bonds of sulfuric acid. Since the first
reaction heavily favours the formation of the products, there are large
amounts of heat liberated, thus the reaction being exothermic.

Point 3.8 Identify and describe safety precautions that must be taken
when using and diluting concentrated sulfuric acid.
Concentrated sulfuric acid basically contains molecules so when it is diluted, it
ionises in water. Generally sulfuric acid is an extremely corrosive substance
which can cause excessive burns to skin and irritants in eyes.
When using concentrated sulfuric acid, the following safety precautions must
be undertaken:

Safety goggles; Must be worn to prevent the corrosive sulfuric acid

splashing into eyes and causing burns and irritants.
Protective clothing; Lab coats and other protective clothing must be
worn to prevent corrosive sulfuric acid splashing onto skin causing
significant burns. If this happens, wash immediately with cold water.

When concentrated sulfuric acid is diluted it ionises in two steps as shown in

the previous dot point. Thus there is lots of heat released as the ionisation
process is exothermic. Thus the following safety precautions must be
undertaken when diluting concentrated sulfuric acid:

Slowly add small amounts of acid to large amounts of water; this is

done to prevent boiling and spitting of the water.
Wear safety goggles and protective clothing

Industrial Chemistry

Continuously stir solution; this is done to ensure the heat is evenly

dispersed in the solution and to aid a smooth dilution.
Neutralise spills using NaHCO3

Point 3.9 Gather, process and present information from secondary

sources to describe the steps and chemistry involved in the industrial
production of H2SO4 and use available evidence to analyse the process to
predict ways in which the output of sulfuric acid can be maximised.

The diagram above shows the contact process the industrial method of
producing sulfuric acid.
The first step in the process is the formation of sulfur dioxide. Molten sulfur
(extracted using the Frasch process) is sprayed into a combustion furnace where it
reacts with dry air which mainly consists of oxygen. The air is dried by passing it
through concentrated sulfuric acid which acts as a dehydrating agent by
absorbing the moisture. The air is dried to prevent SO 2 reacting with water to form
unwanted sulfurous acid. It is an exothermic reaction which essentially goes to
completion:

S (l) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) + heat

The second step in the process is the production of sulfur trioxide. The sulfur
dioxide produced from the previous step is entered into a conversion tower where
it is reacted with excess oxygen. In the conversion tower there are the following
reaction conditions to maintain a balance between yield of sulfur trioxide and the
rate of reaction:

Moderate temperatures of around 400-550C.

Industrial Chemistry

Pressures of around 1-2 atm pressure.

Vanadium (V) oxide catalyst V2O5 which are situated on silica pellets to
increase surface area for the reaction.

In this step, the reactant gases pass over the first catalyst bed at a temperature
of around 550C which causes the conversion of around 70% sulfur trioxide. To
increase the yield, the temperature is decreased to 400C at the above
catalyst bed which results in the formation of more sulfur trioxide as the
reaction is exothermic; decreasing temp will shift equilibrium to the right. Finally
the gas is cooled again to produce 99.7% conversion rate of sulfur trioxide.
Reaction is below:

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)

2SO3 (g) + heat

The 3rd step in the contact process is the production of oleum. The sulfur trioxide
produced in the last step is reacted with concentrated sulfuric acid which is
recycled from the last step in the process. The reaction occurs in an absorption
tower:

SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) H2S2O7 (l)

This reaction is utilised instead of reacting sulfur trioxide with water to produce
sulfuric acid. This is because if sulfur trioxide is reacted with water to form
sulfuric acid, the solution would react explosively and lots of heat would be
generated as it is exothermic. A mist of sulfuric acid droplets would form and it
would be expensive for industry to separate this mist from the air.
Finally the last step in the process is the production of concentrated sulfuric
acid. The oleum produced in the previous step is diluted in water to form 98%
concentrated sulfuric acid. Some of the concentrated sulfuric acid is recycled to
react with SO3 to produce oleum and the rest of it is collected and stored in a
storage tank.

H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (l)

Output of sulfuric acid can be maximised by:
Adding excess oxygen into the combustion furnace.
Moderate low temperatures in the conversion tower to increase yield of
sulfur trioxide.
Add excess oxygen to the sulfur dioxide in the conversion tower.
Constant removal of sulfur trioxide in the conversion tower.

Point 3.10 Perform first-hand investigations to observe the reactions of

sulfuric acid acting as: an oxidising agent, a dehydrating agent.
OXIDISING AGENT ADD A METAL
DEHYDRATING AGENT ADD IT TO SUCROSE (SUGAR)

Point 3.11 Use available evidence to relate the properties of sulfuric acid to
safety precautions necessary for its transport and storage.
Since sulfuric acid is one of the most important industrially produced
chemicals and yet it is so corrosive and harmful means that safely
transporting sulfuric acid is essential.

Industrial Chemistry

Concentrated sulfuric acid

Concentrated sulfuric acid contains mostly molecules thus there are no free
ions. This means that it can be transported in steel or iron containers as it
does not contain H+ ions to react with the iron/steel. In addition to this,
iron/steel containers are robust and strong thus it is ideal to transport
concentrated sulfuric acid. Care must be taken to prevent any moisture from
entering container as the concentrated sulfuric acid can absorb the moisture
and ionise rapidly producing excessive amounts of heat (exothermic reaction).
Dilute sulfuric acid
However dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4.H2O) contains hydrogen ions (because its
fully ionised) which can react with the steel/iron containers. Thus glass or
plastic containers are used to store or transport dilute sulfuric acid as the
hydrogen ions do not attack these containers.