Electrical drives

1.

1.1

Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

ELECTRICAL DRIVE ................................................................................................................ 1

1.
ELECTRICAL DRIVE, INTRODUCTION
The dictionary definition of the term drive refers to a means for giving motion to a machine or a
machine part; an electrical drive, as the term indicates, provides electrical power for a motor. A
more specific term for the topic discussed here is electrical motor drive; however, the shorter term
electric(al) drive has been established in common usage, and will be employed in this material
also. Electrical drives can be roughly categorized into non-controlled and controlled motor drives.
Most of the motor drives in industrial use are still non-controlled drives, which almost exclusively
apply a three-phase induction motor. Motor drives are commonly controlled by industrial automation.
This text focuses mainly on controlled electrical drives, the operation principle of which is illustrated by the block diagram of Fig. 1.1. In the diagram, the electrical drive is delimited by a dashed
line. Here, the electrical drive is considered to be comprised of power electronics, an electrical motor, a controller, and measuring equipment. The inputs of the electrical drive are the power from the
power supply, which can be for instance an electrical power network, and the control signal (input
variable), which can be for instance the rotational speed or torque or position reference. As the output, the drive gives the mechanical power of the shaft to the load. The measuring equipment monitor the state of the electrical motor by measuring the rotation speed, the current fed to the motor, the
temperature, etc. The measured signals are transmitted to the controller; based on these input references and measurement signals, the controller transmits the control signals as its output to the
power electronics. According to the control signals of the controller, the power electronics modifies
the obtained electrical power into a form suitable for the electrical motor, and the electrical motor
converts the electrical power further into mechanical power.

Electrical drives

1.2

Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

SIGNAL
POWER

POWER
SOURCE

ELECTRICAL DRIVE

REFERENCE

CONTROLLER

MEASURING
EQUIPMENT

POWER
ELECTR.

ELECTRICAL
MOTOR

LOAD

Figure 1.1 Block diagram that illustrates the principle of an electrical drive. The input of an electrical drive comprises
electrical power and operation reference. The output is the mechanical power given by the drive to the load. In principle, an electrical drive comprises four parts: power electronics, an electrical motor, measuring equipment and a controller.

According to Fig. 1.1 we may delineate the field, in which the future expert in electrical drives
should be able to operate sovereignly. This field comprises energy technology, electrical machines technology, electrical power network technology, measurement technology, mechanics, control engineering, thermodynamics, and telecommunications technology. Figure 1.2 illustrates the
field of operation and the know-how of an electrical drives expert.

Electrical drives

1.3

TELECOMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY

Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

ENERGY
TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRICAL
MACHINES TECH.

THERMODYNAMICS

ELECTRICAL POWER
NETWORK TECH.

ELECTRICAL DRIVE
POWER
ELECTRONICS

MEASUREMENT
TECHNOLOGY

INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
MECHANICS
CONTROL
ENGINEERING

Figure 1.2.

The field of operation of an electrical drives expert.

Energy
Electro-mechanical conversion of energy has a focal role in a great many human activities. It is of
particular importance in many industrial processes; however, also housing, commerce and transportation both require electromechanical conversion of energy. In the early 21st century, the global
electricity consumption reached ca. 14,000 TWh. Electrical drives account for 5060 % of this total
consumption. It is thus easy to understand that by intensifying the operation of electrical drives has
a key role for instance in finding new methods for CO2 emissions abatement.
Electricity transmission network
Electricity network technology becomes essential when considering the interface of the electricity
network and power electronics. It often suffices to know the voltage of the connection point and the
short-circuit power. However, it is often also necessary to be able to analyze resonances possibly
occurring in the network, as well as issues related to the quality of electricity.
Mechanics
The fundamental knowledge of mechanics can in principle be delimited to the two basic equations
of the mechanics of a rotating object

Te TL J

d
B .
dt

(1.1)

Te is the electrical torque given by the motor, which will be consumed to compensate the load
torque TL of the load and the frictional torque B as well as the inertia J and the dynamic countertorque caused by the angular acceleration d/dt. Furthermore, it is advisable to master the theory of

Electrical drives

1.4

Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

Fig. 1.3 of the drives with mechanical gear arrangements. If the torque efficiency of the gearing is
assumed to be 100 %, we may write the following proportion
Tm L L n m

a.
TL m m n L

(1.2)

where nL and nm are the numbers of teeth of the gear and a is transmission ratio.

motor
load

m, Tm

Jm, Bm

L, TL TWL JL, BL
Figure 1.3 Rotation from the motor is transmitted to the load by mechanical gearing. Jm is the inertia of the motor, Bm is
the friction term of the motor, m is the rotation angle of the motor, and Tm is the torque of the motor. On the load side,
we have the corresponding terms. TL is the torque produced by the motor to the load and TWL is the working torque of
the load.

Loads

Based on their behaviour, the loads can be categorized into certain basic types. Some examples of
the load torque as a function of mechanical rotation speed are depicted in Fig. 1.4.
b)

a)

c)
T

d)

e)

Figure 1.4 The dependence of the load torque on the mechanical rotation speed. a) a blower, b) a flywheel as a load of
an induction motor connected to the network, c) a piston pump, d) a lift, e) the influence of static friction.

Electrical drives

1.5

Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

Mathematically, the counter-torques can be divided into the following categories

TL
TL
TL
TL

L1 , static friction
L0 , constant torque, hoists, lifts, etc.
L1 , torque directly proportional to angular speed, e.g. reciprocating (piston) pump
L2 , torque proportional to the square of angular speed, centrifugal pumps and blowers

Information technology and an embedded system

Information technology is applied to the computation, when the electro-mechanical world is modelled with a view to the control of electrical drives. The modern processors are capable of handling
the high-accuracy control algorithms, and they adjust the physical behaviour of the drive to meet
the set targets. We can assume that in an ideal case, the programs of the integrated circuit and the
related measurement data produce an almost complete representation of the physical-world electrical drive.
Information technology is required in the data transmission between the different parts of the electrical drive. This data transmission can be wireless, or the data may be transmitted along cables. In
the future, it is possible to abandon the actual data transmission cables and to transmit for instance
the measurement data from the sensors to the controller along the motor supply cables.
Figure 1.5 illustrates the time rates and the signal processing tasks related to the control of a modern electrical drive.

Rotation speed control

1 ... 2 ms

Torque control
25 ... 100 ... 200 s

Self-diagnostics
>1ms

Magnetizing control
500 ... 1000 s

Magnetizing & effective current controllers

100 ... 200 s

Motor model
Speed estimate
Flux linkage estimate
Torque estimate
25 ... 100 ... 200 s

Processing of meas. signals

5 ... 10 s

Power bridge &

Motor

Modulation
1 ... 25 s

adapted from the material of the Laboratory of Control Engineering, LUT

Figure 1.5 Time level requirements and tasks of a motor drive

Electrical drives

1.6

Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

At the beginning of the 21st century, the tendency has still been to employ for instance signal processors and the related auxiliary circuits, such as ASICs to take care of the control of the power electronics of electrical drives. However, the development trend seems to lead to packing all the control
electronics and programs required by the power electronics on a single FPGA circuit, Fig. 1.6

Analog

ASIC

Interfaces

Processor

Interfaces

Memory

FPGA based integration

IP block
modulat.
IP block
protection

SW
processor

Memory

IP block
measur.
IP block
data netw.

source, the Laboratory of Control Engineering, LUT

Figure 1.6 Development trends of the control electronics towards FPGA circuits.

The most efficient electrical drives are capable of extremely accurate rotation speed and torque
control. Such electrical drives can be applied to fast and precise position control, in which case they
are called servo drives. Traditionally, the control cycles of frequency converters have been of the
scale of a few dozen microseconds. By an FPGA-based integration, when information is not transmitted between different units, the speed of the control cycles can be significantly increased. For
example, the control of a welding machine has been implemented in the Laboratory of Control Engineering at LUT with a control cycle of 64 ns.
The development of power electronics and microprocessors improve the characteristics of electrical
drives. The markets for intelligent electrical drives will expand, as the awareness of these drives
increases; the competitive advantages are for instance the low need for maintenance, saved energy
and the sophisticated process control.
A modern electrical drive as an element of a process

The speed control of processes is a focal issue in aiming at reasonable energy consumption and a
high quality. The requirement for speed control becomes clear when we analyze the requirements
of different processes. The processes can be divided into two main categories: material processing
and material transportation. In both the main categories, there is a need to adapt to the requirements
of the process; here, the speed-controlled electrical drives may provide some solutions.

Electrical drives

1.7

Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

Chemical industry, engineering workshops, plastics industry, pulp, paper and printing industries,
food and soft drink industries, mining industry, metal industry, and power plants all are large-scale
users of electrical drives. In addition, the heating, plumbing and ventilation of buildings is a significant field of application for electrical drives.
Figure 1.7 shows the influence of different variables on the process system. There are energy and
material variables involved in the process; energy and material are usually processed by the means
of mechanical power, electromagnetic effect, heat, or chemical and biological reactions. The realization of any process requires both material and energy. The result is a product, however, also some
energy and material losses occur in the process. Speed-controlled electrical motor drives are applied to the control of the mechanical power of the machines. With such a control, it is often possible to reach a high-quality product and also to save energy.

Process

Energy

Material processing
Mechanical power
Electromagnetic process
Thermal effect
Chemical reactions

Material

Energy loss

Material loss

Energy flow
Material flow

Product

Figure 1.7 Energy and mass flows in a production process.

The process equipment can be divided into two groups: transportation devices and devices for
processing the material; in the process, the properties of the material are modified by different materials-processing devices.
An important group of process devices comprises devices transporting material to a desired destination. This group includes various conveyors and devices for dosing and pressure control. The machine constructions vary depending on the material to be transported (a solid, fluid, or gas). Solid
materials, such as containers, metal, wood, minerals, or even human beings, are moved for instance
by hoists, conveyors and lifts. Fluids, such as water, oil, or liquid chemicals, are transported by
pumps. The transportation of gases, such as air, is carried out by blowers, compressors, or fans; a
particular application of this kind is air-conditioning. In the most demanding material tasks, servo
drives are required to achieve a precise position control. As examples of servo drives we can mention for instance electrical component placement machines used in circuit-card assembly in electronics industry to place the components on a circuit card with a high degree of accuracy.
Each machine that operates by electricity includes an energy control, an electrical motor, mechanical power transmission, and the actual operating machine. The first three together comprise the so-

Electrical drives

1.8

Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

called electrical motor drive. The electrical drive converts the electrical energy fed to the system
into mechanical energy in the operating machine.
The speed control can be realized in all these three components of an electrical drive. The speed
control of a machine can be accomplished for instance by using a frequency converter as an energy
control component, or by using mechanical gears as power transmission components. Nowadays,
frequency converters are used increasingly as energy control components, and thus an ordinary motor is adapted to control use. When using new permanent-magnet motors having a higher torque
than the induction motors, also the gearing can often be omitted. Also the so-called high-speed
drives become gradually more common; in these drives, the frequency converter feeds the highspeed motor at a frequency that is notably higher than the line frequency.
An induction motor is applicable to various drives; Figure 1.8 illustrates it equipped with a frequency converter.

Induction motor

is

Frequency converter
L
network

k1 k2
C

us
k4 k5

s
m

k3

im

k6

AC-to-DC rectifier, intermediate circuit, DC-to-AC inverter

ir

Figure 1.8 An induction motor drive equipped with a frequency converter. The stator current vector, the rotor current
vector and the magnetizing current vector are denoted is, ir, im, respectively, the stator voltage is us, and the stator flux
linkage vector and the air gap flux linkage vector are s, m, respectively.

The ability of AC motors to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy is based on electrical
force effects. We remember from the equation of the Lorenz force that a current-carrying conductor
in a magnetic flux experiences a force effect. According to the induction law, the voltage fed by the
stator to the winding is integrated into the flux linkage of the stator

s us dt .

(1.2)

Simultaneously, also the corresponding currents are created into the electrical machine. Considering the electro-mechanical energy conversion, the flux linkage of the air gap m = Lmim is the most
important flux linkage component; it occurs in the direction of the magnetizing current vector im
and is created in the magnetizing inductance Lm. We can determine a vector equation for the torque
from the Lorentz force
Te

3
3
ps is p m is .
2
2

(1.3)

Electrical drives

1.9

Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

The directions of the magnetomotive forces of the stator and the rotor can be determined by applying the right-hand rule to the currents of the motor in Fig. 1.8. The direction of the current vector is
the direction of the magnetomotive force of the winding. Since according to the induction law, the
flux linkage and the voltage are related to each other, by changing the direction of the voltage vector in effect in the stator winding, also the direction of the flux linkage can be altered. If the direction of the voltage vector is changed in a correct order in the winding of a three-phase motor, the
flux linkage of the motor starts to rotate. The rotor of an induction motor follows the air gap flux at
a certain slip. In the case of a synchronous machine, the rotor has no slip, but after reaching a certain power angle, the rotor rotates at a same speed with the stator flux.
A motor control can be implemented by using a frequency converter. A frequency converter
changes the frequency of the alternating current and voltage. It comprises three parts: the 50 or 60
Hz three-phase line voltage is fed to the AC-to-DC rectifier unit, which converts the voltage into
DC voltage; the DC voltage is fed back to the DC intermediate circuit, which filters the voltage
output of the diode bridge. The DC-to-AC inverter unit switches next each motor phase either to the
negative or to the positive bus bar of the DC intermediate circuit in an appropriate order. In the figure, the switches k1, k3, and k5 are conductive. By switching on the switches k1, k5, and k6, and
by keeping the other switches switched off, the flux linkage is made to rotate counter-clockwise.
The same frequency converter technology described above can be applied to all rotating field machines. The electrical drives technology is currently regenerating, as different synchronous motors
are increasingly replacing induction motors. The number of DC drives is decreasing, and different
AC drives are gaining ground.
With frequency converters, an efficient process control can be achieved. For instance, in 2004, the
annual savings in energy consumption, reached by the frequency converters provided by the Finnish ABB, was estimated to amount to 96 TWh; which is an amount corresponding to the annual
production of 12 nuclear power plants, and means a yearly saving of 80 million tons of carbon dioxide.