64 The Existence of Molecules

In the two papers, the English chemist, Dalton, and the French chemist, Gay-Lussac,
each described an experiment in which they combined hydrogen and oxygen atoms to create water. Both reported that it took exactly two liters of gaseous hydrogen atoms to combine with exactly one liter of oxygen atoms to produce exactly two liters of gaseous water
vapor. Dalton claimed that this experiment proved that water is the combination of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Gay-Lussac also claimed it proved that a liter of
any gas had to contain exactly the same number of atoms as a liter of any other gas, no
matter what gas it was.
These studies were heralded as major breakthroughs for chemical study. But from his
first reading, Professor Avogadro was bothered by a nagging contradiction.
Both Dalton and Gay-Lussac started with exactly two liters of hydrogen and one liter of
oxygen. Thats a total of three liters of gas. But they both ended with only two liters of water
vapor gas. If every liter of every gas has to have exactly the same number of atoms, then how
could all the atoms from three liters of gas fit into just two liters of water vapor gas?
The Turin cathedral bell chimed midnight before the answer struck Avogadros mind.
Dalton and Gay-Lussac had used the wrong word. What if they had each substituted a
group of attached atoms for atom?
Avogadro created the word molecule (a Greek word meaning, to move about freely in
a gas) for this group of attached atoms. Then he scratched out equations on paper until he
found a way to account for all of the atoms and molecules in Daltons and Gay-Lussacs experiments.
If each molecule of hydrogen contained two atoms of hydrogen, and each molecule of
oxygen contained two atoms of oxygen, thenif each molecule of water vapor contained
two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, as both scientists reportedeach liter of
hydrogen and each liter of oxygen would have exactly the same number of molecules as
each of the two resulting liters of water vapor (even though they contained a different
number of atoms)!
And so it was that, without ever touching a test tube or chemical experiment of any
kind, without even a background in chemistry, Amedeo Avogadro discovered the existence
of molecules and created the basic gas lawevery liter of a gas contains the same number
of molecules of gas.
Fun Facts: The smallest molecule is the hydrogen moleculejust two
protons and two electrons. DNA is the largest known naturally occurring
molecule, with over four billion atomseach containing a number of
protons, neutrons, and electrons.

More to Explore
Adler, Robert. Science Firsts, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002.
Chang, Laura, ed. Scientists at Work. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.
Downs, Robert. Landmarks in Science. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1996.
Haven, Kendall. Marvels of Science. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1994.
Morselli, Mario. Amedeo Avogadro. New York: D. Reidel, 1995.

Electromagnetism
Year of Discovery: 1820
What Is It? An electric current creates a magnetic field and vice versa.
Who Discovered It? Hans Oersted

Why Is This One of the 100 Greatest?

Before 1820, the only known magnetism was the naturally occurring magnetism of
iron magnets and of lodestonessmall, weak direction finders. Yet the modern world of
electric motors and electric generating power plants is muscled by powerful electromagnets. So is every hair dryer, mixer, and washing machine. Our industry, homes, and lives depend on electric motorswhich all depend on electromagnetism.
This 1820 discovery has become one of the most important for defining the shape of
modern life. Oersteds discovery opened the door to undreamed of possibilities for research
and scientific advancement. It made possible the work of electromagnetic giants such as
Andre Ampere and Michael Faraday.

How Was It Discovered?

Hans Oersted was born in 1777 in southern Denmark. He studied science at the university, but leaned far more toward philosophy. Oersted adopted the philosophy teachings of
John Ritter, who advocated a natural science belief that there was unity in all natural forces.
Oersted believed that he could trace all natural forces back to the Urkraft, or primary force.
When he was finally given a science teaching position (in 1813), he focused his research efforts on finding a way to trace all chemical reactions back to Urkraft in order to create a
natural unity in all of chemistry.
Research and interest in electricity mushroomed after Benjamin Franklins experiments with static electricity and sparks of energy created with Leyden jars. Then, in 1800,
Volta invented the battery and the worlds first continuous flow of electric current. Electricity became the scientific wonder of the world. Sixty-eight books on electricity were published between 1800 and 1820.
Only a few scientists suspected that there might be a connection between electricity
and magnetism. In 1776 and 1777 the Bavarian Academy of Sciences offered a prize to anyone who could answer the question: Is there a physical analogy between electrical and magnetic force? They found no winner. In 1808, the London Scientific Society made the same
offer. Again there was no winner.

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