Chapter 1

Chapter 1: Fundamentals
CHAPTER 1:
Fundamentals
Vertical Monopolies
Within a particular geographic market, the electric utility had
an exclusive franchise
Distribution
In return for this exclusive

franchise, the utility had the
obligation to serve all
existing and future customers
at rates determined jointly
by utility and regulators
Customer Service
It was a cost plus business
Generation
Transmission
2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved.
Vertical Monopolies
Within its service territory each utility was the only game in
town
Neighboring utilities functioned more as colleagues than
competitors
Utilities gradually interconnected their systems so by 1970
transmission lines crisscrossed North America, with
voltages up to 765 kV
Economies of scale keep resulted in decreasing rates, so
most every one was happy
Current Midwest Electric Grid
History, contd 1970s

1970s brought inflation, increased fossil-fuel prices, calls for
conservation and growing environmental concerns
Increasing rates replaced decreasing ones
As a result, U.S. Congress passed Public Utilities Regulator
Policies Act (PURPA) in 1978, which mandated utilities must
purchase power from independent generators located in their
service territory (modified 2005)
PURPA introduced some competition
History, contd 1990s & 2000s

Major opening of industry to competition occurred as a
result of National Energy Policy Act of 1992
This act mandated that utilities provide nondiscriminatory
access to the high voltage transmission
Goal was to set up true competition in generation
Result over the last few years has been a dramatic
restructuring of electric utility industry (for better or worse!)
Energy Bill 2005 repealed PUHCA; modified PURPA
State Variation in Electric Rates
The Goal: Customer Choice
The Result for California in 2000/1
OFF
OFF
The California-Enron Effect

WA
MT
ND
MN
OR
ID
WY
NV
SD
WI
CA
AZ
CO
IL
KS
OK
NM
NY
MI
PA
IA
NE
UT
VT ME
MO
AR
IN OH W
KY
TN
VA VA
N
H
MA
RI
C
NT
DJ D
M
E
C
D
NC
SC
MS AL GA
TX
LA
AK
FL
HI
electricity
restructuring
delayed
restructuring
no activity
suspended
restructuring
Source : http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/chg_str/regmap.html
August 14, 2003 Blackout
10
2007 Illinois Electricity Crisis

Two main electric utilities in Illinois are ComEd and Ameren
Restructuring law had frozen electricity prices for ten years,
with rate decreases for many.
Prices rose on January 1, 2007 as price freeze ended; price
increases were especially high for electric heating customers
who had previously enjoyed rates as low as 2.5 cents/kWh
Current average residential rate (in cents/kWh) is 10.4 in IL,
8.74 IN, 11.1 WI, 7.94 MO, 9.96 IA, 19.56 CT, 6.09 ID, 14.03
in CA, 10.76 US average
11
Review of Phasors
Goal of phasor analysis is to simplify the analysis of constant
frequency ac systems
v(t) = Vmax cos(wt + qv)
i(t) = Imax cos(wt + qI)
Root Mean Square (RMS) voltage of sinusoid
1T
Vmax
2
v(t ) dt
T0
2
12
Phasor Representation
Euler's Identity: e jq cosq j sin q
Phasor notation is developed by rewriting
using Euler's identity
v(t ) 2 V cos(w t qV )
v(t ) 2 V Re e j (w t qV )
(Note: V is the RMS voltage)
2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved.
13
Phasor Representation, contd

The RMS, cosine-referenced voltage phasor is:
V
V e jqV V qV
v(t )
Re 2 Ve jw t e jqV
V cosqV j V sin qV
I cosq I j I sin q I
(Note: Some texts use boldface type for

complex numbers, or bars on the top)
14
Advantages of Phasor Analysis

Device
Time Analysis
Phasor
Resistor
v(t ) Ri (t )
di (t )
v(t ) L
dt
V RI
1t
i (t ) dt v(0)
C0
1
V
I
jw C
Inductor
Capacitor
V jw LI
Z = Impedance R jX Z
R = Resistance
X = Reactance
Z =
R2 X 2
(Note: Z is a
complex number but
X
=arctan( ) not a phasor)
R
15
RL Circuit Example
V (t )
2 100cos(w t 30)
60Hz
i(t)
X wL
42 32 5 36.9
V
10030
Z
536.9
20 6.9 Amps
20 2 cos(w t 6.9)
16
Complex Power
Power
p (t ) v(t ) i (t )
v(t)
= Vmax cos(w t qV )
i (t)
= I max cos(w t q I )
1
cos cos [cos( ) cos( )]
2
1
p (t ) Vmax I max [cos(qV q I )
2
cos(2w t qV q I )]
17
Complex Power, contd

Average Power
1
p (t ) Vmax I max [cos(qV q I ) cos(2wt qV q I )]
2
Pavg
1T
p (t )dt
T0
1
Vmax I max cos(qV q I )
2
V I cos(qV q I )
Power Factor Angle = =qV q I

18
Complex Power
S V I cos(qV q I ) j sin(qV q I )
P jQ
V I
(Note: S is a complex number but not a phasor)
P = Real Power (W, kW, MW)

Q = Reactive Power (var, kvar, Mvar)
S = Complex power (VA, kVA, MVA)
Power Factor (pf) = cos
If current leads voltage then pf is leading
If current lags voltage then pf is lagging
19
Complex Power, contd

Relationships between real, reactive and complex power
P S cos
Q S sin
S 1 pf 2
Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.

What are (power factor angle), Q and S ?
-cos 1 0.85 31.8

100kW
S
117.6 kVA
0.85
Q 117.6sin(31.8) 62.0 kVar
20
Conservation of Power
At every node (bus) in the system
Sum of real power into node must equal zero
Sum of reactive power into node must equal zero
This is a direct consequence of Kirchhoffs current law, which
states that the total current into each node must equal zero.
Conservation of power follows since S = VI*
21
Conservation of Power Example

Earlier we found
I = 20-6.9 amps
S V I * 10030 206.9 200036.9 VA
36.9
pf = 0.8 lagging
SR VR I * 4 20 6.9 206.9
PR 1600W
I R
(Q R 0)
SL VL I * 3 j 20 6.9 206.9
2
Q L 1200 var I X
(PL 0)
22
Power Consumption in Devices

Resistors only consume real power
2
PResistor I Resistor R
Inductors only consume reactive power
2
Q Inductor I Inductor X L
Capacitors only generate reactive power
2
QCapacitor I Capacitor X C
QCapacitor
VCapacitor
XC
1
XC
wC
(Note-some define X C negative)

23
Example
First solve
basic circuit
400000 V
I
4000 Amps
1000
V 400000 (5 j 40) 4000
42000 j16000 44.920.8 kV
S V I * 44.9k20.8 4000
17.9820.8 MVA 16.8 j 6.4 MVA
24
Example, contd
Now add additional
reactive power load
and resolve
Z Load 70.7
pf 0.7 lagging
I 564 45 Amps
V 59.713.6 kV
S 33.758.6 MVA 17.6 j 28.8 MVA
25
Power System Notation

Power system components are usually shown as
one-line diagrams. Previous circuit redrawn
17.6 MW
16.0 MW
28.8 MVR
-16.0 MVR
59.7 kV
17.6 MW
28.8 MVR
40.0 kV
16.0 MW
16.0 MVR
Transmission lines
Generators are
Arrows are used
are shown as a
to show loads
shown as circles
single line
26
Reactive Compensation
Key idea of reactive compensation is to supply reactive
power locally. In the previous example this can
be done by adding a 16 Mvar capacitor at the load
16.8 MW
16.0 MW
6.4 MVR
0.0 MVR
44.94 kV
16.8 MW
6.4 MVR
40.0 kV
16.0 MW
16.0 MVR
16.0 MVR
Compensated circuit is identical to first example with

just real power load
27
Reactive Compensation, contd

Reactive compensation decreased the line flow from 564
Amps to 400 Amps. This has advantages
Lines losses, which are equal to I2 R decrease
Lower current allows utility to use small wires, or
alternatively, supply more load over the same wires
Voltage drop on the line is less
Reactive compensation is used extensively by utilities
Capacitors can be used to correct a loads power
factor to an arbitrary value.
28
Power Factor Correction Example

Assume we have 100 kVA load with pf=0.8 lagging,
and would like to correct the pf to 0.95 lagging
S 80 j 60 kVA
cos 0.8 36.9
PF of 0.95 requires desired
cos 1 0.95 18.2
Snew 80 j (60 Qcap )

60 - Qcap
80
tan18.2 60 Qcap 26.3 kvar
Qcap 33.7 kvar

29
Distribution System Capacitors
30
Balanced 3 Phase () Systems

A balanced 3 phase () system has
three voltage sources with equal magnitude, but with an
angle shift of 120
equal loads on each phase
equal impedance on the lines connecting the generators to
the loads
Bulk power systems are almost exclusively 3
Single phase is used primarily only in low voltage, low
power settings, such as residential and some commercial
31
Balanced 3 No Neutral Current
I n I a Ib I c
V
In
(10 1 1
Z
*
*
*
*
S Van I an
Vbn I bn
Vcn I cn
3 Van I an
32
Advantages of 3 Power
Can transmit more power for same amount of wire (twice
as much as single phase)
Torque produced by 3 machines is constant
Three phase machines use less material for same power
rating
Three phase machines start more easily than single phase
machines
33
Three Phase Wye Connection

There are two ways to connect 3 systems
Wye (Y)
Delta ()
Wye Connection Voltages

Van
Vbn
Vcn
V
34
Wye Connection Line Voltages

Vcn
Vca
Vab
-Vbn
Van
Vbn
Vbc
Vab
( = 0 in this case)
Van Vbn V (1 1 120
3 V 30
Vbc
3 V 90
Vca
3 V 150
Line to line voltages are

also balanced
35
Wye Connection, contd

Define voltage/current across/through device to be phase
voltage/current
Define voltage/current across/through lines to be line
voltage/current
VLine 3 VPhase 130 3 VPhase e
j
6
I Line I Phase
S3
*
3 VPhase I Phase
36
Delta Connection
For the Delta
phase voltages equal
line voltages
For currents
Ica
Ib
Ia I ab I ca
Ic
3 I ab
I b I bc I ab
Ibc
Iab
Ia
Ic I ca I bc
*
S3 3 VPhase I Phase
37
Three Phase Example

Assume a -connected load is supplied from a 3
13.8 kV (L-L) source with Z = 10020
Vab 13.80 kV
Vbc 13.8 0 kV
Vca 13.80 kV
I ab
13.80 kV
138 20 amps

I bc 138 140 amps
I ca 1380 amps
38
Three Phase Example, contd

I a I ab I ca 138 20 1380
239 50 amps
I b 239 170 amps I c 2390 amps
*
S 3 Vab I ab
3 13.80kV 138 amps
5.7 MVA
5.37 j1.95 MVA
pf cos 20 lagging
39
Delta-Wye Transformation
To simplify analysis of balanced 3 systems:
1) -connected loads can be replaced by
1
Y-connected loads with ZY Z
3
2) -connected sources can be replaced by
VLine
Y-connected sources with Vphase
330
40
Delta-Wye Transformation Proof
From the side we get

Vab Vca
Vab Vca
Ia
Z Z
Z
Hence
Vab Vca
Z
Ia
41
Delta-Wye Transformation, contd

From the Y side we get
Vab
ZY ( I a I b )
Vca ZY ( I c I a )
Vab Vca ZY (2 I a I b I c )
Since
Ia I b I c 0 I a I b I c
Hence
Vab Vca 3 ZY I a
3 ZY
Vab Vca
Z
Ia
Therefore
ZY
1
Z
3
42
Three Phase Transmission Line
43
Per Phase Analysis

Per phase analysis allows analysis of balanced 3 systems
with the same effort as for a single phase system
Balanced 3 Theorem: For a balanced 3 system with
All loads and sources Y connected
No mutual Inductance between phases
44
Per Phase Analysis, contd

Then
All neutrals are at the same potential
All phases are COMPLETELY decoupled
All system values are the same sequence as sources. The
sequence order weve been using (phase b lags phase a
and phase c lags phase a) is known as positive
sequence; later in the course well discuss negative and
zero sequence systems.
45
Per Phase Analysis Procedure

To do per phase analysis
1. Convert all load/sources to equivalent Ys
2. Solve phase a independent of the other phases
3. Total system power S = 3 Va Ia*
4. If desired, phase b and c values can be
determined by inspection (i.e., 120 degree phase
shifts)
5. If necessary, go back to original circuit to determine
line-line values or internal values.
46
Per Phase Example

Assume a 3, Y-connected generator with Van = 10 volts
supplies a -connected load with Z = -j through a
transmission line with impedance of j0.1 per phase. The
load is also connected to a -connected generator with
Vab = 10 through a second transmission line which also
has an impedance of j0.1 per phase.
Find
1. The load voltage Vab
2. The total power supplied by each generator, SY and S
47
Per Phase Example, contd
First convert the delta load and source to equivalent

Y values and draw just the "a" phase circuit
48
To solve the circuit, write the KCL equation at a'

(Va'
10)(10 j ) Va' (3 j ) (Va'
j
3
49

To solve the circuit, write the KCL equation at a'
1
'
'
'
(Va 10)(10 j ) Va (3 j ) (Va
j
3
10
(10 j
60) Va' (10 j 3 j 10 j )
3
Va' 0.9 volts
Vb' 0.9 volts
Vc' 0.9 volts
'
Vab
1.56 volts
50

*
'
Va Va
Sygen 3Va I a* Va
5.1 j 3.5 VA
j 0.1
"
" Va
Sgen 3Va
' *
Va
5.1 j 4.7 VA
j 0.1
51

Chapter 1

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Chapter 1

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Copyright:

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Chapter 1: Fundamentals

In return for this exclusive

It was a cost plus business

2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved.

Current Midwest Electric Grid

History, contd 1970s

History, contd 1990s & 2000s

State Variation in Electric Rates

The Goal: Customer Choice

The Result for California in 2000/1

The California-Enron Effect

August 14, 2003 Blackout

2007 Illinois Electricity Crisis

Root Mean Square (RMS) voltage of sinusoid

Phasor Representation, contd

(Note: Some texts use boldface type for

Advantages of Phasor Analysis

Complex Power, contd

Power Factor Angle = =qV q I

(Note: S is a complex number but not a phasor)

P = Real Power (W, kW, MW)

Complex Power, contd

Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.

-cos 1 0.85 31.8

Conservation of Power Example

Power Consumption in Devices

(Note-some define X C negative)

Power System Notation

Compensated circuit is identical to first example with

Reactive Compensation, contd

Power Factor Correction Example

cos 0.8 36.9

PF of 0.95 requires desired

cos 1 0.95 18.2

Snew 80 j (60 Qcap )

tan18.2 60 Qcap 26.3 kvar

Qcap 33.7 kvar

Distribution System Capacitors

Balanced 3 Phase () Systems

Balanced 3 No Neutral Current

Three Phase Wye Connection

Wye Connection Voltages

Wye Connection Line Voltages

Van Vbn V (1 1 120

Line to line voltages are

Wye Connection, contd

VLine 3 VPhase 130 3 VPhase e

Three Phase Example

I bc 138 140 amps

Three Phase Example, contd

Delta-Wye Transformation Proof

From the side we get

Delta-Wye Transformation, contd

Three Phase Transmission Line

Per Phase Analysis

Per Phase Analysis, contd

Per Phase Analysis Procedure

Per Phase Example

Per Phase Example, contd

First convert the delta load and source to equivalent

Per Phase Example, contd

To solve the circuit, write the KCL equation at a'

10)(10 j ) Va' (3 j ) (Va'