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THE CHURCH
Etymology
The word Church (Latin ecclesia, from the Greek Ekklesia, to call out
of) means a convocation or an assembly. It designates the assemblies of the
people, usually for a religious purpose.
Ekklesia is used frequently in the Greek Old Testament for the assembly of
the Chosen People before God, above all for their assembly on Mount Sinai
where Israel received the Law and was established by God as his holy
people.
The equivalent Greek term Kyriake, from which the English word Church
and the German Kirche are derived, means what belongs to the Lord.
(CCC, 751)
In Christian usage, the word Church designates the liturgical assembly, but
also the local community or the whole universal community of believers.
These three meanings are inseparable. The Church is the People of God
that gathers in the whole world. She exists in local communities and is
made real as a liturgical, above all a Eucharistic, assembly. She draws her
life from the word and the Body of Christ and so herself becomes Christs
Body. (CCC, 752)
What do we mean by Church? (CCC, 771)
The Church appears as a visible reality. A reality of men gathered for
religious goals, hierarchichally organized. She has her own way of life
expressed in rites, ceremonies, and sacraments. She has temples, laws, and a
wide body of moral and dogmatic doctrines that explicitate and facilitate the
contents of the gospel.
These visible realities, however, do not constitute the deep reality of
the Church. They only point out to the other realities of the Church: the
spiritual and supernatural order. This society is not only a society of men
but is, at the same time, a people chosen by God who become members of
the mystical body of Christ. The Church, then, is a divine-human reality.
The word Church connotes a reality with two distinct but inter-related
aspects. She is a visible assembly and at the same time a spiritual
community. Christ instituted only one Church where the divine and human
elements come together. Consequently, the Church is that community of the
people of God, which serves as the living extension of Christs salvific
action in time and history.
The ecclesial reality then, should not only be an object of study, but
also an object of faith. Although we can analyze her visible aspects, her

history, her coherence, we need mostly our faith to understand in depth her
supernatural reality.

FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH

(CCC, 758-768)
Whether the Church was Truly Founded by Christ
The origin of the Church lies in the will of the heavenly Father. The
Father sent his Son into the world to give mankind a share in his divine life.
And the Holy Spirit is to complete the work of Christ through the Church.
Hence, the Church fulfills this task of extending Christs salvific act.
However, we need to illustrate here two important facts:
(i)
(ii)

that the Church has been truly instituted by Christ, for He is

the only mediator between God and man;
that Jesus founded this Church for the purpose of continuing
His divine mission throughout history.

Jesus Instituted a Church

Scriptures give us the necessary data that Jesus indeed founded the
Church. However, we have to distinguish two stages:
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(i)
Preparatory Stage
Even at creation, God already prefigures the Church of Christ as the
family of God. He wants that mans social nature and character will have a
religious link. Hence, God calls man to be a part of the family of God. This
divine decision is indeed a pre-figuration of the Church of Christ, the people
of God.
God prepared the Church in the history of the people of Israel in the
OT. He chose Abraham and his descendants and established covenants with
them: God made a covenant with Abraham and promised him a fruitful
descendants. (Gn. 17:1-8). God made a covenant with the people of Israel
through Moses and gave them the commandments, the natural moral law.
(Ex 19:5-8). Finally, God promised David that the future Savior will come
among his descendants and will establish an eternal Kingdom. (2 Sam 7:1216).
In all these covenants, God took the initiative. And through the
prophets, God kept this hope for salvation. Consequently, we see these
covenants, too, as figures and preparations of the Church.
(ii)

The Stage of Institution

Unlike in a juridical society whose institution is proclaimed by signing

an official document, Jesus accomplished the institution of the Church, not
by a single act, but by a series of actions. The earthly life of Jesus was
actually the laying of the foundation of the Church. However, His death on
the cross and the sending of the Holy Spirit were most significant to the
institution of the Church. And we have to consider other instances too that
were essential.
a) Election of the Disciples: This was one of the preparatory acts for
the institution of the Church: the vocation of the disciples and the
election by Jesus.
b) Election of the Apostles and the Institution of the Apostolic
College: From the many who followed Him, Jesus chose twelve:
(Mk 3:13-15). This initiative of Jesus to elect a permanent group
is indeed the historical foundation of the College of Apostles.
The number twelve, too, has a deep significance: it corresponds to
the twelve Patriarchs of Israel. The Apostles therefore represent
the new people of God, the Church founded by Jesus. In this way,
Jesus manifested the continuity between the OT and the NT.
c) Jesus instituted the Primacy of Peter: I, for my part declare it
to you, you are rock, and on this rock I will build my Church, and
the jaws of death shall not prevail against it. I will entrust to you
the keys of heaven. Whatever you declare bound on earth shall be
bound in heaven; whatever you declare loose on earth shall be
loosed in heaven. (Mt 16:17-19). Jesus declares that Peter will
be an indispensable element in the essential structure of the
Church.
d) Institution of the Eucharist: With Jesus command to celebrate it
in His memory, the institution of the Eucharist has a relevant
place in the institution of the Church. The Eucharist recalls other
acts important in the foundation of the Church. For connected
with the Eucharist, is the institution of the sacrament of Holy
Orders. In the Eucharist, the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross is
renewed and becomes the spiritual food of the new covenant. The
Eucharist therefore, realizes the work of our redemption and
represents the accomplishments of the unity of the Church.
e) The Death on the Cross: Although the whole life of Jesus was
ordained to the institution of the Church, the Fathers of the
Church and the Magisterium have seen the birth of the Church
especially at the cross. Her foundation and growth were
symbolized in the water and blood that flowed from the wounded
side of Christ (Jn 19:34) and were prophesied in the words of
Jesus: I, once I am lifted up from earth, will draw all men to
myself (Jn 12:32). Through His death, therefore, Christ
established the New Covenant: Water and Blood---Baptism and

Eucharist, were two of the sacraments which became the signs of

the Church.
f) Pentecost: The coming of the Holy Spirit completes the institution
of the Church. On the day of Pentecost, the Church was
completed, and manifested to men as a means of salvation. Jesus
prepared the essential elements (doctrines, sacraments, apostolic
college, primacy of Peter). It was the Holy Spirit that manifested
her to men to sanctify her indefinitely. The Church was born by a
divine decision: the Father and the Son sent the Holy Spirit in the
community of believers to sanctify them and increase their
number throughout the whole world.
Jesus Bestowed Sacred Powers
Jesus bestowed sacred powers to the Apostles and their legitimate
successors. As you have sent me into the world, so I have sent them into
the world (Lk 10:16). In order to carry out that saving mission, Jesus
bestowed on the Apostles sacred powers:
a) to baptize (Mt 28:19)
b) to forgive sins (Mt 18:18)
c) to celebrate the Eucharist (Lk 22:19)
Jesus identifies Himself with them. He who hears you, hears me. He
who rejects you, rejects me. And he who rejects me, rejects Him who sent
me. (Lk 10:16).
It was to the Church therefore that Jesus most emphatically
commanded to continue His divine mission. All power in heaven and on
earth has been given to me. Go, therefore, and make disciples of all nations,
baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you; and behold
I am with you all days, even unto the consummation of the world. (Mt
28:18-20).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHURCH

(CCC, 813-864)
This is the sole Church of Christ, which in the Creed we profess to be
one, holy, catholic and apostolic. These four characteristics, inseparably
linked with each other, indicate essential features of the Church and her
mission. The Church does not possess them of herself; it is Christ who,
through the Holy Spirit, makes his Church one, holy, catholic and apostolic,
and it is he who calls her to realize each of these qualities. (CCC, 811)
1. The Church is One (CCC, 813-822)
The sacred mystery of the Churchs unity
The Church is one because of her source: the highest exemplar and
source of this mystery is the unity, in the Trinity of Persons, of one God, the
Father, and the Son in the Holy Spirit. The Church is one because of her
founder: for the Word made flesh, the prince of peace, reconciled all men to
God by the crossrestoring the unity of all in one people and one body.
The Church is one because of her soul: it is the Holy Spirit, dwelling in
those who believe and pervading and ruling over the entire Church, who
brings about that wonderful communion of the faithful and joins them
together so intimately in Christ that he is the principle of the Churchs unity.
Unity is of the essence of the Church. (CCC, 813)
What are these bonds of unity? Above all charity binds everything
together in perfect harmony. But the unity of the pilgrim Church is also
assured by visible bonds of communion:
- profession of one faith received from the Apostles;
- common celebration of divine worship, especially of the sacraments;
- apostolic succession through the sacrament of Holy Orders, maintaining
the fraternal concord of Gods family. (CCC, 815)
Wounds to Unity
The ruptures that wound the unity of Christs Body---here we must
distinguish heresy, apostasy and schism---do not occur without human sin.
However, one cannot charge with the sin of separation those who at
present are born into these communities (that resulted from such separation)
and in them are brought up in the faith of Christ, and the Catholic Church
accepts them with respect and affection as brothersAll who have been
justified by faith in Baptism are incorporated into Christ; they therefore have
a right to be called Christians. And with good reason are accepted as
brothers in the Lord by the children of the Catholic Church. (CCC, 817-818)

Furthermore. Many elements of sanctification and of truth are found

outside the visible confines of the Catholic Church: the written Word of
God; the life of grace; faith, hope and charity, with the interior gifts of the
Holy Spirit, as well as visible elements. Christs Spirit uses these Churches
and ecclesial communities as means of salvation, whose power derives from
the fullness of grace and truth that Christ has entrusted to the Catholic
Church. (CCC, 819)
Toward Unity (CCC, 820-821)
Christ bestowed unity on His Church from the beginning. This unity,
we believe, subsists in the Catholic Church as something she can never lose,
and we hope that it will continue to increase until the end of time.
Certain things are required in order to respond adequately to this call:
- a permanent renewal of the Church in greater fidelity to her vocation;
such renewal is the driving force of the movement toward unity;
- conversion of heart as the faithful try to live holier lives according to
the gospel, for it is the unfaithfulness of the members to Christs gift
which causes divisions;
- prayer in common, because change of heart and holiness of life, along
with public and private prayer for the unity of Christians, should be
regarded as the soul of the whole ecumenical movement, and merits the
name spiritual ecumenism.
- fraternal knowledge of each other;
- ecumenical formation;
- dialogue among theologians, and meetings among Christians of the
different Churches and communities;
- collaboration among Christians in various areas of service to mankind.
2. The Church is Holy (CCC, 823-829)
The Churchis held, as a matter of faith, to be unfailingly holy. This
is because Christ, the Son of God, who with the Father and the Spirit is
hailed as alone holy, loved the Church as his Bride, giving himself up for
her so as to sanctify her; he joined her to himself as his body and endowed
her with the gift of the Holy Spirit for the glory of God. The Church, then,
is the holy People of God, and her members are called saints.
United with Christ, the Church is sanctified by him; through him and
with him she becomes sanctifying. All the activities of the Church are
directed, as toward their end, to the sanctification of men in Christ and the
glorification of God. It is in the Church that the fullness of the means of
salvation has been deposited. It is in her that by the grace of God we
acquire holiness.

3. The Church is Catholic (CCC, 830-856)

What does catholic mean?
The word catholic means universal, in the sense of according to
the totality or in keeping with the whole. The Church is catholic in a
double sense:
First, the Church is catholic because Christ is present in her. Where
there is Christ Jesus, there is the catholic Church. In her subsists the
fullness of Christs body united with its head; this implies that she receives
from him the fullness of the means of salvation which he has willed;
correct and complete confession of faith, full sacramental life, and ordained
ministry in apostolic succession. The Church was, in this fundamental
sense, catholic on the day of Pentecost and will always be so until the day of
the Parousia.
Secondly, the Church is catholic because she has been sent out by
Christ on a mission to the whole of human race.
Who belongs to the Catholic Church?
All men are called to this catholic unity of the People of GodAnd to
it, in different ways, belong or are ordered: the Catholic faithful, others who
believe in Christ, and finally all mankind, called by Gods grace to
salvation.
Mission-a requirement of the Churchs catholicity
The missionary mandate. Go therefore and make disciples of all
nations, baptizing them in the name of the father and of the Son and of the
Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you.
The origin and purpose of mission. The Lords missionary mandate is
ultimately grounded in the eternal love of the Most Holy Trinity: The
Church on earth is by her nature missionary since, according to the plan of
the father, she has as her origin the mission of the Son and the Holy Spirit.
The ultimate purpose of mission is none other than to make men share in the
communion between the Father and the Son in their Spirit of love.
4. The Church is Apostolic (CCC 857-864)
The Church is apostolic because she is founded on the apostles, in
three ways:
- she was and remains built on the foundations of the Apostles, the
witnesses chosen and sent on mission by Christ himself;

- with the help of the Spirit dwelling in her, the Church keeps and hands on
the teaching she has heard from the apostles;
- she continues to be taught, sanctified and guided by the apostles until
Christs return, through their successors in pastoral office: the college of
bishops, assisted by priests, in union with the successor of Peter, the
Churchs supreme pastor.

The Organization of the Roman Catholic Church

(www.bible.ca/catholic-church-hierarchy-organization.htm)
Pope (1 head)
Bishops (2946 diocese, cathedrals)
Priests (219,583 parishes)
Catholics (1 Billion members)
A. The Pope (also called the Patriarch) refer to the list of Popes (file)
The following terms are applied to the Pope:
1. Bishop of the city of Rome (head of the a local diocese in Rome)
2. Vicar of Jesus Christ
3. Successor of St. Peter
4. Pope (Universal bishop over all other bishops)
5. Prince of the Apostles
6. Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church
7. Patriarch of the West
8. Primate of Italy
9. Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province
10. Sovereign of the Vatican City State
11. Servant of the Servants of God
12. Priest of St. John Lateran Basilica (Parish priest)
The Pope actually holds three positions in the Catholic Church:
1. Parish Priest at St. John Lateran Basilica: Priest who preaches at the pulpit
of St. John Lateran Basilica on a day to day basis just like any other
parish priest.
2. Bishop of the Diocese of the city of Rome.
3. Pope: head of the universal Church. Universal Bishop: Pope. The Pope is
also the "Ruler of the Bishops".
B. The Bishops (also called Archbishop = Major-Archbishop) There are
2946 "Mother Churches" (and diocese) in the Catholic Church today. The

local Church where a Bishop resides is always called a Cathedral, which is

Latin for "chair". A Cathedral therefore means that a specific local Church is
where the Bishops official chair is centered from over other local parishes.
The Cathedral is the Bishops home Church. Each of these Mother Churches
(Cathedrals) are assigned a geographic territory which is called a diocese.
There is only one Bishop per diocese, although he may be assisted by other
bishops who rank below him as servants. So from a power organization,
there is one Bishop for each of the 2946 diocese.
There is no difference in rank and power between a Bishop and an
Archbishop. An archbishop is merely a bishop who controls a larger than
average territory or is located in a city of political importance, like a capital
city of a state, province or nation.
An Archbishop has no power over other bishops outside his own diocese.
The term Major-Archbishop is just a variation of Archbishop. In power
terms, there is only one man who can "fire" a bishop: the Pope, who
appointed him in the first place.
All Bishops hold two positions of power in the Catholic Church, which are
separate offices.
Bishop of diocese where his local Church is in the world. He preaches for a
"Mother Church" that is over other local Churches in his area. All Bishops
are more than just a parish priests, they are also Bishop of a Church that is
the head of diocese within which are several other local Churches he rules
over. As the Bishop of Rome, he is equal to every other bishop in the
Catholic Church including the Pope, who is also a mere bishop of a local
diocese.
C. The Priests: They are also called, Reverend, Pastor, Priest, Father. There
is one Priest for each of the 219,583 Parishes (local Churches) in the
Catholic Church. Each Parish has is own geographic territory and boundary
lines between local Churches are well defined. The Priest, is in charge of a
single parish that is over common Catholics. The priest answers only to two
men, his Bishop and the Pope. A bishop from one diocese has no power or
control over a Priest from a different diocese. In power terms, there are only
two men who can "fire" a priest: the Pope or the bishop who appointed him.
D. Three levels: As you can see, the Pope holds three separate offices,
Bishops hold two separate offices and Priests hold one office.
Head of
Bishops
Pope

Head of
Diocese

Head of
Parish

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Bishops
Priests
III. Arch-Bishops are not over Bishops. Arch-Diocese are not over
Diocese!
Bishops and Arch-Bishops are the same power. Arch-Bishops are from larger
cities, capital cities etc. Such a naming tradition of calling larger, politically
powerful cities by seemly higher sounding titles, carries on the tradition that
caused the Bishop of Rome (A large city that was the capital of Rome) to
take the highest title of Pope! Small cities get Bishops, while BIG cities get
ARCH-BISHOPS.
Diocese and Arch-Diocese are the same power. Arch-Diocese are from larger
cities, capital cities etc. Diocese have Bishops, while Arch-Diocese have
Arch-Bishops.
IV. What about Cardinals?
Cardinals have no power in the Catholic Church. They are not over Bishops
or Priests. Cardinals are chosen by the Pope from the 2946 bishops to take
on an additional title of Cardinal.
The best way to think of a Cardinal, is a cabinet member in the Presidents
Office. The President is like the Pope with total control. But there are also
hundreds of elected officials called "Cabinet Members". Each "Members of
the Cabinet", corresponds to a Bishop and rules over a specific territory.
From this pool of elected "Cabinet Members of the President", the President
chooses his "Cabinet" of men and women to fill positions like, "Defense
Secretary", "Trade and Industry Secretary", "Department of Education
Secretary". These cabinet members correspond to "Cardinals". So Cardinals
are Bishops with additional privilege but do not rank over anyone outside
their own diocese. Cardinals act as an advisory panel for the Pope and elect
the new pope when the current one dies.
Catholic offices and positions:
Bishop: These men are the successors of the apostles and are usually the
spiritual leaders of local Churches. One or several auxiliary bishops may
assist in the ministry. Some local Churches with the largest population and
territory are called archdioceses. These "archdioceses" are led by an
"archbishop".
Cardinal: This is essentially an honorary title conferred on bishops.
Cardinals usually head a large archdiocese or hold a chief administrative

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position in the Church. Until he reaches the age of 80, a cardinal is allowed
to vote in the election of a new pope.
Apostolic Pronuncio (Papal Nuncio): An archbishop who acts as the
official Vatican delegate to a country. He holds the rank of ambassador.
Holy See: A term that refers to the pope and the Roman Curia--the Vatican
officials and offices that are responsible for the day-to-day handling of
Church affairs and resources worldwide.
Diocese: This is the geographical area in which a bishop exercises his
ministry of shepherding. In Canada, most dioceses consist of several
counties or regional municipalities.
Priest: Co-worker of the bishop. The priest shares in the power of the
bishop as an ordained cleric. The priest can be a diocesan priest or
religious priest. A diocesan priest is attached to a specific diocese, under the
authority of the local bishop.
A religious priest is a member of a religious community that has a particular
mission in the Church (for example, missionary work or teaching) and works
in many different parts of the world at the invitation of local bishops. In
addition, the religious priest takes "vows" of poverty--to relinquish personal
ownership and share possessions; chastity--not just to forego marriage as the
vow of celibacy requires (which all priests take) but to strive for Godcentered love; and obedience--to spread the gospel where requested.
Pastor: The bishop is chief pastor of his diocese, but he delegates priests to
be his direct representative in the pastoral care of a parish Church. The other
appointed priests in the parish are called "associate pastors" or "parochial
vicars."
Monsignor: An honorary title given to a diocesan priest in recognition of his
contributions to the life of the Church.
Deacon: An ordained member of the clergy, ranked under bishops and
priests. A deacon can either be transitional (a step while studying for the
priesthood) or permanent (ordained only for the diaconate). Only permanent
deacons may be married, and only if they were married at the time of their
ordination. If their wives die, they cannot remarry. Otherwise, deacons are
celibate. The deacon's ministry is performing pastoral works of charity and
in assisting liturgical functions.
Sister (nun): A member of a religious order of women. Sisters, or nuns, take
vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and their ministries to spread the
gospel are diversified and widespread
Brother: A non-ordained (Priests and brothers as "monks.") Brothers
obedience, and their widespread. member of a religious order of men. in

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monastic orders are referred to take vows of poverty, chastity, and ministries
are also varied and
Laity: The term used to designate all baptized Catholics who are not
members of the clergy but exercise their baptism by leavening secular life
with the presence of Christ and attaining holiness by fulfilling their own
particular duties in life.
CBCP: Initials that stand for the Catholic Bishops Conference of the
Philippines. This conference of bishops and attending agencies speak with
one voice on important religious and social topics of our day and expresses
Catholic teaching on these topics for the Church in the Philippines.
V. Catholic buildings and places: (from a Catholic publication)
Vatican City: A 108-acre plot of land in Rome that serves as the worldwide
headquarters of the Catholic Church and is the official residence of the pope.
Vatican City is a recognized "state," with the pope as its temporal leader, and
has diplomatic relations with many countries.
Basilica: A Church designated as a place of special importance (for
example, Saint Peter's Basilica in Vatican City).
Cathedral: The official Church of the bishop of a diocese. It gets its name
from "cathedra," Latin for "chair," which is the symbol of the bishop's
leadership. The bishop presides at this chair when he is present for cathedral
services.
Chancery: The place where the bishop works and where the (arch) diocesan
offices and programs are centralized. In some places, the chancery is
referred to as the "Catholic Centre."
Parish Church: A Church with territorial boundaries that serves the needs
of the people in its immediate area. Some parishes are not territorial but
were built to serve specific groups of immigrants. Churches are named in
honor of one or all Persons of the Trinity, the Virgin Mary, or one of the
saints.
Parish Center: A building or large space where parish activities are held.
Shrine: A Church with devotional center.
Chapel: is a building used by Christians, members of other religions, and
sometimes interfaith communities, as a place of fellowship and worship. It
may be attached to an institution such as a large church, college, hospital,
palace, prison or funeral home, located on board a military or commercial
ship, or it may be an entirely free-standing building, sometimes with its own
grounds.

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Rectory: The residence of priests.

Convent: The residence of sisters.
Monastery: The residence of a religious community of men or a religious
community of women.
The apostolate
We call an apostolate every activity of the Mystical Body that aims
to spread the Kingdom of Christ over all the earth.

THE DIFFERENT MODELS OF THE CHURCH

We can better understand the Church better by studying her aspects or
models. There are basic models which have come from history. They are
especially helpful in grasping the reality of the Catholic Church today and
illuminating various aspects of the Churchs mystery. They are visible and
tangible images of a deeper reality.
These images are mutually
complementary. None therefore should be interpreted in an exclusive sense
so as to negate what the other models have to teach us.
1.

As an Institution

This image pictures the Church as a hierarchically structured society

(LG 20). This institutional model of the Church describes it primarily in
terms of its visible structures, especially the rights and duties of its leaders
(teaching, sanctifying, and governing). Insistence on the visibility of the
Church occurred in the late Middle Ages and during the CounterReformation, when theologians and canonists, responding to attacks on the
papacy and hierarchy, accented precisely those features that the adversaries
were denying. The Council of Trent and the Counter-Reformation
ecclesiology answered by stressing on the models of the Church as a
hierarchical society. The peak of such an understanding of the Church
was reached at Vatican I Council (1869-1870).
The Church is not conceived as a democratic or representative society,
but as one in which the fullness of power is concentrated in the hands of the
ordained ministers, a ruling class. This model tends to reduce the laity to a
condition of passivity. It tends to exaggerate the role of human authority.
Through out its history, from the earliest years, Christianity has always
had an institutionalized side. The Church could not perform its mission
without some stable organizational features. We acknowledge that mission

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within the Church and in the world needs the support of a leadership and
stable structures. Thus, the Church as institution is valid but within limits.
2.

As People of God

The People of God is the key image and the principal model of the
Church in Vatican II. Vatican II shifted the emphasis from the Church as
institution towards the Church as people of God. It wanted to emphasize
what is common to all disciples of the Lord and to stress the primacy of
being disciples even before any organization or hierarchical structure.
All men and women are called to belong to the New People of God, so
that, in Christ, they may form one family and one People of God. This
model serves to emphasize the human, historical and communal aspects of
the Church and it corrects the former common misunderstanding of
identifying the Church only with bishops, priests and religious. This image
of the Church is a collegial one. It explains what is common to all the
members of the People of God, prior to any distinction of office, on the basis
of the dignity of Christian existence.
This has also ecumenical implications. Collegiality is more obviously
the characteristic linking all Christians in a unity of equals with one another.
This image also shows that Christians are saved not merely as individuals
but especially by making them into a single people. Through this image,
communion is concretely experienced as a community of believers coming
together and sharing with one another the experience of each in ones life of
faith from day to day.
The People of God is a biblical concept having deep roots in the Old
Testament, where Israel is constantly referred to as the nation God had
chosen. In the New Testament, the Christian EKKLESIA is referred to as
the new Israel or as the People of God of the New Covenant. It is one and
the same God who through Christ in the Holy Spirit gathers the scattered
children from all places and all ages and makes them into one people of
God.
The Church is the New people of God, on pilgrimage in history,
heading towards the kingdom. As Gods people, all members, including the
leaders are fundamentally equal in basic dignity and in responsibility for
ministry and mission because everyone shares in the one life of faith through
baptism.
3.

As Body of Christ

This model refers to the communion of believers who are united with
Christ and among themselves in one body, the mystical body. St. Paul used
this image to express the unity of Christians. He compared the group of
believers to a human body called the body of Christ. In this one body there
are different parts. Each part is needed by every other part.

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In using this physiological description, St. Paul emphasizes the

interconnectedness of the members: we belong to one another for we belong
to one body. As the body of Christ the members of the Church are seen as
organically interrelated and interdependent (Eph 4:15) with Christ as head.
We are all baptized by one Spirit into one body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13). The
bond of union is the invisible grace of Christ.
Using the Pauline image of the body of Christ, The Second Vatican
Council points out the unity in diversity that should characterize the
community of disciples. In the unity, there is equality in dignity by virtue of
our rebirth in Christ in baptism which entitles us to take part in the life of the
Church. Equality in Christian dignity of the believers is the ground for
mutual relationship in the Church. As the concrete body of Christ, as we
have received life from him, so we give life to others. What we need is to
discover our parts in the body.
4.

The Church as Community of Disciples

The Church as community of disciples is the image of a communion of

peoples and Churches. This is one of the images the Church in the
Philippines envisions to live. Discipleship gives the individual as well as the
Christian community a unique identity and purpose. It demands from
Christians a commitment to mission in the world. It is through the
community of disciples that we can attain our objective of becoming the
Church of the Poor. In the community of disciples of Christ, we follow
Christ not as separate individuals but together. There is no such thing as an
isolated disciple. This common discipleship binds us together in equal
dignity and in common mission as a Christian community (PCP II 95).
It takes the first Jerusalem community as the model for the Church it
desires for the Philippines. The PCP II vision of the Church as a
community of disciples is a very big advance over the concept of the Church
as primarily a social institution. In this way of presenting the Church, PCP
II has moved from the SILA (they) Church to the TAYO (We, all of us
together) Church. The pyramid ceases to be the dominant image of the
Church. The circle has taken its place. The movement now is towards
people, towards life; from the Church to the world, from the parish to the
families and to the neighborhood, the school and the workplace. The image
of humanity operating here is no longer the vertical one of high and low, but
of persons who, being of equal worth, can be of service to one another on an
equal footing. The community of disciples does not exist only for itself or
its members. It exists for the world. It is sent to build up the Church, and to
serve the Kingdom by permeating the world with Gospel values so that
finally all creation may be united in Christ as head (PCP II 104).

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THE HUMAN-DIVINE REALITY

IN THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH
The Church is not merely a social organization. Neither is she simply
a spiritual establishment. Since the Church integrates both the human and
divine elements, she is a mystery too that goes beyond our intellectual
capacity. Consequently, her history is not only an external history but above
all a revelation of a mystery. Through the history of the Church we truly can
discover the salvific action of God and the revelation of the meaning of her
mission.
In studying the history of the Church, one ought to recognize the
changeable elements from the necessary elements of the Church. We hope
therefore that by trying to understand the different periods of her history, we
can penetrate how the Church understood herself better, her mission and her
role.
FAMOUS DATES IN CHRISTIAN HISTORY
c. 30
c. 36
c. 50
64
70
70-100
95-312
312/3
325
400
430
451
529
590-604
800
1054

Jesus is crucified by the Romans; the Holy Spirit descends upon

the apostles
The conversion of Saul (Paul) of Tarsus, Christianitys first
great thinker and missionary
The Council of Jerusalem; apostles meet in Jerusalem and free
the Gentile Christians from the demand of circumcision
Persecution of Church by Nero
Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus
Writing of the gospels
Various persecutions of the Church by different Roman
emperors
The conversion of the emperor Constantine; Christianity is
granted legitimate status by the Edict of Milan
Nicea: the first great ecumenical council affirms the divinity
of Jesus against the heresy Arianism
Jerome translates the Bible into Latin (called the Vulgate)
Death of Augustine of Hippo, one of the most influential
thinkers in the history of the Church
The Council of Chalcedon declares that Jesus is the Second
Person of the Trinity with both a human and divine nature
Benedict establishes a monastery at Monte Cassino and begins
the influence of monasticism in the west
Pope Gregory the Great establishes the power of the pope as a
model for the next 700 years
Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne emperor of the Holy Roman
Empire
Schism between Constantinople (Orthodox) and Rome reaches
final climax

17

1231

Pope Gregory IX authorizes the papal inquisition as a means of

dealing with heresy

1308/09
1377/78
1517
1545-63
1789
1869-70
1891
1962-65

The popes live in Avignon (around 70 years)

Martin Luther nails his 95 theses to the door of Wittenberg
Church, beginning the Protestant reformation
The Council of Trent begins a new era in the history of the
Catholic Church, called the counter-reformation
The French Revolution marks the beginning of the end of the
privileged Church in Europe and the new era of enlightenment
The First Vatican Council declares the infallibility of the pope
Pope Leo XIII issues the encyclical Rerum Novarum, defending
the rights of workers in the midst of the industrial revolution
The Second Vatican Council seeks renewal in the Church

I. The Church during the First Three Centuries

The first Christians understood the Church as the community of Christ.
Through the Eucharist, they strengthened their union with God and men and
generously gave themselves for the others by proclaiming the faith and by
providing material help. The early Christian communities centered in
Jerusalem, around the twelve (St. Peter et al). Many miracles and wonders
were being done through the apostles, and everyone was filled with love.
The first recorded use of the term Christian is in the New Testament, in
Acts 11:26, which states "...in Antioch the disciples were first called
Christians."
All the believers continued together in close fellowship and shared
their belongings with one another. They would sell their properties and
possessions, and distribute the money among all, according to what each one
needed. Day after day, they met as a group in the temple, and they had their
meals together in their homes, eating with glad and humble hearts, praising
God, and enjoying the goodwill of all people. And everyday, the Lord added
to their group those who were saved. (Acts 2:42-47). St. Stephen 1st
Christian Martyr and conversion of St. Paul (36 A.D.).
The Apostles all gathered in Jerusalem (Acts 15) to discuss whether
Gentiles who had been converted to Christianity had to observe all the
ceremonial precepts of the Mosaic Law. This gathering of the Apostles
became known as the Council of Jerusalem (50 AD), and set the pattern of
future Councils to resolve issues that arose within the Church.
Difficulties the early Christians encountered under the Roman regime:
a) they refused to do military service because of the precept
thou shall not kill;
b) on account of idolatry, Christians refused to participate in
the cult to the emperor. This eventually led to the

18

persecution of the Christians which was initiated by

Emperor Nero of Rome in the year 64.
The persecutions, however, were not obstacles for the Church which
showed no fear against the temporal powers of the world. Rather, she saw in
these persecutions the confirmation of her own faith, the mystery of Gods
plan and that the presence of Christ was being realized in her. Instead of
decreasing the number of Christians, the persecution intensified all the more
the diffusion of Christianity.
During the first three centuries, it was evident that the Christians were
much aware of the spiritual link they have with one another. They were
conscious that their community was a continuation of the mission of Jesus.
From time to time they were subjected to persecution (built catacombs).
Roman emperor Titus destroyed Jerusalem in 70 A.D.
St. Ignatius of Antioch was Bishop of Syria about 75-110 AD, and is
one of the Apostolic Fathers of the Church. The Apostolic Fathers were a
group of early Christian writers from about 75-150 AD, such as St. Ignatius,
St. Clement of Rome, St. Polycarp Bishop of Smyrna (martyred in 155
AD), and the author(s) of the Didache. St. Ignatius was the first to use the
term Catholic Church in his Letter to the Smryneans (8:2):
"Wherever the bishop appears let the congregation be present;
just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."
The word catholic means universal and refers to the universal Church
of Jesus Christ. The occasion of his trip to Rome proved to be a unifying
event for all of the early Churches. He established the hierarchy of bishop,
priest, and deacon for the early Churches, the pattern which still exists
today. Ignatius of Antioch would not worship the Emperor Trajan (98-117),
and thus was placed in chains and ordered to Rome to be thrown to the lions
in the Roman Coliseum.
St. Justin Martyr (100-165) was born of pagan parents in Palestine.
As a young man searching for truth, he was walking along the sea and met
an old man who advised him to turn to the faith of Jesus Christ. He began
writing extensively in defense of the Christian faith, his three most famous
works being the First and Second Apologies and Dialogue with Trypho.
In his early writings he describes the Tradition of the Eucharistic
Liturgy in the Sunday community gathering, a Memorial of the Last Supper,
an event which has remained the same essentially for 2000 years.
Considered the first Apologist or Defender of the Faith, Justin was martyred
in 165 AD for preaching Christianity to the Romans.
The development of the Apostles' Creed began from Apostolic times,
as a profession of faith during the rite of Baptism, recalling the instruction of
Jesus to his disciples to "teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the

19

Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Matthew 28:19-20)." This Baptismal formula
was recorded in the Didache (7) as early as the second century AD. In
accordance with this, the person about to be baptized was asked three
questions: "Do you believe in God the Father Almighty...? Do you believe in
Jesus Christ, his Son our Lord...? Do you believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy
catholic church...?" The person being baptized would answer, Credo or I
Believe.
One of the worst of Christian persecution was that of Emperor
Diocletian (284-305) who ordered the martyrdom of St. Sebastian in 288.
When he abandoned the throne, it would have been impossible for Christians
to predict that they were soon to become the dominant religion of the empire
and the most dominant force in shaping western civilization.
II. Constantine and the Growth of Christianity
When Constantine succeeded Diocletian, he brought with him a new
element: a mother (Helena) who was a Christian. While Constantine was
still a pagan, he had a vision in battle which led him to believe he would be
victorious under the sign of Christ. He was victorious, and later, with his coemperor Licinius (Eastern emperor), he passed the Edict of Milan which
granted freedom of religion to Christians.
Roman emperors were
accustomed to taking an active part in religious matters, and Constantine
applied this to Christianity. It was he who called the bishops together for the
great Council of Nicea in 325 (Jesus Christ as divine - against Arianism).
Constantine considered himself Christian, and did much to protect and
support Christianity. Sunday as the Lord's Day was made a day of rest, and
December 25 was celebrated as the birthday of Jesus. He restored property
that once belonged to Christians. Often at the request of his mother Helena,
he built exquisitely beautiful churches, particularly the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, and the
Church of St. Peter in Rome.
Constantine was baptized just prior to his death in 337. Because he
saw himself as both head of state and father of the Christian Churches, he is
considered the architect of the Middle Ages as founder of Christendom.
The next centuries brought forth some extraordinary Christians. The
so-called Fathers of the Church began to embark on extraordinary
scholarship on behalf of the Church. Jerome (ca.345-420) was a monk who
translated the Bible from its original languages into Latin. This translation is
called the Vulgate and was later officially recognized as the official
translation of the Catholic Church.
The most influential of the Fathers of the Church was St. Augustine.
Originally from Northern Africa, Augustine had a pagan father and a
Christian mother, St. Monica. He was an extraordinarily brilliant young

20

man who was prone to lifes pleasures: gambling, prostitutes and drinking.
He later calmed down, took a mistress who bore him a son, and taught in
Milan. It was there that he met another great Christian, the bishop Ambrose
(d. 397). After much procrastination and another mistress, Augustine at the
age of 33 finally converted to Christianity under the influence of his mother
and St. Ambrose (who baptized him). He wrote a book describing his
conversion, called The Confessions, which is one of the greatest descriptions
of a spiritual journey ever recorded. Augustine quickly became a priest and
shortly after was appointed bishop of Hippo (d.430).
The canon of the New Testament was formed within the early
Christian community, the Church. Three Fathers of the Church St.
Athanasius of Alexandria in his Letter of 367, St. Jerome in Bethlehem
with the publication of his Latin New Testament in 384, and St. Augustine
at the Council of Hippo in 393 - agreed that 27 Books were the inspired
Word of God. The Canon of the New Testament of the Bible was confirmed
at the Third Council of Carthage in 397 AD.
Veneration of Mary, Mother of God (Theotokos) official title
bestowed 431 at Council of Ephesus. Mary increasingly viewed as mediator
interceding with the Son of mercy on sinners.
The fifth century also produced Leo the Great, the pope who not only
was a spiritual leader but also became the most powerful man of his time in
the west. He presided over the Council of Chalcedon in 451, which
ultimately supported Leo's stance that Christ had two natures, both Divine
and human, without confusion, in one Person. Resolution of the controversy
by Leo was important to the primacy of the Pope and Christian unity. He set
the tone for a powerful papacy which would be intimately involved in
not only the affairs of the Church but those of the state as well.
He also met face to face with Atilla the Hun (452) who decided to call
off the invasion! Later when Geneseric the Vandal invaded Rome in 455,
Leo influenced him to spare the destruction of Rome. By the time of his
death, the connection between Church and state was inseparable.
III. Monasticism
In time, conversions to Christianity had little to do with Jesus Christ
and much to do with ones local leader or king. As Christianity became
the preferred religion, masses of people were baptized. Christianity lost
much of its original force as the power of Gods love and Spirit in the
world. Many historians credit monasticism with preserving both the spirit of
Christianity and the ancient wisdom of civilization. As people continued to
long for a purer form of faith, they entered monasteries for a life of prayer
and community. St. Anthony (251-356) of Egypt is often credited as the
founder of monasticism in the Church. In the year 285 he withdrew into the

21

desert as a hermit. St. Pachomius (292-348) was at the same time

beginning a communal (cenobitic) experiment with monasticism.
These movements to withdraw from the life of society became
extremely important as the Church became more closely wedded to the state.
The most important figure in this movement was St. Benedict (480-547)
who built a monastery at Monte Cassino. The community was composed
of ordinary people who lived by the motto ora et labora (prayer and
work). Benedicts Rule became the standard for monastic life for centuries.
The monastery was a self-contained community in which all the material as
well as the spiritual needs of the monks were provided.
The first monk to become Pope was St. Gregory the Great (540604). A man of great energy, he is known for four historic achievements. His
theological and spiritual writings shaped the thought of the Middle Ages; he
made the Pope the de facto ruler of central Italy; his charisma strengthened
the Papacy in the West; and he was dedicated to the conversion of England
to Christianity. Moreover, during this period Pope Gregory the Great
establishes the power of the pope as a model for the next 700 years.
By copying the works of the fathers of the Church and the classics of
western civilization, the monks kept alive this tradition in an age in which
the Roman Empire was crumbling. By the ninth century the monasteries
had become the centers of learning and their abbots were powerful men.
IV. The Schism Between East and West
The two great centers of Christianity were Rome and
Constantinople. Although geographically they were not so distant, they
became more and more separated by theology and politics. Those in the east
(Constantinople) often resented the Roman claims to primacy. After the fall
of the Roman Empire, there was only one emperor (in the east). His failure
to protect the west from invading peoples led Pope Leo III (d. 816) to
crown Charlemagne (d. 814) as Holy Roman Emperor in then year 800.
This also brought about great resentment from the east.
The iconoclastic controversy. "Thou shall not make unto thee any
graven images" (Exodus 20:4), Emperor Leo III attacked the use of images.
St. John of Damascus (d. 749) defended the use of icons in worship by
differentiating between veneration and worship. He also argued that the use
of images is an affirmation of Christs humanity, because the real person can
de depicted.
In 858, the Roman Emperor in the East Michael III removed the
patriarch of Constantinople and replaced him with his own man named
Photius (d. 891), who refused to accept the authority of the Pope Benedict
III (d. 858). This argument was patched up but relations remain strained.

22

When Michael Cerularius (d. 1059) became patriarch of

Constantinople in 1043, he had little respect for the papacy. When Pope Leo
IX (d. 1054) insisted that easterners living in the west conform to western
rituals, Michael did the same to those westerners living in the east. One bad
decision was followed by another. Diplomatic relations broke down, and the
patriarch, the emperor, and their followers were all excommunicated in1054.
Despite repeated attempts at reconciliation, all hope was lost after the fourth
crusade in which the city of Constantinople was sacked by armies
representing western Christianity. The result was the break that divides the
Roman and Orthodox (correct teaching) Churches to this day.
Pope Urban II (d. 1099) launched 200 years of the Crusades at the
Council of Clermont, France in 1095. He urged the knights and noblemen to
win back the Holy Land, to face their sins, and called upon those present to
save their souls and become Soldiers of Christ. Those who undertook the
venture were to wear an emblem in the shape of a red cross on their body (so
derived the word Crusader to mark with a cross).
Three reasons are primarily given for the beginning of the Crusades:
(1) to reclaim the Land of Christ and stop the Moslem invasion; (2) to heal
the rift between Roman and Orthodox Christianity following the Schism of
1054; and (3) to marshal the energy of the constantly warring feudal lords
and knights into the one cause of penitential warfare. One cannot help but
observe that the effort restored Papal Primacy and Christendom.
The only successful Crusade (of eight major efforts) was the First,
when the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem in 1099. The Church of the Holy
Sepulchre was once again in Christian hands. The four Crusader states of
Jerusalem, Tripoli, Antioch, and Edessa were established. The effort lasted
only 88 years, when Saladin (d. 1193) recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.
Richard the Lionheart (d. 1199) of England negotiated a settlement with
Saladin during the Third Crusade whereby Christian pilgrims were given
free access to Jerusalem. The four Crusader states eventually collapsed, and
with the surrender of Acre in 1291, formal Christian presence in the Holy
Land ended.
V. The Pope Grows in Power
The connection between Church and state became so powerful that the
Church became increasingly corrupted by secular forces. Church offices
were bought and sold by men interested more in wealth and power than
faith. Church property was passed on to the children of priests or bishops
(celibacy was not yet mandatory in the Church), and bishops were appointed
by secular rulers. The power of the pope had virtually disappeared.
Into this mess came Pope Gregory VII or Hildebrand (d. 1085) with
a determination to reform the Church. He did so by strengthening the
structure of the institutional Church and the power of the pope. Under his
leadership, the Church developed a wide array of offices under the pope

23

(known as the curia). Under Gregory, the papacy was granted

extraordinary powers within the Church which were further developed by
Innocent III (d. 1216). These reforms also gave rise to the dominance of
the code of canon law. Under canon law the rules of the Church were
strictly codified. This had the advantage of clarity of purpose, but the
disadvantage of redefining spiritual matters in legal terms. The Church
was defined more and more in institutional terms with the pope as the
supreme head and the laity and priests in totally subservient roles.
These were some of the best and worst days in the history of the
Church. Under Innocent III the Inquisition began its terrible chapter in
Church history. However, at the same time, St. Francis (d. 1226) (with St.
Clare) and St. Dominic (d. 1221) Mendicant Orders were offering
powerful signs of what Christian life was truly meant to be. They began
religious orders of men interested in living the gospel in its pristine
simplicity: lives of poverty, prayer, preaching and service. In addition, these
orders gave rise to a renewal in theology in the Church, led by the
Dominicans Albertus Magnus (d. 1280) and St. Thomas Aquinas (d.
1274) and the Franciscans St. Bonaventure (d. 1274) and Blessed John
Duns Scotus (d. 1308).
Veneration of Mary. Queen of Heaven 13th century designation
composed St. Anthony (d. 1231) of Padua as Mary our Queen. Titles
continue to be interpreted, e.g. Queen of Heaven was further elaborated in
1954 in the papal encyclical Ad Caeli Reginam by pope Pius XII (d. 1958).
VI. The Exile to Avignon
The power of the papacy came to a crashing halt in September 1303.
Pope Boniface VIII (d. 1303) had issued a statement (called a bull, Unam
Sanctam) declaring his authority over the French government. This initiated
one of the most bizarre series of events in Church history. He was soon
arrested by the French king, Philip IV - the Fair (d. 1314). After the death
of Boniface, a French bishop, who was a friend of the king, was elected
pope. He took the name Clement V (d. 1314) and moved his residence from
Rome to the south of France in a town named Avignon. He appointed many
French cardinals, and they in turn elected another Frenchman as pope, John
XXII (d.1334), who moved all the papal offices to Avignon. Seven French
popes lived in Avignon from 1309 to 1377.
This was not a good time for the papacy, as it became increasingly
concerned with finances and greatly increased taxation while some of the
Avignon popes lived in open extravagance. Finally, Gregory XI (d. 1378)
decided to return the papacy to Rome (1377) under the influence of an
extraordinary woman of his time, a 30-year old religious sister, St.
Catherine of Siena (d. 1380).

24

Just when there appeared to be hope for restoring the papacy to its
rightful position, things went bad to worse. When Gregory XI died, the
crowds in Rome insisted on the election of an Italian pope. The cardinals
obliged, choosing Urban VI (he was succeeded by Boniface IX then by
Innocent VII then by Gregory XII). They were not happy with this choice,
however, and since they had elected him under duress, they left Rome and
voted again. This time they chose a Frenchman Clement VII (he was
succeeded by Benedict XIII then by Clement VIII) who went to live in
Avignon. Now there were two popes. A council was held at Pisa in
1408/09, seeking to choose a compromise candidate and unify the Church
they elected Alexander V (he was succeeded by Johannes XXII). Instead,
the two popes already chosen refused to let go of their authority, and then
there were three popes (Urban VI, Clement VII & Alexander V) known
as the Great Schism of the West.
In 1414-17 the Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg (of the Holy
Roman Empire) called a Council at Constance. The Roman pope (Gregory
XII) resigned, but before he did he recognized the validity of the council.
The Pisa pope (Johannes XXII) departed, the Avignon pope (Clement VIII)
was deposed, and Martin V (Roman pope, d. 1431) was elected.
VII. The Reformation
As the Church entered the 16 th century, one thing was perfectly clear: it
was badly in need of reform. Unfortunately, those in the Church with the
power to lead this reform seemed to have little interest or ability in this
regard. With the hindsight provided by history we can see some of the
reforms that were necessary in the Church:
1. There was a need to return to the message of the gospel and the person
of Jesus. A great deal of the theology of the Church had lost touch with
its biblical roots.
2. There was a need for reform in spirituality. At the time there was a
great focus on life after death and especially on the souls in purgatory.
There developed the practice of the Church selling indulgences which
could release a soul from purgatory.
3. There was great need for reform in the papacy. The era of the
renaissance popes was a scandalous one in which many of the popes
were more interested in pleasure and wealth than in the spiritual
interests of the Church.
4. There was need for reform within the Church concerning the selling of
offices and the lack of education and devotion among many priests.
5. The relationship between the Church and the secular governments was
also in need of reform.

25

Although some good bishops and priests were seriously interested in

reform, their powers were not great enough. The Church was in crisis. Into
the midst of this crisis stepped one of the most important figures of western
culture and Christianity: Martin Luther (d. 1546). Luther was a Roman
Catholic priest and monk who was devoutly religious and somewhat
scrupulous. On October 31, 1517 he posted his now famous Ninety-Five
Theses on the door of the castle Church at Wittenberg. Luther saw himself
as a reformer, not as someone seeking to begin a new form of Christianity.
The attempt at dialogue between Luther and Church officials became a
tragedy of errors. More and more, Luther hardened his position. He believed
the following:
1. Salvation comes from faith alone. In no way did the person merit his
or her eternal life with God through good works. It was grace alone
that brought salvation.
2.

The Bible is the sole authority in the life of the Christian. While
Church traditions may be helpful, they are completely secondary to the
Bible.

3.

Luther recognized only two sacraments as having a biblical basis: the

Eucharist and Baptism. He believed that the Mass should be said in the
language of the people. He did not believe in celibacy for priests since
it was not in the Bible.

4. He discredited all intermediaries between God and the believer. Thus,

there was no need for the rosary, prayers to saints, statues of saints,
indulgences, etc.
5.

He emphasized the role of the laity in the Church and believed that all
should have access to reading Gods word.

6. Because of his belief in the Bible, he stressed the importance of

preaching (which was often not done at all).
Luther was excommunicated from the Catholic Church on January 3,
1521 by Pope Leo X (d. 1521). He was protected by German royalty, and
his ideas and popularity spread rapidly. He was later married to Katarina von
Bora.
The Antichrist? Some contemporaries thought that Luthers first son
would be the Antichrist. It was because a popular legend said that the
Antichrist would be born of a monk and a nun. Erasmus ironically
commented: Were this true, there would have been too many Antichrist in
the world already.
Luther was not the only one taking the Church by storm. In
Switzerland Ulrich Zwingli (d. 1531) was beginning a highly democratized

26

approach to the faith that sought to get the Church back to its biblical roots
and away from any beliefs not rooted in the Bible. In France John Calvin
(d. 1564) was winning the hearts and minds of many with his teaching
concerning predestination. Meanwhile, in England the king was not so
much a reformer as a man seeking to divorce his wife (Catherine of
Aragon). When Pope Clement VII (d. 1534) would not allow this, Henry
VIII (d. 1547) declared himself head of the Church in England (married
Anne Boleyn) and along with most of the bishops of the country set himself
against Rome. This marked the establishment of the Anglican Church. One
of the Catholic martyrs (tortured in a most barbarous manner) in England
was Sir Thomas More (beheaded in 1535) because of his refusal to obey
Henry VIIIs claim for divorce.
VIII. The Counter-Reformation
The results of the reformation were astounding on every level:
political, religious, social and economic. Both the Church and Europe were
in a state of nearly unparalleled change. The Catholic Church had to
respond to the challenges of the reformers. It was unable to do so until it
had an able pope in Paul III (d. 1548). He called together the Council of
Trent which was to become the most influential council in the Churchs
history. The council met 25 times in 3 different sessions (1545-1547, 15511552, 1562-1563), was suspended for long periods of times, and sometimes
very poorly attended. Nevertheless it articulated the teaching of the Church
on many important issues and helped to begin a new reform within the
Church. As opposed to the reformers, it taught:
1. Salvation comes from Gods grace but requires human cooperation as
well.
2. The Bible is not the sole source of authority. The tradition of the
Church (the ongoing interpretation of the faith of the scriptures) is a
source of authority along with the Bible.
3. The pope is the supreme head of the Church.
4. There are seven sacraments divinely chosen by Christ and the Church.
Christ is truly present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist.
5. The saints can act as intermediaries for us.
6. Mary has a unique role as the mother of God and the Church.
The Council of Trent inspired a period of reform within the Catholic
Church that was badly needed. Unfortunately, these reforms came only after
the Church had been torn asunder by the reformation. At Trent the Church
was on the defensive, and in many ways it would stay in this defensive
posture until the Second Vatican Council in 1962. Trent defined the life of
the Church for the next 300 years. Churchs reformers during this period
are St. Charles Borromeo (Bishop, d. 1584) and St. Philip Neri (Priest, d.
1595).

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IX. The Missions

At the same time as the Church in Europe was undergoing reform and
counter-reform, the Catholic Church was embarking on great missionary
projects throughout the world, especially by the Jesuits (Society of Jesus)
founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola (d. 1556) in 1534.
In China the Jesuit Matteo Ricci (d. 1610) had made his way into the
upper echelons of society through his knowledge of the sciences. He studied
the culture of the Chinese and soon began to converse with them about his
religion. He had some success, but the Chinese were reluctant to adopt
western culture since they already had a highly sophisticated civilization of
their own. The missionaries tried to adapt Christian practices to Asian
culture, but ultimately this was forbidden by Rome and the missions there
could achieve little.
Meanwhile the Spanish and the Portuguese were in the midst of
colonizing the New World (American Continent), like Amerigo Vespucci (d.
1512) and Christopher Columbus (d. 1506) for example. While Luther
criticized the Church, Hernando Cortez (d. 1547) led his band of soldiers
into Mexico and slaughtered Aztec people and looted their invaluable gold.
At nearly the same time, Francisco Pizarro (d. 1541) was doing the same to
the Incas of Peru. The Indian peoples were slaughtered for their wealth and
were considered sub-human. The missionaries who came to South America
worked with the native people and converted many to Christianity.
Unlike the situation in Asia, however, there was no attempt to
assimilate the native customs to into Christian faith. In order to accept
Christianity, one was forced to accept the western culture that came with it.
Often the missionaries were the chief defenders of the Indian people against
such abuses as slavery. Eventually the king of Spain forbade slavery, under
the influence of Bishop Bartolome de las Casas (d. 1566) of Chiapa in the
New World. Portugal, however, continued to permit slavery in its regions.
By the 17th century the Jesuits had established great missions in which
the Indians could share in the wealth and authority of the plantations. These
cut into the profits of the colonizers, and eventually these too were destroyed
by those who intent on material gain. (Special insertion about Our Lady of
Guadalupe, Mexico apparition to an Aztec Indian St. Juan Diego, d. 1548)
By the 19 th century the missionary movements began to focus on Asia
and Africa. There was tremendous success in the Philippines, while inroads
were made in China, Hongkong, Thailand, Malaysia and India. Likewise,
many parts of Africa were responding to the message of the gospel.
X. The Enlightenment

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The intellectual and religious upheavals that had occurred in Europe during
the 15th and 16th centuries (the renaissance, the reformation and the counterreformation) helped give birth to a period known as the enlightenment started by Nicolaus Copernicus (d. 1543) and followed by Galileo Galilei
(d. 1642). The philosophers of the enlightenment placed great value on
human thought as a science. That which can be known is that which can be
observed and studied. The human mind cannot know anything about a
spiritual realm of existence. The French philosopher summed up the
mentality: What our eyes and mathematics demonstrate, we must take as
true. In all the rest, we can only say: We are ignorant.
Some of the philosophers believed that Christianity had to be rejected
as a religion of revelation and authority. The only revelations they would
accept were those made by the human mind. Likewise, the mind was the
only true authority. These thinkers were also greatly optimistic about the
human capacity to think and thus make the world a better place. Such
thinking threatened not only the Church but society as well. Threats to the
Church were obvious. It undermined much of the authority of the Church
and its basis for authority---divine revelation. It was also a threat to kings
who saw themselves as chosen to rule by God.
The French Revolution (changed monarchy into democratic form of
government executed their nobles like King Louis XVI in 1793) followed
on the heels of the enlightenment. The Church was seen as an element of
the old order of power and underwent extraordinary persecution during this
revolution which further hardened Rome against the movement. This
revolution brought an end to the hierarchical and feudal relationships upon
which much of Catholicism had been built, but did so at a terrible cost.
France went through a terrible period of terror, followed by the dictator
Napoleon Bonaparte (d. 1821) He was excommunicated by pope Pius VII
(d. 1823). Meanwhile other nationalistic movements would occur in Italy,
Spain and Germany, in each case limiting the authority of the Church.
Oddly enough, the Catholic Church regained some strength in
Anglican England during the 19th century. Led by John Henry Newman (d.
1890) and Henry Edward Manning (d. 1892), the Oxford Movement
brought about the conversion of many Anglicans to Catholicism.
XI. The First Vatican Council
Pope Pius IX was pope from 1846 to 1878, the longest rule of any
pontiff. Veneration of Mary, Immaculate Conception Mary born free
of original sin (declared by Pope Pius IX, 1854). Perpetual Virgin (Jesus
brothers = cousins).
During this time he actively condemned the onslaught of modern
philosophical, social and economic ideas. This was done most exhaustively
in his Syllabus of Errors (1864), in which he declared the Churchs

29

traditional belief that there should be only one religion protected and
endorsed by the government: Catholicism (this position would be officially
reversed at Vatican II in 1965).
He also called the first ecumenical council in 300 years: Vatican I.
Although the council was never officially concluded, its main goal was to
ensure the authority of the pope. It did this by declaring the pope to be
infallible (free to commit error) when speaking on matters of faith and
morals.
XII. The Industrial Revolution
The 19th century is best known as the age of industrialization. With
great breakthroughs in technology, the world began to work in new and
different ways. The big loser, however, was the worker. The sources of
wealth were in the hands of the few, and the masses of workers often had
terrible wages and working conditions. Into this crisis came Karl Marx (d.
1883) the father of communism. He blamed capitalism itself for its abuses
and excesses and called for a socialist order in which the worker would
contribute according to his ability and receive according to his need.
Religion for Marx functioned as an escape from the demands of the real
world. It was, in his words, the opium of the people. It distracted them
from their real mission in this world while pointing to life in the next.
Communism was adopted by Russia, China and other nations. (The
founder of Communism in the Philippines was Jose Maria Sison). May 1
(Labor Day) was instituted in 1889 as an international day of fight against
the abuses of capitalism. The working men asked for eight-hour working
day, better social conditions, and higher wages.
Leo XIII (d. 1903), however, was a pope very much concerned with
the realities of this world. He wrote an encyclical called Rerum Novarum
in which he encouraged the development of trade unions, as well as just
wages and working conditions. He criticized both extreme capitalism and
extreme socialism. Leo also set the stage for a Church which would begin to
become more and more involved in the quest for social justice.
Many Christian heroes, like St. John Bosco - Don Bosco (d. 1888)
founder of Salesians, inflamed the people to a peaceful fight for charity and
social justice. He opened the famous oratory where the youth and street
children could learn a job and the basics of Christian life. This is the period
of the apparition of Our Lady of Fatima (1917) in Portugal (similar to Our
Lady of Manaoag devotion in the Philippines).

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XIII. The Twentieth Century

During the 20 th century the Church has involved itself in a wide
spectrum of affairs. It began the century condemning modernism, which
was an intellectual movement that sought to bring some of the principles of
the enlightenment to Christian faith. In time, however, the Church became
more open to modern ideas. There was growing concern for growth in the
areas of liturgy, biblical studies, ecumenism and social justice.
The movement for Italian Unification. In 1870, the Italians took
Rome. Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy, proclaimed Rome the new capital
and formally ended the States of the Church. The papacy continued to
contest the loss of its territorial sovereignty until 1929, when the Lateran
Treaty created the independent state of Vatican City (smallest country in the
world) signed by pope Pius XI (d.1939) and Italian prime minister Benito
Mussolini. The Church was finally liberated from her temporal power. It
took more than thousand years to understand that the Churchs treasures are
not properties and wealth, but the Gospel and the poor.
Perhaps no event of the first half of the century was more important
than the encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu, written by pope Pius XII (d.
1958), which opened the doors of modern scripture study for Catholic
scholars. The effects of this document are still being felt in the Church.
Pope Pius XII declared the Dogma of the Assumption of Mary in 1950.
Another major thrust of the Church of the 20 th century was its battle
against communism. Because of its atheistic and materialistic doctrines,
communism has been repeatedly condemned by the Church throughout the
world. Also promoting universal justice and peace (avoid the World War
to occur).
The unquestionable highlight of the century was the Second Vatican
Council held in Rome from 1962-1965, convened by Pope John XXIII (d.
1963). Although its effects are still being weighed, it is considered by many
historians to be the most important event in Church history since the
reformation. (Special insertions: Pope Paul VI (d. 1978), the 1st pope that
visited the Philippines in 1971, Fr. Pio de Pietralcina (d. 1968) received
stigmata and attracted millions of pilgrims, Pope John Paul I the smiling
pope for only 33 days (d. 1978), Pope John Paul II (d. 2005) visited the
Philippines twice in 1981 for the Beatification of St. Lorenzo Ruiz (d.
1637) and 1995 for the World Youth Day, St. Maximillian Kolbe (d. 1941)
and Mo. (Blessed) Teresa of Calcutta (d. 1997).
Veneration of Mary, Pope John Paul II referred to Mary as CoRedemptrix and as Co-Operator in the Redemption (not yet official).
XIV. The Second Vatican Council

31

It is impossible to understand the Church today without

understanding the events and results of the Second Vatican Council.
Although it concluded more than a quarter-century ago, its effects are still
being felt throughout the Church. It brought about a period of renewal in the
Catholic Church more dramatic than at any other time in history.
Background to the Council: The Election of John XXIII
The Church had been in a defensive position for many of the 400 years
following the reformation. In the 20th century it gradually started to come
out of its cocoon again. There was much talk of reform in the Church and
some small signs that it was on its way. However, when Pope Pius XII
died in 1958, little did the Church know that it was about to embark on
a new era of its history. The election of Angelo Roncalli as the new pope
was seen as a choice of moderation. He was elderly with a reputation for
holiness, but few imagined that he would bring about an extraordinary
process of change in the Church. In fact, he may have been elected because
it was thought that he would not rock the boat. Instead he sent the Spirit
blowing through the Churchs sails. He chose the name John XXIII, and
from the beginning he gave a new direction to the papacy. He described
himself as a shepherd and a priest. He visited the sick, the elderly and those
in prison. Perhaps most importantly, John XXIII believed in the goodness
of the world and in the possibilities of progress.
John XXII was an optimist. He saw in human progress the hand of
God, and he believed that the Church must open itself up to the modern
world. If the Church could not speak to real problems of men and women in
the world, it would become increasingly irrelevant to their lives. He also
believed that the divisions of the Church brought about in history by the
schism of east and west and the reformation were a scandal. He believed
that the Church is one and must work for reunification. With these ideas in
mind, the pope called for an ecumenical council, a meeting of all bishops
throughout the world to reflect on the meaning of the Church in the modern
world. The purpose was, in itself, revolutionary. In the past, ecumenical
councils were called in response to heresies. Vatican II was to be
different. Its purposes were not to condemn, but to build up and renew
and help the Church face the challenges of the 20 th century. The council
would not (could not) change the basic teaching of the Church, but as the
pope in his opening address to the council:
The substance of the ancient doctrine of the deposit of faith is one thing, but
the way in which it is presented is another. It is the latter that must be given
much consideration.
In other words, John XXIII was saying that the essential teaching of
the Church must not change, but it must be communicated in such a way that
it is helpful for real people living in the real world. It must adapt its style to
the time and place.

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The Council Meetings

The Second Vatican Council met in 4 sessions from 1962 through
1965. The sessions generally went from October to the beginning of
December. Those who came to the council included all bishops throughout
the world and their advisors. In addition, observers were welcomed from the
laity and from the Protestant and Eastern Orthodox Churches. At the
opening session which attracted worldwide public attention, there were more
than 2,500 participants. Pope John XXIII died in June 1963 between the
first and second sessions. He was succeeded by Paul VI who continued the
council, and under his leadership not only its work but also its spirit was
maintained.
One would like to think that the bishops would get together and the
Holy Spirit would gently and swiftly guide them in the right direction. The
Spirit, however, works through human beings, and human beings are not so
easy to manage. At the council there were many different points of view,
ranging from very conservative bishops who wanted little change, to the
very liberal bishops who wanted drastic and sweeping changes. The largest
group was in the middle. It was clear, however, that the council would be a
defeat for the minority who wanted to maintain the status quo.
Various commissions would meet and write statements concerning
different issues. These would be debated (sometimes fiercely), rewritten,
revised, until eventually a document would receive a two-thirds majority
vote from the bishops. When this occurred, the document was officially
accepted and became part of the highest teaching authority of the Church. In
the course of the council, 16 documents were produced on a variety of
topics. The single most important topic was clearly the Church itself. This
was not a council debating the person of Jesus or the meaning of salvation or
the number of sacraments; rather the focus was on the meaning and role of
the Church itself.
The following are the key areas that have had the most dramatic effects on
the Church.
1. The Church: Lumen Gentium
The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (also known as Lumen
Gentium) is one of the most important documents of the Council. This
document describes the very nature and meaning of the Church. Its main
significance is found in its spirit as well as its words. Unlike previous
teaching on the Church, this document does not define the Church
primarily in terms of the hierarchy. Such a document was presented at
the council and rejected. Instead, the Church is at first described as a
mystery. It is a mystery because Gods grace is at work in it, and it is
more than human words can adequately describe. Secondly, the Church is

33

called the people of God, a biblical image which emphasizes the call of God
and the responsibility of an entire people to respond to that call and be a
light to the world. The Church, as the people of God, is a pilgrim people, a
people on a journey who have not yet fully realized their goal and purpose.
By saying this, the council wished to move away from the previous notion
that the Church was a perfect society. It is only after these descriptions
that the Church is described as a hierarchy. In other words, the hierarchy
gains its meaning from the entire people of God and the mystery of Gods
love.
In addition, one of the chapters of this document is entitled The Call
of the Whole Church to Holiness. The council clearly wished to break
down the walls separating the laity from the clergy which often relegated the
laity to second-class citizenship in the Church. It made it clear that holiness
was not intended only for an elite group in the Church. Rather, holiness is
the vocation of all Christians.
Finally, the council recognized that the Church is broader than the
Roman Catholic Church. It includes all the baptized. (This will be discussed
later).
2. Authority in the Church
The Second Vatican Council affirmed the role of the pope as the
supreme head of the Church, but it did so in a new context. The
authority of the pope is discussed in the context of the authority of the
bishops:
This council has decided to declare and proclaim before all men its
teaching concerning bishops, the successors of the apostles who, together
with the successor of Peter, the Vicar of Christ and the visible head of the
whole Church, govern the house of the living God (LG #18).
Although the unique authority of the pope is affirmed, he is seen as
the head of the body of bishops. This mentality is called collegiality, in
which the pope is joined with all bishops as those called to authority in the
Church. This does not in any way take away from the authority of the pope.
It does, however, return that authority to its original setting. Peter was one
of the apostles, even though the head one. The pope is one of the bishops,
although first among equals.
We saw before that this authority of the pope and bishops is primarily
to teach on behalf of the Church and to govern the Church in practical
affairs. The council also reaffirmed the infallibility of the pope, the
bishops in union with the pope, and the whole Church in essential
matters of faith.
3. Ecumenism

34

The divisions that existed among Christians were a scandal to the faith.
Throughout the 20th century, many of the Protestant Churches had begun a
process of dialogue aimed at uniting the Churches (known as the ecumenical
movement). The Anglican and Orthodox Churches became part of this
dialogue, but the Catholic Church remained an outsider, praying for unity,
but uninvolved in the dialogue. The Catholic Church was waiting for the
other Churches to come back. They were seen as fallen away and in error.
Unity would be achieved only when they returned to the true Church, the
Catholic Church.
This attitude died at the Second Vatican Council. Pope John XXIII
made it one of the councils chief objectives to enter into the process of
attaining Christian unity. Observers were invited from other Christian
Churches, and they were able to share their thoughts and observations with a
special papal representative. In the end, the council issued a Decree on
Ecumenism. This decree was in some ways revolutionary, for it admitted
that the Church was not limited to the Catholic Church and that the
reasons for the divisions between Christians came from both sides of the
division. In other words, unity would be restored through an effort on the
part of both sides, not a unilateral demand that the other Churches rejoin the
Catholic Church. This was a major breakthrough which has dramatically
changed the nature of the relationship between the Catholic Church and all
other Christians. Christian leaders are now likely to work with one another
and pray with one another, rather than condemn each other.
4. Non-Christian Religions
Originally, the Decree on Ecumenism was intended to deal with nonChristian religions as well, but the council decided to develop a separate
decree for this, The Decree on the Relationship Between the Church and
Non-Christian Religions. It is a small document which is important as a
starting point and for its spirit. In it the Church recognizes the genuine
contributions of all religions as they seek to bring men and women
closer to God.
Although the document says little in detail about the religions, it
encourages dialogue with them and respect for their religious and
cultural values. This is a far cry from a previous mentality which would
have simply dismissed them as false religions. The Church is also clear in
maintaining the uniqueness and validity of Christian faith while admitting
that other religions may share in the truth.
This document is best known for its section on the Churchs
relationship with Judaism. Throughout the history of the Church, the Jews
had often been portrayed as a people cursed by God and responsible for the
death of Jesus. This sad legacy had contributed to the feelings of antiSemitism which were at the heart of the holocaust by the Nazis. In this

35

decree the Church recognized the many common elements of faith shared by
Christians and Jews. More importantly, it sought to eliminate any
mentality among Christians which perpetuated anti-Semitism. Although
the decree did not explicitly admit and apologize for previous attitudes, it
certainly condemned them, and this marked the beginning of a new era in
Jewish-Christian relations.
5. The Church and the World
For many years the Catholic Church had perpetuated something of a
fortress mentality: the Church is the fortress guarding its people against the
evils of the world. Its attitude toward the world was one of profound
mistrust. John XXIII did not share that attitude. He used an Italian word to
describe one of the main goals of the council: aggiornamento. This means
something like updating, or modernizing, getting in touch with the times.
Since this was such an important theme, the council produced a
separate document related to it. It had already done one on the Church. The
new one would be more practical, less theological. It was called the
Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, also known by its
Latin name, Gaudium et Spes. Its opening sentence has become famous for
establishing a new relationship between the Church and the world:
The joys and the hopes, the griefs and the anxieties of the men and
women of this age, especially those who are poor or in any way afflicted,
these too are the joys and the hopes, the griefs and anxieties of the followers
of Christ (GS #1).
The Church immediately sought to unite itself with the human
race rather than separate itself from them. It was also made clear that the
Church is a servant Church that identifies in a special way with the poor
and the afflicted. We find in this document much of the basis for the model
of the Church as servant and for the preferential option for the poor.
The document emphasizes that the Church must exist in the world,
scrutinizing the signs of the times and interpreting them in light of the
gospel (GS # 4). The mission of the Church then is not to simply continue
to repeat the formulas of faith, but to show how that faith should affect the
way that Christians live in the world and respond to the various situations
in the world. It recognized the genuine advances made by society in culture,
the arts and science and taught that the Church need not be threatened by
such advances. It also recognized the importance and dignity of individual
conscience. It encouraged a common human solidarity in the search for
justice and peace on earth, and recognized that the Church must listen
to and learn from the world.
6. The Church and the Bible

36

In the Church before the Second Vatican Council, the Protestants were
known as the Church of the Bible and the Catholics were known as the
Church of sacraments and law. Catholics were rarely encouraged to read the
Bible on their own for fear that they would misinterpret it. Once again the
council changed all this.
One of the most important documents of the council was the
Constitution on Divine Revelation (Dei Verbum). It recognized the word of
God as the source of Church teaching and theology, stating that the teaching
office of the Church is not above the word of God but serves it, listening to
it devoutly (# 10). In addition, the council taught that the Bible should not
just be in the hands of Church authorities, but that easy access to sacred
scripture should be provided for all the Christian faithful(#22). It
encouraged greater freedom for scripture scholars and accepted the new
methods of scholarship. It also recognized the need for the scholars to
present their findings to the authority of the Church for guidance and
approval, for revelation in Christ is not based solely on the scriptures but on
the judgment of the believing community as well. In this way, the scriptures
are a living word speaking to men and women of various ages and cultures.
The effects of this are just being felt in the Catholic Church. It has
done wonders to renew the spirituality of the Church and to give it deeper
basis in the teaching and message of Jesus. It has opened the riches of the
Bible to millions of Catholics and helped them to interpret their faith more
fully and deeply. St. Jerome said, Ignorance of the Bible is ignorance of
Christ, and the council has helped to bring the Church more fully in touch
with its Lord.
7. The Liturgy
The council restored the primacy of the word of God in the life of the
Church, but it did not eliminate the importance of the sacraments. To the
contrary, the faith of the Church is nourished in both word and
sacrament. The council emphasized the importance of the Eucharist in the
life of faith, describing it as the summit toward which the activity of the
Church is directed; at the same time it is the fountain from which all her
power flows (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy # 10).
In order to help the Church understand and celebrate the
sacraments more deeply, the council brought about a renewal in this
area as well. For hundreds of years the Mass had been said in Latin with
exactly the same words and gestures repeated everywhere throughout the
world. It was a sign of the universal faith of the Church. One could attend
Mass anywhere in the world and it would be the same experience. The
priest said the words alone (aided by altar boys) with his back to the
congregation. He was separated from the congregation in the sanctuary
surrounded by the altar rail. The Mass was clearly the work of the priest,
and the people were passive recipients. Although elements of the Mass were

37

very beautiful, the council insisted that it involves the entire people of God
more fully. It has been in this spirit that the Mass has changed in the years
following the council (although the essential elements cannot change). It is
now celebrated in the language of the people (the vernacular). The laity
have a more, lectors (readers of scriptures), and ministers of the Eucharist.
In addition, the Mass is more flexible in meeting the needs of individual
groups. Today the effects of the council are taken for granted as people
celebrate the liturgy with the priest, rather than watch the priest celebrate the
liturgy.
8. Religious Freedom
As we have seen earlier. Much of the Churchs history involved an
inseparable relationship between the Church and the state. Christian faith
was not only a religious force, it was a social and political one as well. The
Church was given special status and privileges. Western Europe was
indeed Christendom. Heretics were not only a threat to the faith, they were
a threat to social stability as well, and they were dealt with harshly. For
many, this was the ideal relationship between the Church and nations. This
status of the Church, however, collapsed after the reformation and many
longed for its return.
There was another way of understanding the relationship between
Church and state where there is no privileged religion. Some Catholics
strongly believed that this was the ideal situation, not for practical reasons,
but because every person should have the right to follow his or her
conscience in matters of faith. Other Catholics saw these other religions as
false religions and believed that error has no rights. Ideally, they
believed, the Catholic Church should enjoy a privileged position.
The Second Vatican Council ratified the right to religious freedom,
with everyone free in this regard from the coercion of governments. No one
should ever be compelled to accept Christian faith, nor should anyone be
punished for rejecting it.
For those who are born and bred on the notion of freedom, this may
seem like an incredibly obvious notion. For the Church, however, it was a
big step because it abandoned the notion of Christendom as the ideal, and,
even more importantly, it revealed that the teaching of the Church can
indeed grow and develop. The ideas of the council on religious freedom had
come a long distance from the Syllabus of Errors issued by Pope Pius IX
100 years before.
9. The Laity
The council was a call to freedom and responsibility for those in the
Church who were not priests or nuns or brothers. The laity were invited to

38

partake in the mission of the Church in a deeper way than ever before. In
the earlier documents on the Church, it was revealed that the Church is the
entire people of God and that therefore the laity have a responsibility as the
Church to do the work of the Church. This responsibility is not something to
help the priests but rather belongs to all Christians by virtue of their
baptism. All are called to ministry and service. This ministry and service
depends on the individual gifts and talents of persons which are to be used
for the good of mankind and the up-building of the Church. (Decree on
the Apostolate of the Laity #3).
The first area of service is in the world where the laity are to bring the
values of Christ to all that they do and help to be a leaven to society. It is
to be hoped that corporations, communications, the arts and sciences will all
be influenced by the spirit of the faith of those Christians who are part of
their work. Likewise, families will become mini-Churches, small
communities of faith where the virtues of love, forgiveness, peace, patience
and generosity take root and grow.
The second area is the Church itself where there is greater need than
ever for the ministry of the laity. Today we can find lay men and women
involved intimately in Christian education, and in ministry to the poor, the
sick, the elderly, and all those in need. They are also involved more fully in
taking part in the liturgy and bringing communion to the sick and
homebound. It appears that the Church of the future will become
increasingly dependent on the ministry and service of the laity.

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CATHOLIC SOCIAL TEACHINGS

Definition
The entire teaching of the ecclesiastical Magisterium which applies
revealed truth and Christian moral principles to the social order is called the
social doctrine of the Church. It applies the Gospel message to social reality.
The purpose of the Church's social teaching is to present to men God's plan
for secular reality. It enlightens men's minds with truth and guides them in
building up the earthly city according to the divine plan.
The Church's social doctrine ought to be known and taught by all the
faithful, who must also strive to address social problems in conformity with
it. This doctrine should be part of the education of young people, who must
also form themselves in accord with its principles.
Definition of Encyclical
An encyclical was a circular letter sent to all the Churches of a
particular area in the ancient Christian Church. At that time, the word could
be used of a letter sent out by any bishop. The word comes from Latin
encyclia (from the Greek "en kyklo, ") meaning "general" or
"encircling", which is also the origin of the word encyclopedia.
For the modern Roman Catholic Church a Papal encyclical, in the
strictest sense, is a letter sent by the Pope which is explicitly addressed to
Roman Catholic bishops of a particular area or to the world, usually treating
some aspect of Catholic doctrine. However, the form of the address can vary
widely, and often designates a wider audience. Papal encyclicals usually take
the form of a Papal brief due to their more personal nature as opposed to the
formal Papal bull. Papal encyclicals are so famous that the term encyclical
for Roman Catholics is used almost exclusively for those sent out by the
Pope. The title of the encyclical is usually taken from its first few words.
Within Catholicism in recent times, an encyclical is generally used for
significant issues, and is second in importance only to the highest ranking
document now issued by popes, an Apostolic Constitution. However, the
designation 'encyclical' does not always denote such a degree of
significance. The archives at the Vatican website currently classify some
encyclicals as "Apostolic Exhortations". This informal term generally
indicates documents with a broader audience than the bishops alone.

Documents that Contain the Catholic Social Teachings

40

The following are the most prominent documents of the Church that
contain her social teachings:
1. The Condition of Labor (Rerum Novarum). Encyclical Letter of Pope

Leo XIII, 1891.

2. The Reconstruction of the Social Order (Quadragesimo Anno).
Encyclical Letter of Pope Pius XI, 1931.
3. Christianity and Social Progress (Mater et Magistra). Encyclical
Letter of Pope John XXIII, 1961.
4. Peace on Earth (Pacem in Terris). Encyclical Letter of Pope John
XXIII, 1963.
5. The Church in the Modern World (Gaudium et Spes). Second Vatican
Council, 1965.
6. The Development of Peoples (Populorum Progressio). Encyclical
Letter of Pope Paul VI, 1967.
7. A Call to Action (Octogesima Adveniens). Apostolic Letter of Pope
Paul VI, 1971.
8. Justice in the World. Statement of the Synod of Bishops, 1971.
9. Evangelization in the Modern World (Evangelii Nuntiandi). Apostolic
Exhortation of Pope Paul VI, 1975.
10. On Human Work (Laborem Exercens). Encyclical Letter of Pope John
Paul II, 1981.
11. The Social Concerns of the Church (Sollicitudo Rei Socialis).
Encyclical Letter of Pope John Paul II, 1988.
12. On the Hundredth Anniversary of Rerum Novarum (Centessimus
Annus). Encyclical Letter of Pope John Paul II, 1991.
.

Twelve Major Lessons Found in the Catholic Social Teachings

The following are the key emphases which characterize Catholic social
teachings today:
1. Link of religious and social dimensions of life. The social---the
human construction of the world---is not secular in the sense of
being outside of Gods plan, but is intimately involved with the
dynamic of the Reign of God. Therefore faith and justice are
necessarily linked together (The Church in the Modern World).
2. Dignity of the human person. Made in the image of God, women and
men have a preeminent place in the social order. Human dignity can
be recognized and protected only in community with others. The
fundamental question to ask about social development is: What is
happening to people? (Peace on Earth).

41

3. Political and economic rights. All human persons enjoy inalienable

rights, which are political-legal (e.g., voting, free speech, migration)
and social-economic (e.g., food, shelter, work, education). These are
realized in community. Essential for the promotion of justice and
solidarity, these rights are to be respected and protected by all the
institutions of society. (Peace on Earth).
4. Option for the poor. A preferential love should be shown to the poor,
whose needs and rights are given special attention in Gods eyes.
Poor is understood to refer to the economically disadvantaged who,
as a consequence of their status, suffer oppression and powerlessness.
(Call to Action).
5. Link of justice and love. Love of neighbor is an absolute demand for
justice, because charity must manifest itself in actions and structures
which respect human dignity, protect human rights, and facilitate
human development. To promote justice is to transform structures
which block love. (Justice in the World).
6. Promotion of the common good. The common good is the sum total
of all those conditions of
social living---economic, political,
cultural---which make it possible for women and men readily and
fully to achieve the perfection of their humanity. Individual rights are
always experienced within the context of promotion of the common
good. There is also an international common good. (Christianity and
Social Progress).
7. Subsidiarity. Responsibilities and decisions should be attended to as
close as possible to the level of individual initiative in local
communities and institutions. Mediating structures of families,
neighborhoods, community groups, small businesses, and local
governments should be fostered and participated in. But larger
government structures do have a role when greater social coordination
and regulation are necessary for the common good.
(The
Reconstruction of the Social Order).
8. Political participation. Democratic participation in decision-making is
the best way to respect the dignity and liberty of people. The
government is the instrument by which people cooperate together in
order to achieve the common good. The international common good
requires participation in international organizations. (Pius XII,
Christmas Message, 1944).
9. Economic justice. The economy is for the people and the resources of
the earth are to be shared equitably by all. Human work is the key to
contemporary questions. Labor takes precedence over both capital
and technology in the production process. Just wages and the right of
workers to organize are to be respected. (On Human Work).

42

10.Stewardship. All property has a social mortgage. People are to

respect and share the resources of the earth, since we are all part of the
community of creation. By our work we are co-creators in the
continuing development of the earth. (On Human Work).
11. Global solidarity. We belong to one human family and as such have
mutual obligations to promote the rights and development of all
people across the world, irrespective of national boundaries. In
particular, the rich nations have responsibilities toward the poor
nations, and the structures of the international order must reflect
justice. (The Development of People; The Social Concerns of the
Church).
12.Promotion of Peace. Peace is the fruit of justice and is dependent
upon right order among humans and among nations. The arms race
must cease and progressive disarmament take place if the future is to
be secure. In order to promote peace and the conditions of peace, an
effective international authority is necessary (Peace on Earth).

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CHRISTIANITY IN THE PHILIPPINES (1521-1898)

Christianity arrived in the Philippines with Ferdinand Magellan in
1521. On March 16, 1521 after an intrepid journey across the Pacific Ocean,
the Portuguese navigator sighted the beautiful Limasawa Island, off the
coast of Samar. On Easter Sunday, he planted a wooden cross and attended
the first Mass on Filipino soil, which was celebrated by Fr. Pedro de
Valderrama. From there, Magellan reached Cebu where he was heartily
welcomed by King Raha Humabon. On April 15, 1521, Fr. Valderrama
baptized the king together with his wife, Juana, and 800 natives. Magellan
presented to the queen a beautiful image of the Sto. Nino, who became the
patron of the island.
On April 27,1521, Magellan led an expedition against Mactan Island.
In fighting on the beach, he was hit in the leg by a poisoned arrow. As he
covered the retreat of his comrades, he was slain by the local chief, LapuLapu. The survivors hurriedly sailed to the Indian Ocean and eventually
reached Spain. Out of the 5 ships and 280 crew members, only 1 vessel and
31 persons returned. Among them was the Italian historiographer Antonio
Pigafetta. News of the discovery prompted Spain to send new expeditions
for the conquest and the colonization of the Philippines, which was named
after King Philip II.
Christian evangelization was first undertaken by the Augustinians who
accompanied the early Spanish expeditions (1564). They were followed by
the Franciscans, Jesuits, Dominicans, and Augustinian Recollects. In 1578,
the first Episcopal See was erected in manila, followed in 1595 in Cebu,
Nueva Segovia and Nueva Caceres. Domingo de Salazar, the first bishop
of the Philippines, courageously defended the natives from the rapacity of
the conquistadors and he also headed the abolition of slavery (1581).
The first centuries of Christianity in the Philippines were regulated by
the regime of the Patronato Real, that promoted collaboration between the
Church and the colonial government. Spain gave financial support and
protection to the missionaries in return for loyalty and obedience. This was
made visible in each town where, Church and municipality were built beside
each other. Unfortunately, some corrupted friars tainted the image of the
Church with their scandals and abuses, and created a feeling of anticlericalism even among the most sincere Catholics.
Before the coming of the Spaniards, the Filipinos lived in scattered
barangays under the rule of a datu. In 1380 I slam was introduced in
Mindanao and Sulu, but most of the people remained animistic, with strong
emphasis on ancestor worship and the cult of the dead. They conceived the
universe as peopled by good and evil spirits who had to be propitiated by
special rites and the sacrifice of animals. The Spanish missionaries gathered
the barangay clans into large towns. They founded Churches, hospitals and
schools. Instruction was given in native languages rather than in Spanish,
which was reserved to the elite class. Religion was made to permeate

44

society by substituting splendid liturgical rites, like fiestas, processions, and

novenas, for the old pagan practices. Pious associations of prayer and
charity were formed among the lay people. By the grace of God, the
Philippines became the first and only Christian country in Asia
SOURCE: My First History of the Church, pp. 101-108

THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES (1898-2000)

In 1872, three diocesan priests, Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora, were
executed for alleged complicity in a mutiny of native garrison troops. This
gave a powerful impetus to the independence movement led by Dr. Jose
Rizal, who was himself arrested and executed for treason in 1896. The
ensuing revolution and independent government (1896-98), led by Andres
Bonifacio, Emilio Aguinaldo, and other Katipuneros, were cut short by the
intervention of the United States, that obtained the Philippines independence
from Spain at the conclusion of the Spanish-American War. The Americans
began the policy of the separation between Church and State, and opened the
gate to Protestant missions.
One consequence of the revolution was the formation in 1902 of the
Philippine Independent Church. In 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo and other
Filipino leaders, wishing to overthrow the spiritual and political power of the
Spaniards, persuaded Gregorio Aglipay, a Filipino priest, to create a local
Church. Aglipay became the supreme bishop and had himself consecrated
by 12 schismatic priests. The doctrines of the Philippine Independent
Church were contained in the books of Isabelo de los Reyes, a Philippine
senator who returned to the Catholic Church in 1936.
In 1914, Felix Manalo founded the Iglesia ni Kristo. This religious
group, despite the name, cannot be considered Christian because it does not
believe in the divinity of Christ nor in the reality of the Trinity. During
World War II (1941-45), the Church did not compromise with the Japanese
occupation. Several priests and religious, who refused to cooperate with the
Japanese, were interned in camps. Those who managed to escape to the hills
continued their ministry among guerillas and refugees. The archbishop of
Manila, Michael ODoherty, was kept at arrest because he refused to ask
the people on a radio address to cooperate with the invaders. At the end of
the war, the Philippines was granted full independence and sovereignty.
Despite the problems left behind by three years of Japanese military
occupation, the newly-born republic succeeded in making the Philippines a
most respectable country in Asia.
In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos was elected president. Seven years later
he declared martial law, and closed down most newspapers and broadcasting
stations. Martial law was formally ended in 1981, but Marcos retained
absolute emergency powers. In 1983, the assassination of Senator Benigno
Aquino at Manila airport led to mass demonstrations against the regime, that

45

exploded in 1986 with the famous EDSA Revolution. The people of Manila,
openly supported by the outspoken Cardinal Sin, were able to stop tanks and
machineguns with their people power, flowers, and prayers. Marcos fled to
the United States and Corazon Aquino, widow of the murdered Benigno and
herself a devout Catholic, became president.
The new constitution, ratified in 1987, subscribed to the principle of
separation of Church and state and granted religious freedom to all churches
and denominations. According to the latest census, of the total population of
95 million people 85 % are Catholics, 5 % Muslims, 3 % Protestants, 3%
Iglesia ni Kristo, 2 % Aglipayan, 2 % Animistic.
Pope Paul VI (d. 1978) was the first pope to visit the Philippines
(1971). Despite an assassination attempt, the visit was a great success.
Pope John Paul II (d. 2005) visited the country in 1981, for the
canonization of Blessed Lorenzo Ruiz (d. 1637 - Japan), the first Filipino
saint (canonized 1987). He came again in 1995 for the World Youth Day.
Pedro Calungsod (d. 1672 - Guam) was beatified on March 5, 2000, by
Pope John Paul II.
The Second Plenary Council of the Philippines (PCP II) was held at
the Holy Apostles Seminary in Makati, Metro-Manila on January 20February 17, 1991. PCP II was formulated by representative laity, bishops,
religious, priests and is the contemporary blueprint of the Catholic Church in
the Philippines. Accordingly, it envisioned a people who are Maka-Tao,
Maka-Diyos, Maka-Bayan, a nation and Church renewed---to be the Church
of the Poor---and promotion of Basic Ecclesial Communities (BECs) as an
expression of renewal.
The Sixth World Youth Day was celebrated in Manila on January 1015, 1995. The pope was so impressed by the Filipinos love and hospitality
that he uttered the memorable statement: The Filipinos are a phenomenal
people! The 4 million people who attended the closing Mass in Luneta Park
on January 15 experienced an event like a new Pentecost.
SOURCE: My First History of the Church, pp. 205-210

MISSION AND MINISTRIES OF THE CHURCH

A.

Mission (CFC, 1412-1419)

What is the mission Christ entrusted to his Church?
The Church received the mission to proclaim and establish among all
peoples the Kingdom of Christ and of God (LG 5).
The Church is the Universal Sacrament of salvation for the whole
world.

46

The Church is missionary by her very nature, since she originates from
the mission of the Son and the mission the Spirit, according to the plan of
God the Father (AG 2).
Every member of the Church, therefore, shares in his mission, i.e, the
obligation of spreading the faith (LG 17).
How is the mission applied to Filipino Catholics?
Since the Church in the Philippines is the Church of the Poor, PCP II
stresses the thrust for justice and liberation as an integral part of the
renewed evangelizing mission of proclaiming the Gospel.
B.

Ministries in the Church (CFC, 1420-1427)

Ministry means service, and the Christian ministry refers to serving
the people of God in a stable fashion.
Infallibility is a gift of Christ that preserves the Church from error in
teaching what God has revealed in faith and morals (LG 12, 25; CCC
889-92). Through the Spirit, Christ bestowed on his Church, in particular
on the College of Bishops, teaching in communion with Peters
successor, the Pope.
This mission is carried out in the various ordained ministries (arise
from the Sacrament of Orders by the Clergy - those who received the
Sacrament of the Holy Order, exclusive to male, namely, the Bishops,
Priests and the Deacons) and the ministries of the lay faithful (Lay
Apostolate) who, through Baptism and Confirmation, share in Christs
triple role, as Priest, Prophet, and King.
The vast and complex world of education, politics, society, and
economics, as well as the world of culture, of the sciences and the arts,
of international life, of the mass media. (PCP II on Laitys field of
evangelizing)
All the lay faithful, rich and poor, with the special gifts, individual and
collective, of farmers, fishermen, workers, mass media practitioners,
educators and lawyers, civil servants, those in the medical and nursing
services, and professionals in the various strata of society. (PCP II 434
on how to fulfill the mission of communicating Christ in these vast
areas)
The Religious Brothers and Sisters (nuns) they are faithful who bind
themselves to Christ in a state of life consecrated to God by the
profession of the evangelical counsels of poverty, chastity, and
obedience. (LG 44; CCC 914-33)
PCP II offers an extended exposition of their nature, radical
discipleship, witness, value, revitalizing their specific religious

47

charisms, their essential missionary character with a passion for

justice within the local Church. It adds description of their
spiritualities: contemplative and contemplatives in action. (PCP II
448-506)
Basic Ecclesial Communities (BEC). Filipino Catholics, besides the
primary task of evangelization through preaching the Word, this service
means establishing communities, local Churches, and forming BECs
which become centers for Christian formation and missionary outreach
and as expression of Churchs renewal. (PCP II)
PCP II developed the image of the Church as a community of
families.
The family is the Church in the home or Domestic Church, a true
foundation for the BECs a model relationship in the Church. (PCP II,
21-22)
Finally, dialogue with our Filipino and Asian brothers and sisters of
other religions is an important part of Filipino Catholics evangelizing
mission. (PCP II 104-8, 137-40)
SOURCE: Catechism for Filipino Catholics (CFC), pp. 381-403

THE CHURCH OF THE POOR (PCP II, NOS. 122-136)

In the Philippines today, God calls us most urgently to serve the poor
and the needy.
The poverty of at least half of the population is a clear sign that sin
has penetrated our social structures.
Poverty in the sense of destitution is not Gods will for everyone.
In the scriptures, the poor are blessed. Blessed are you who are poor,
for the Kingdom of God is yours. (Lk 6:20).
It is not their poverty that is blessed. Nor are they blessed because
they are necessarily better Christians than their prosperous brothers and
sisters. But because their poverty has been historically the privileged place
of the gracious intervention of Gods saving grace.
The expression Church of the Poor does not mean that the Church
should include only the materially poor and there is no place in the Church
for those who are not. For the Church must, like her Savior, embrace
everyone of every economic class.

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What is the Church of the Poor?

It means a Church that embraces and practices the evangelical spirit of
poverty, which combines detachment from possessions with a profound trust
in the Lord as the sole source of salvation.
Is one whose members and leaders have a special love for the poor.
This special love is a love of preference for the poor.
The Church of the Poor is one where, at the very least the poor are
not discriminated because of their poverty, and they will be deprived of their
right to receive in abundance the help of the spiritual goods of the Church,
especially that of the word of God and the sacraments from the pastors.
The Church of the Poor will mean that the pastors and other Church
leaders will give preferential attention and time to those who are poor, and
will generously share of their own resources in order to alleviate their
poverty and make them recognize the love of the Lord for them despite their
poverty.
The Church of the Poor is one that will be in solidarity with the
poor.
The Church of the Poor functions, in the words of Pope John Paul II
as: Before todays forms of exploitation of the poor, the Church cannot
remain silent. She also reminds the rich of their precise duties. Strong with
the Word of God, she condemns the many injustices which unfortunately,
even today are committed to the detriment of the poor.
The Church of the Poor will also mean that the Church will not only
evangelize the poor, but the poor in the Church will themselves become
evangelizers.
Pastors and leaders of such a Church of the Poor will not compete
for the most prosperous parishes or offices, and will not ambition for titles
and honors as they cherish in their hearts the word of the Lord.
The Church of the Poor is one where the entire community of
disciples and its leaders and pastors, will have such a love of preference for
the poor as to orient and tilt the center of gravity of the entire community in
favor of the needy.
The Church of the Poor is one that is willing to follow Jesus Christ
through poverty and oppression in order to carry out the work of salvation.
When the Church in the Philippines becomes truly this Church of the
Poor, the poor will feel at home in her, and will participate actively, as
equal to others, in her life and mission. The Church will then become truly a
communion, a sign and instrument for the unity of the whole Filipino nation.