Environmental sanitation planning and

infrastructure in developing countries

Low-cost Options
for Treating
g
Faecal Sludges
(FS) and
Wastewater in
Developing
Countries
(Part D)
Doulaye Kon
EAWAG / SANDEC
www.sandec.eawag.ch
Tel.+41 44 823 55 53

Contents

Part D: Faecal sludge treatment options

(design details and performance)

Unplanted drying beds - WRI Accra/Ghana

Unplanted drying beds - WRI Accra/Ghana

Cross section A-A

Cross section B-B

Unplanted drying beds - WRI Accra/Ghana

Design criteria
-

Sludge application depth

~
Drying period to attain a 40% solids content ~
TS loading
~

25-30 cm
8 - 12 days (dry weather)
100 - 200 kg TS/m2*a

Approximate land requirement

-

~ 0.05 m2/cap*

* (assuming a 10-day cycle)

Percolate quantity
-

~ 50-80%
50 80% of FS volume

Design variables
-

TS raw sludge concentration [kg TS/m3]

Sludge loading per day [m3 FS/day]
Fresh, undigested sludge (from public toilets)
does not lend itself to dewatering

Unplanted drying beds - WRI Accra/Ghana

Dewaterability

Removal efficiencies
(raw sludge percolate)
100

60
[%]

40

20
0

40-60%

80

NH4

Public toilet sludge

Fresh, nearly undigested sludge hardly
lends itself to dewatering on drying beds

Helminth eggs 100%

Primary pond sludge

Rather good dewaterability, drying to 40% TS

COD 70-90%

Mixtures of public toilet sludge and septage (ratio 1:4)

Good dewaterability, drying to max. 70% TS in 8 days

SS 95%

Constructed wetlands - AIT Bangkok/Thailand

20-cm stainless
steel ventilation
pipe

7-cm thick
ferro-cement
Outlet
pipe

0.25-cm
plastic sheet

1.2-cm mesh
20-cm concrete
blocks

10-cm reinforced
concrete slab

20-cm PVC
drainage pipe

2-m wood pile

3 3 effluent
3-m
ffl
t
receiving tank

Planted drying beds (constructed wetlands)

-

Root system allows to maintain dewatering capacity of the drying beds during several years
Low desludging requirement since sludge loading cycles may last for several years
Biosolids stabilization and dewatering in one treatment step
Plant growth has to be given particular care (water balance)
Percolate may need further treatment
Appropriate under wet-tropical climatic conditions, less appropriate under dry climatic conditions

Constructed wetlands Design and operation criteria

Underdrain and Ventilation System
- Hollow concrete blocks: 20 x 40 x 16 cm
- Perforated PVC pipes d=20 cm
- Ventilation pipes mounted on the drainage system:
d=20cm, Height: 1m over the top edge of the units

Soil filter
- Large gravel (d=5 cm): 45 cm
- Medium gravel (d=2 cm): 15 cm
- Sand (d=0.1 cm): 10 cm

Freeboard
- 1m

Vegetation
- indigenous species (cattails, reeds or bulrushes)
- Start up with plant density 8 shoots/m2

Operating conditions (for Bangkok FS)

- Solids loading rate: 125 - 250 kg TS/m2*a
- Septage application frequency: 1 - 2/weeks
- Percolate ponding period: 2-6 days

Land requirement
-

~ 0.03 m2/cap

Constructed wetlands

Constructed wetlands Removal performances

and biosolids accumulation rate
90
80
100

70

80

60
50

60

[m]
40

40

20

30
20

0
SS

CODtot

CODfil

10

TKN

Biosolids accumulation:

90 m of fresh FS loaded

0.9 m of dewatered, stabilized and

hygienised biosolids accumulated

10

Challenges and potential of co-composting

- Reuse of organic matter
- Closing the nutrient cycle
- Hygienic safety
Organic Waste
Faecal Sludge

-D
Decentralised
t li d approach
h
- Institutional and
financial setup
- Socio-cultural aspects
11

Composting research questions

- Influence of temperature
pattern on HE inactivation
- Influence of turning frequency
on HE inactivation

Monitoring parameters
Mixing Ratio
Nitrogen Balance
Maturity parameters
Temperature
Moisture content
Helminth eggs inactivation

12

Temperature pattern
Heap 1, turned when temp > 60
Heap 2 turned each 10 days
75

Temperature (C)

Heap11
Heap21

Heap12
Heap22

60

45

30
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Days

Windrow temperature > 45 C during 4-6 weeks

13

Helminth eggs (HE) inactivation

90
Tem pe
erature (C)

Temperrature (C)

90

60

30

30

0
50
Ascaris Eggs per gTS

0
50
Ascaris Eggs per g TS

60

40
30
20
10

40
30
20
10
0

0
0

20

40

60

80

20

40

60

Days

80

Days

HE removal in heaps
turned each 3 days in the
active composting period

HE removal in heaps
turned each 10 days in the
active composting period
14

Viability test
Helminth Eggs (Ascaris and Trichuris) die off during co-composting :
results from Buobai Co-composting plant/Ghana
40
Ascaris Egg/gTS
Viable Ascaris/g TS

Eggs / g TS

30

20

10

0
0

30

Days

60

90

- HE viability in raw FS = 30-50 %

- HE viability in the final co-compost: < 10 % and
- Number of HE < 5/g TS in the end product )
viable HE < 0.5 HE/g TS
- Recommendation for end product (3-8 HE/g TS),
Strauss & Xanthoulis, 1991

15

16

Co-composting efficiency
a) Helminth eggs inactivation was not affected by
the turning frequency, less frequent turning
would be sufficient
b) Co-composting process allowed to maintain
temperature > 45C for more than 30 days.
c) Hence, high removal rate (90 to 100%) was
y
achieved after 80 days.
d) The optimal duration of the composting
process (60 + 30 days) is longer enough for
the inactivation of all helminth eggs.
17

Drying ponds

18

Settling/thickening tanks

Settling / thickening
- 2 settling/thickening units operated alternatively (e.g. 4 weeks loading / 4
weeks drying)
- Performance of the tanks strongly depends on the plants state of
maintenance and operation
- Problem when treating fresh public toilet sludges: bad settling behavior

19

Settling/thickening tanks

20

10

Settling/thickening tanks

Removal of thickened FS solids upon

admixing sawdust
21

Treatmentt options

Waste stabilization ponds - WRI Accra/Ghana

22

11

Waste stabilization ponds - WRI Accra/Ghana

[
[mg/l]

15000
10000
5000
0

Influent

16000
14000
12000
10000
[mg/l] 8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Eff.
Eff.
Eff.
Eff.
Eff.
sed. tank pond 1 pond 2 pond 3 pond 4

100
90
80
70
[%] 60
50
40
30
20
10
0

60%

20000

86%

COD total

Entire plant Sed. tank

23

Waste stabilization ponds - WRI Accra/Ghana

Faecal coliforms

[no./1
100 ml]

1.00E+04
1.00E+03
1.00E+02
1.00E+01
1.00E+00

Influent

Eff.
Eff.
Eff.
Eff.
Eff.
sed. tank pond 1 pond 2 pond 3 pond 4

0%

100
90
80
70
60
[%] 50
40
30
20
10
0

1.00E+05

99%

1.00E+06

Entire plant Sed. tank

24

12

Waste stabilization ponds - WRI Accra/Ghana

Ammonium

1400

[m
mg/l]

1000
800
600

40%

400
200
0

100
90
80
70
[%] 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Entire plant Sed. tank

Influent

Eff.
Eff.
Eff.
Eff.
Eff.
sed. tank pond 1 pond 2 pond 3 pond 4

0%

1200

Removal efficiency
25

Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion
- Energy production

- Mechanization level higher than for e.g. pond systems

- Higher operation and maintenance requirement

26

13

Co-treatment with wastewater - UNR Alcorta/Argentina

27

Co-treatment with wastewater - UNR Alcorta/Argentina

Septage

Sewage

C1
C2

L1

L2
Effluent

Design criteria
-

Accumulation
A
l ti off solids
lid
Depth accumulated solids

~
<

0 02 m3/m3
0.02
3/ 3 FS
0.5 m

Approx. land requirement

-

~ 0.03 m2/cap
28

14

Co-treatment with wastewater - UNR Alcorta/Argentina

29

Co-treatment with wastewater - UNR Alcorta/Argentina

30

15

Design and expected performance of selected

low-cost options for faecal sludge treatment

Treatment goal / achievable removal

Treatment
process or
option

Design criteria

Drying/dewater
ing beds

Constructed
wetlands
(planted drying
beds)

100-200 kg
TS/m2/year
0.05
m2/cap(Accra)
250 kg
TS/m2/year
SAR: 20 cm/year
(Bangkok)

Solids-liquid
separation

Organic pollutants
in liquid fraction

Parasites
(helminth eggs)

SS : 60-80 %
COD: 70-90 %
NH4+-N : 40-60
%

To be treated for
further improvement
in ponds or
constructed
wetlands

100 % retained
on top of the
filtering media

SS > 80 %
SAR: 20
cm/year

To be treated for
further improvement
in ponds or
constructed
wetlands

100% retained on
top of the filtering
media

31

Design and expected performance of selected

low-cost options for faecal sludge treatment

Treatment goal / achievable removal

Treatment
process or
option

Design criteria

Settling /
thickening tank

SAR*: 0.13 m3/m3

of raw FS
HRT: 4 h
S: 0.006 m2/cap
Accra

Facultative
stabilization
ponds

350 kg BOD5/ha/d

Solids-liquid
separation

Organic pollutants
in liquid fraction

Parasites
(helminth eggs)

SS: 60-70 %
COD: 30-50 %

To be treated for
further improvement
in ponds or
constructed
wetlands

Concentrated in
the settled and
floating solids

N t ffor this
Not
thi
purpose

> 60 % removall off

BOD5

Removed
R
db
by
settlement

32

16

Removal efficiency and challenges

Removal efficiency (%)

Settling/Thickening Tank
(septage+public toilet, 1:1)
Constructed wetlands
(septage)

Drying beds

(septage+public toilet, 1:1)

TS

COD

N-NH4

60

40

50

85

97

75

80

70

50

33

Removal efficiency and challenges

Effluent concentration
TS

Settling/Thickening Tank
(septage+public toilet, 1:1)
Constructed wetlands
(septage)
Drying beds

(septage+public toilet, 1:1)

(mg/l)

(mg/l)

COD

N-NH4
(mg/l)

(ms/cm)

EC

9,000-14,000

7,000-12,000

1,000-2,000

20-25

1,000-6,000

300-500

50-150

3.0-3.5

500-1000

4000-600

300-1500

11-20

34

17

Removal efficiency and challenges

Variable

Effects and expected problems

SS

NH4 / NH3

Potential difficulties in solids removal from deep ponds;

Short-circuiting due to sludge settling
Sludge drying beds to be devised as a separate treatment

Ammonia toxicity due to high concentration in undigested FS

Inhibition to the development of facultative and maturation
pond conditions;
Eye irritation

Colouration

Dark colour of FS supernatants

p
p
prevents light
g p
penetration
Algal growth and hence facultative or maturation pond
conditions may not evolve

Even though the organic load can be adjusted for a polishing

treatment in stabilisation ponds, the high concentrations of
salinity and NH4/NH3 hinder the biochemical degradation
35

Criteria for selecting low-cost treatment options for

mechanically emptied faecal sludge.
Pre-treatment
performance

Management
Pre-treatment
processes

Solids
production
rate and
handling
frequency

Required
labour
management
input

Hygienic
quality
of
bBiosoli
ds

Quality of
effluent for
posttreatment

Post-treatment requirements

Post- treatment
options for solids

Post- treatment
options for liquids

Remarks

Settling /
thickening
tank

High

medium

low

Low to
medium

Storage
Planted / unplanted
drying beds
Co-composting

Planted /
unplanted drying
beds
Co-treatment in
WSP

Not suitable for fresh

FS (TVS > 65 %)
Front-end loader
should be available for
regular desludging

Settling /
anaerobic
pond

High

Very High

low

Poor to low

Storage
Planted / unplanted
drying beds
Co-composting

Planted /
unplanted drying
beds
Co-treatment in
WSP

Not recommended as
first treatment
Process impaired by
high FS ammonia
content

Drying /
dewatering
beds
(Unplanted)

High

High

Low to
medium

Medium to
good

Storage
Co-composting

Planted drying
beds
Co-treatment in
WSP

Sand quality

Constructed
wetlands
(planted
drying beds)

Low

Medium

Good to
high

High

Extended storage

Constructed
wetlands or WSP

Technology proven
with specific plants
(Typha and Phragmites)
and Availability of
proven macrophytes

Cocomposing

High

High

High to
very high

No effluent

No further
treatment

Anaerobic
digestion
cum biogas
production

medium

high

Medium good

Medium - good

Planted / unplanted
drying beds
Co-composting

Constructed
wetlands or WSP

O&M are highly

influenced by the
market demand for
compost
Very few existing offsite digester

36

18

Open research questions

a) Nitrification/denitrification in vertical flow constructed

wetlands treating faecal sludge: influence of bed
configuration
b) Organic matter and N removal mechanisms in floating
macrophytes-based system treating FS effluent/percolate
c) Enhancing FS dewaterability with bulking organic material design and operation criteria
d)

Helminth eggs inactivation in biosolids generated in FS

treatment plant

e) Anaerobic digestion cum biogas: off-site decentralised

low-cost reactors reactor development
37

19