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2.
INTRODUCTION
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Ballistics (gr. ba'llein, "throw") is the science that deals with the
motion, behavior, and effects of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs,
rockets, or the like; the science or art of designing and hurling projectiles so as
to achieve a desired performance. A ballistic body is a body which is free to
move, behave, and be modified in appearance, contour, or texture by ambient
conditions, substances, or forces, as by the pressure of gases in a gun, by
rifling in a barrel, by gravity, by temperature, or by air particles.
INTERIOR BALLISTICS
It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The
time during which the projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very
short. From the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot
can be heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a
modern rifle.
BALLISTICS
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The formulas and tables for the exterior ballistics of each new type
of gun or cannon are more or less empirical and must be tested by actual
experiment before the aiming devices can be accurately calibrated.
EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
Exterior Ballistics deals with the motion of projectiles from the
time they leave the muzzle of the firearm to the time they hit the target. The
flight of most bullet or projectile does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum
range, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation of about 33.
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* While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver
are supposed to be effective in only 50-70 yards, all of them can send
their bullets much further than that and are capable of inflicting fatal
wounds at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber and
gunpowder content.
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Long barrel rifle up to 3,000 yards accurate range and its hinge
muzzle velocity of 1000-4000 ft./sec.
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Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's path where it neither
rises nor falls greater than the dimension specified. Most shooters
set this as 3" to 4" from the line of sight, although other
dimensions are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based
on one-half of the vital zone of the usual target. Typical vital zones
diameters are often given as: 3" to 4" for small game, and 6" to 8"
for big game and anti-personnel use.
8.
Drift - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand
rifling curves to the right while that of the left and rifling curves to
the left.
Effective Range- The maximum distance at which a bullet may
reasonably be expected to travel accurately and kill a particular
type of live targe
Extreme Range The greatest distance the bullet will travel when
the cartridge is fired.
Flat Trajectory - A comparative term used to indicate very little
curvature in the flight in the bullet from muzzle to point of impact.
When the velocity is high, comparatively flat trajectory.
Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association
of America, gallery rules required stance from firing point to target
of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for .
22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing
may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of
25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as
indoor range the term gallery being applied usually only to the
short range .22 caliber installation.
Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association
of America, gallery rules required stance from firing point to target
of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for .
22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing
may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of
25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as
indoor range the term gallery being applied usually only to the
short range .22 caliber installation.
Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first
crosses the line of sight. This is normally occurs at a range of about
25 yards.
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Ballistic Coefficient The means that the bullet may lose its
speed very rapidly during its flight the air. This is a number that
relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet's flight and which can
be used to later predict a bullet's trajectory under different
circumstances through what are called "drag tables."
Bullet Energy the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in
other words, its ability to keep going when it meets an obstacle and
to do work on the obstacle is immense importance, for obviously
the more power a bullet has an the harder it is to stop the more
effective it can be as a weapon
Bullet Trajectory - This is the bullet's path as it travels down
range. It is parabolic in shape and because the line of the bore is
below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward, the
bullet's path crosses the line of sight at two locations.
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SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and
pellets.
Chilled Shot shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the
addition of a slight amt. of antimony.
2.
TERMINAL BALLISTICS
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It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on
the target. Penetration of the bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is
important also in determining safety requirements for target backstops. They
are important to both sportsman and military.
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Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also
due to the pressure of the heated expanded gases, flame and
articles of gunpowder.
However, in long range fire, the
characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.
Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body
will produce a round shape wound of entrance in short distance
fire, while in acute angle of approach the bullet will produce an
oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the
side of the acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to
deflect to another direction upon hitting the target.
Part of the body involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of
the body; the bullet penetrates and usually without any change in
direction, however upon hitting the bones and other hard body
structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury
or may deflect to another direction.
C.
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Wound of Entrance
Take note:
1.
2.
3.
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5.
Differential points
always present
Absent
+ in contact and near fire
Presence or absence
Protrusion of tissue
Paraffin test
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FORENSIC BALLISTICS
It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of
firearms by means of ammunition fired through them. This is the real branch
of the science which the police use as their guide in field investigations. This
includes the following:
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Take Note:
FORENSIC - As applied to ballistics, or to any other subject,
suggest a relationship to Courts of Justice and legal proceedings.
FORUM It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived,
meaning a marketplace, where people gather for "public disputation" or
"public discussion". Thus, the title "Forensic Ballistics" aptly describes the
subject under consideration - the science of investigation and identification of
firearms and ammunitions used in crimes. The terms "Ballistics", Forensic
Ballistics" and "Firearms Identification", have come to mean one and the same
thing in the minds of the public, and they can be used interchangeably.
Take Note:
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2.
FIREARMS
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HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS
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ORIGINS OF FIREARMS
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does not damage the bullet as badly as conventional rifling. Polygonal barrels
also tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of the sharp edges
of the land reduces flame erosion. Higher velocities may be generated due to a
reduction of friction and an improvement of the gas seal between the bullet
and barrel. A disadvantage of polygonal rifling is that if simple lead bullets are
used, lead from the bullet tends to accumulate in the barrel (called leading)
resulting in a dirty barrel, poor accuracy, and if the leading becomes severe,
excessive chamber pressure which could cause a barrel or locking failure.
Polygonal rifling is currently seen on most pistols from GLOCK and Kahr
Arms.
THE RIFLE
The rifle, invented about 1500, had spiral grooves in the barrel that
made it more accurate than any previous firearm. Smokeless powder was
developed in the 1800's. Breechloading systems replaced dangerous muzzle
loading. Many improvements since have resulted in high-powered firearms.
Together with the bullet passing out of the barrel are high pressure
heated gases, unburned powder grains with flame and smoke.
Rifle is a gun with spiral grooves in its long barrel that spin the
bullet as it is shot. Rifles are usually held against the shoulder when firing.
Soldiers use rifles in battle. People also use rifles to hunt game and to compete
in shooting matches.
RIFLING
Rifling refers to spiral grooves that have been formed into the
barrel of a firearm. It is the means by which a firearm imparts a spin to a
projectile to gyroscopically stabilize it to improve accuracy. Most rifling is
created by either cutting with a machine tool, pressed by a tool called a
"button" or forged into the barrel over a "mandrel". The grooves are the spaces
that are cut out, and the resulting ridges are called 'lands'. These lands and
grooves can vary in number, depth, shape, direction of twist ('right' or 'left'),
and 'twist rate' (turns per unit of barrel length). The spin imparted by rifling
significantly improves the stability of the projectile, improving both range and
accuracy.
How a rifle works. A rifle is ready to be fired when a cartridge has been fed
into the firing chamber. Then the rifle is aimed and the trigger squeezed. The
rifle's hammer or firing pin strikes the rear end of the cartridge and ignites the
primer. The primer in turn ignites the propellant powder in the cartridge. The
powder burns rapidly, creating pressure that drives the bullet down the barrel.
The rifling in the barrel makes the bullet spin. Without spin, a
bullet would not stay pointed forward in flight, but would tumble over and
over. The spinning motion increases the accuracy of a bullet.
Kinds of Rifles
* Sporting Rifle
As a bullet is fired from a rifle, grooves in the interior of the barrel cause it to
spin. The spinning motion stabilizes the bullet and increases its distance and
accuracy. This illustration shows a modern hunting rifle and highlights its
main components.
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Take Note:
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The M16A2 is the automatic rifle used by the U.S. armed forces. It
weighs 8.9 pounds (4 kilograms) when loaded with a 30-cartridge magazine.
The M16A2 can fire one shot at a time, or three shots in a single burst. It uses
a 5.56-millimeter cartridge.
The main advantage of the double-action revolver over the singleaction revolver is that it can be fired rapidly. The Smith & Wesson military
and police revolver is one of the most popular double-action revolvers. This
firearm was introduced in 1905.
Take Note:
Modern rifles developed from the crude, muzzle-loading firearms
of the 1400's. Rifling of barrels was invented in Europe about 1500. Smoothbore firearms (weapons without rifling) could not be depended on to hit
targets more than 100 steps away.
The jaeger rifle of central and northern Europe was the first
accurate rifle. It was developed about 1665. German immigrants brought
jaegers to Pennsylvania in the early 1700's and gave them new features,
including longer barrels. The Pennsylvania-made Kentucky rifle developed
from the jaeger. Some Kentucky rifles were used in the Revolutionary War in
America (1775-1783).
Rifles used round bullets until the 1850's, when more accurate
Minie bullets became popular. Minie bullets had hollow bases and pointed tips
and were used in the U.S. Civil War (1861-1865). Improvements of the late
1800's included repeating rifles, smokeless explosive powder, and jacketed
bullets, which have a tough metal cover over a lead or steel core.
THE HANDGUN:
Handgun is a firearm that can be operated with one hand. Other
types of guns, such as rifles and machine guns, require the use of both hands,
a tripod (three-legged stand), or a shooting rest.
Parts of a handgun (the frame, the grip, the barrel, the sights, and the action)
The frame is the main body of the gun that connects the other
parts. The grip is the handle of the gun, and the barrel is the metal tube
through which the bullet is fired. The lands and rifling (grooves) are
alternating raised surfaces and channels inside the barrel. They cause the
bullet to spin and thus make it travel in a direct path.
The shooter uses the sights to line up the handgun with the target.
Some sights can be adjusted to help aim the gun more easily. All handguns
made for target shooting have adjustable sights.
The action includes the main working parts of the handgun. It
consists of such parts as the trigger, the hammer, and the cartridge chamber.
The type of action determines how the handgun is loaded and fired. The action
of every handgun includes a safety, a mechanism that prevents the gun from
being fired unintentionally. The safety ensures that the gun fires when the
shooter squeezes the trigger, but not, for example, when the gun is dropped to
the ground.
Take Note:
The first gun operated with one hand was the matchlock gun,
which appeared in the 1400's. It was fired by attaching a burning cord or
match to an S-shaped holder called a serpentine. In the early 1500's, the
wheel-lock gun was invented. Its metal wheel struck a spark when it revolved
against a piece of pyrite. With the wheel lock, soldiers no longer had to carry
flames to ignite the gunpowder.
single-action revolvers,
double-action revolvers,
single-action semiautomatic pistols,
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A.
Machine gun is an automatic weapon that can fire from 400 to 1,600 rounds
of ammunition each minute. Machine gun barrels range in size from .22
caliber to 20 millimeters. Ammunition is fed into the gun from a cloth or
metal belt, or from a cartridge holder called a magazine. Because machine
guns fire so rapidly, they must be cooled by air. Machine guns are heavy
weapons and are usually mounted on a support.
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2.
In the gas system, the gas pressure drives a piston against the bolt.
The bolt is driven to the rear, providing energy for a cycle like that of the
blowback system.
B.
C.
D.
In the recoil system, the bolt locks to the barrel when the gun is
fired. These parts remain locked together as they are forced to the rear by the
gas pressure. This movement provides energy to operate the gun.
Ground weapons. The 7.62-millimeter M60 machine gun is a major infantry
weapon. It is air-cooled and gas-operated, and fires about 600 rounds a
minute. The M60 replaced the Browning machine gun, an important weapon
in World Wars I and II, and the Korean War.
3.
Rifled Bore Firearms - those that contain riflings inside the gun
barrel. Riflings refers the lands and grooves such as the following:
Rifle Pistol - Revolver
Smooth Bore Firearms those that have no riflings inside the gun
barrel for the breech end up to the muzzle of the firearm. Such as
the following: Shotguns - Muskets
2.
During World War II, fighters and bombers carried machine guns
as armament. They also carried automatic cannon up to 20 millimeters in size.
During the Vietnam War, airplanes and helicopters called gunships carried
machine guns or cannon. Today, most fighter planes and gunships carry
rockets for air-to-air and air-to-ground use. Bombers use machine guns
mounted in groups of two or four in power-driven turrets. The Vulcan 20millimeter aircraft cannon has six rotating barrels. It can fire more than a ton
of metal and explosives each minute.
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Military Firearms
a.
Pistols
d. Shotguns
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2.
3.
b.
Revolvers
e. Machine guns
c.
Rifles
Pocket and Home Defense Firearms
a.
Pistols
c. Rifles
b.
Revolvers
d. Shotguns
Target and Outdoorsman known as Sporting
a.
Pistols
b.
c. Rifles
(1)
(2)
(3)
Revolvers
(4)
(5)
E.
F.
(6)
(7)
(8)
3. Frame or Receiver
(1)
top strap
(2)
rear sight
hammer
(3)
breech face
(4)
hammer
safety
(5)
spur
disconnector
(6)
thumb latch
safety
(7)
side plate
strap
(8)
back strap
(9)
firing strap
lanyard loop
(10) butt
strap
(11) front strap
magazine well
(12) trigger guard
(13) trigger
side stock
(14) cylinder lock
(15) right side stock
(16) left side stock
(17) trade mark (monogram)
(18) serial number
G.
H.
Revolver
a.
barrel assembly
b.
cylinder assembly
c.
frame or receiver
2.
Pistol
a.
barrel assembly
b.
slide assembly
c.
frame or receiver
I.
2. Cylinder assembly
Slide Assembly
c. Frame or Receiver
(1) ejector
(2)
(3) spur
(4)
grip
(5)
(6) thumb
(7)
back
(8) butt
(9)
(10) front
(11)
(12) right side stock
(13)
left
(14) trigger
(15) trigger stock
(16) modes
(17) plunger
(18) serial number
DETAILED PARTS
1. Revolver
1. Barrel Assembly
(1) breech end
(2) muzzle en
(3) bore
(4) riflings
(5) front sight
(6) make
chambers
(1) front sight
extractor
(2) top strap
extractor rod
(3) ejection part
racket
(4) rear sight
cylinder grooves
(5) breech block
yoke
(6) breech face
cylinder locking notches (touch holes)
(7) extractor
2. Pistol
a. Barrel Assembly
(1) breech end
(2) muzzle end
(3) bore
(4) riflings
(5) chamber
(6) interlocking ribsbarrel link
J.
b.
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ADVANTAGES
1.
Revolver
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2.
Automatic pistol
K.
DISADVANTAGES
ORIGIN
1.
Revolver
bulkier to carry
grip or handle is generally not as good as that of pistol
hard to clean after firing
slower to load
harder to replace worn out parts its a factory job
worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy to
improper lining up of cylinder
2.
Automatic Pistol
L.
AMMUNITIONS/CARTRIDGES
2.
LEGAL DEFINITION it maybe found in Chapter VII, Sec. 290
of the National Internal Revenue Code as well as in Sec. 877 of the Revised
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Revolver cartridges
Pistol cartridges
Rifle cartridges
Shotgun cartridges
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ARTILLERY AMMUNITION
Artillery includes rocket launchers and such mounted guns as
howitzers, mortars, antiaircraft guns, and naval guns. Most types of field and
naval artillery ammunition are called shells. A single shell, like a single
cartridge, is known as a round. Field artillery projectiles range in size from 50
to 240 millimeters and can weigh over 200 pounds (90 kilograms). Most
artillery shells taper to the rear, a shape that gives them greater range. Some
have streamlined ogives (nose shields). Others, known as base-burner shells,
have a small amount of propellant burning in the tail during flight. This
reduces drag (air resistance).
Some shells are high explosives, which detonate on impact and
damage or destroy the target. Detonating the shell's explosive filler shatters
the shell into thousands of fragments. High explosives include TNT; RDX,
also known as cyclonite or hexogen; composition B, a mixture of RDX and
TNT; PETN; and pentolite, a combination of PETN and TNT. Other shells
contain mines or small shells that can be expelled at intervals over a specified
area or during a certain period of time.
Still other shells are filled with a non-explosive substance, such as
a chemical that is poisonous or that produces smoke or fire. Illuminating, or
star, shells light up the battlefield or seascape. A shell with a chaff warhead
expels strips of aluminum, which produce images on a radar screen similar to
those caused by aircraft. Such images confuse radar operators and thus help
protect aircraft from enemy attack.
There are five main types of artillery shells
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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shells have small radars and computers in them. These shells can
search for and find such targets as armored vehicles or trucks
without help.
ARTILLERY-VEHICLE AMMUNITION
CARTRIDGE CASES/SHELL
1.
2.
3.
Kinds of Shots:
1.
2.
3.
2.
3.
Some shotguns are named by caliber, as for example, the one that
is called .410 gauge shotguns which actually means .41 caliber. A 12-gauge
shotgun has a caliber of .729 inch.
4.
The first shotgun, developed in 1537, was loaded with small shot
instead of one round ball. In 1831, Augustus Demondion patented a cartridge
that held small shot. Modern shotguns are single barrels, double barrels, or
single barrels with automatic repeating magazines that hold several cartridges.
Repeating shotguns are popular in the United States with hunters as well as
with many law enforcement officers.
5.
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10.
BULLETS (Projectiles)
Bullet is also knows as PROJECTILE is a metallic or nonmetallic body usually referred to as a bullet that is completely dependent upon
an outside force for its power.
Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles
propelled from shotguns although strictly speaking these projectiles designed
for shotguns are called shot, slug or pellets. In a laymans viewpoint, a
projectile fired from a firearms is called slug, although what be actually meant
is a bullet.
1.
2.
3.
keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when it strike the
target.
prevent damage while in the weapon
control expansion
Take Note:
Take Note:
Lead Bullets those which are made of lead or alloy of this metal
such as lead, tin and antimony.
Jacketed Bullets those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket
of harder metal such as guiding metal and copper zinc.
copper plated steel maybe used instead of gilding metal for the
jacket of caliber .45 - jacket of metal patch made of cupro nickel or
gilding metal.
If jscket bullets are used in revolvers, the gun barrel will be
loosened or destroyed.
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Pointed bullet
Round Nose bullet
Wad Cutter bullet
Semi-Wad Cutter bullet
Hollow Point bullet
Boat Tailed bullet
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5. grain to gram
6. gram to grain
7. gram to kg
Ogive the curved portion of the bullet that is symmetrical and forms
the head of the projectile of ogival shape.
Soft or Drop Shot shotgun pellets made of ordinary soft lead made
into round pellets.
4.
5.
Ball Bullets have a soft cores and are used against personnel.
Armor Piercing Bullet have hardened steel cores and are fired
against vehicles, weapons and armored targets in general.
Tracer Bullets contains compound usually similar to barium
nitrates which is set on fire when the bullet is projected. The flash
of this smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to
be seen.
Incendiary Bullets contains a mixture such as phosphorous or
other materials, that can be set on fire by impact. They are used
against target that will burn readily such as aircraft.
Explosives Bullets contains a high charge of high explosive and
because of their small size it is difficult to make a fuse tat will
work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this reason the use of
high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20mm and above.
CONVERSION TABLE
1.
2.
3.
4.
cm to mm
mm to inch
inch to mm
meter to yard
Take Note:
PURPOSES OF BULLETS
1.
2.
3.
4.
0.06480
15.43
0.001
Take Note:
Multiply
10.0
0.03937
25.4
1.094
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Steel Jacketed Bullet bullet having soft steel jacket, often clad or
plated with gliding metal to prevent resting and reduce frictional
resistance in the bore.
3.
4.
Take Note:
Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:
1.
PRIMER
It is an assembly which ignites the propellant. The primer
assembly of center fire cartridges consists of a brass or guiding-metal cup that
contains a primer composition pellet of sensitive explosive, a paper disc (foil),
and a brass anvil.
2.
A blow from the firing pin of a small arms weapon on center of the
primer cup
compresses the primer composition violently between the cup and the anvil,
thus causing the composition to explode. The hole or vent in the anvil allows
the flame to pass through the primer vent in the cartridge case, thereby
igniting the propellant.
Take Note:
1807 Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion
ignition system. He was a Scotch Presbyterian Minister, chemist and hunter.
First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium
chlorate.
Characteristics
a.
gray green to black in color and grains are similar in size and
shape to the single-base propellants
b.
almost all have a perfectly definite shape such as: small
squares; discs; flakes; stripes; pellets; and perforated
cylindrical grains
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2.
3.
4.
5.
PRIMING COMPOUNDS
When bullet is fired, it acquires marks or scratches from the bore
surfaces. These marks, from irregularities left by the tool cuts or caused by
wear and rust, by reproducible by firing another bullet through the same
barrel. The bullet is evidence and the second bullet can then be compared for
match. The pattern obtain is comparable to a fingerprint, thus making
coincidence of identical patterns from two different guns most unlikely if not
impossible. A composition is that, was yet, there has been no system devised
to classify such patterns, as there is with fingerprints.
Non-corrosive
Mixture 25 yrs. ago:
a.
potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) 45%
b.
antimony (element & fuel) 23%
c.
fulminate of mercury (initiator) 32%
ARMS
MANUFACTURING
IDENTIFICATION
FIREARMS
Germans
fulminate of mercury 39%; barium nitrate 41%; antimony sulfide
9%; picric acid 5%; ground glass 6%
AND
PROCESS
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similar manner the accumulation of metal chips remove by the cutter will
scratch the barrel as it passes along. Even in the button system imperfection
will remain after the lapping and finishing operations are completed. These
microscopic scars will make a series of striations on every bullet which passes
through the barrel. It is the comparison of these bullet striations which is the
basis of examination.
v.
w.
1.
BULLET IDENTIFICATION
a.
Caliber
Number of Lands and Grooves
Width of Lands and Grooves
Twist of riflings
Pitch of the rifling
Depth of grooves
b.
c.
2.
e.
WHAT TO COMPARE?
1.
2.
Evidence Bullet
Test/Standard Bullet
Before proceeding in the examination of the firearm by
means of the fired bullets, first identify the particular firearm
through the class characteristics appearing on the cylindrical
surface of the bullet.
Manufacturers of firearms make certain marks which
may distinguish firearms manufactured by them from that of other
manufacturers. Each manufacturer makes specific number of
spiral grooves and direction of the twist of rifling. A bullet
recovered at the crime scene or from the body of the victim may
show those marks and on examination, the examiner may
presumptively state from what make of firearm it came from, thus,
if one examination or recovered bullet, it was found out that there
are six (6) grooves and the rifling marks are twisted to the left, then
it is possible that it came from a Colt firearm. Smith and Wesson
manufacturer has five (5) lands, five (5) grooves and with right
hand twit of rifling. Other class characteristics varied from one
manufacturer to another.
3.
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SHELL Identification
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a.
b.
c.
IMPORTANCE
OF
IDENTIFICATION
FIRED
BULLET
IN
Provisional Proof the testing of the rough gun barrels and fired with a
heavy charge of powder to see if they are strong enough to be
finished and assembled into gun. This provisional proof and a
certain stamp are placed on barrels so tested.
Shaving Marks a shaving on the ogive portion of the fired bullet due
to poor alignment of the cylinder with the barrel. This shaving is
often found in the revolver.
Skid Marks When the bullet first starts forward without turning, that
before the bullet can begin to turn, it moves forward a small
distance and this makes the front of the groove in the bullet wider
than the rear part. This skidding is more pronounced in revolvers.
Slippage Marks Scratches of the fired bullet due to badly worn rifling
or when the bullet is small or too soft for the velocity used, there is
a tendency for it to go straight forward without turning and it
jumps the rifling or slips.
Stripping Marks scratches on the fired bullet due to worn out barrel.
FIREARMS
a.
TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION
Breechface marks
Firing pin impression
Ejector mark
Extractor mark
Chamber mark
Take Note:
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characteristics, certainly, the evidence bullet or case was not fired from the
suspected firearm. Where the evidence has prominent or minor striations that
the three tests, it calls for uncertainty and doubt for a positive or negative
conclusion. Only those evidence bullets or cases that have the same individual
characteristics may be taken of photomicrograph for Court presentation.
This instrument consists of two single tubes fitted with a cross arm
and comparison eyepiece, in which the images of two objects held on its two
adjustable stages are fused into one, forming a single image as can be seen on
the comparison eyepiece. The microscope tubes are built as a unit with the
comparison eyepiece which has a prism arrangement that brings the images of
the specimen held under the microscopic tubes into a side by side position in
the left and right side of the eyepiece field the eyepiece is threaded for
focusing on the dividing line between the two fields.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Every examiner, no matter how experienced or expert he may be,
has had the experience of spending many hours in the attempt to get the
satisfactory and convincing matching in cases where there was every reason to
believe that the has the gun that fired the evidence bullet or shell.
Obtain matching as many as possible, because convincing ones
self and convincing the Court beyond all reasonable doubt are two quite
different matters. Te expert must always keep in mind the fact, judges are
always keep in mind the fact, judges are always unpredictable: if some pairs
of grooves (or lands) match and others do not, the expert must be prepared to
explain why they do not.
FINDINGS/CONCLUSION
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
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13.
14.
15.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Accelerator A device used in some automatic and semiautomatic weapons to accelerate the rearward travel of the bolt of
breechblock by applying leverage at the critical point in the bolts
travel. Any device of linkage designed to speed the movement of
some portion of the mechanical train.
ACP Arms Corporation of the Philippines.
Barrel Length - In interior ballistic work this differs from the
"barrel length" use in general measurements. It is measured from
the face of the muzzle to the base of the seated bullet or base of the
case neck.
Barrel Telescope Instrument used to make a visual inspection of
the inset of a gun barrel to see a sign of having been fired recently,
to look for leading or metal fouling and to see how distinct the
lands and grooves appear.
Blow back As pertains to automatic and semi-automatic arms, a
weapon in which no mechanical locking system is employed. The
breech is held closed at the moment of firing by the action of recoil
springs and the weight of the slide, hammer and other moving
parts. The weight of these parts is so much greater than the breech
action has been appreciably overcome; then the breechblock action
is blown backward, by residual pressure. A term commonly used to
describe the backward escape of powder or primer gases from the
chamber around the breechblock or bolt due to split or fractured
cartridge case or punctured primer.
Blow Forward An automatic of semi-automatic firearm having a
standing breech, in which the barrel is blown to open the action
and eject the fired cartridge case. The barrel is then forced back
against the standing breech by a powerful spring. The gun is
cocked and reloaded as the barrel is forced to the rear.
Bore Centerline - This is the visual line of the center of the bore.
Since sights are mounted above the bore's centerline and since the
bullet begins to drop when it leaves the muzzle the bore must be
angled upwards in relation to the line of sight so that the bullet will
strike where the sights point.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
Breech Block The steel block which closes the tear bore against
the force of the charge; or the face of the block.
Burr Hammer An expose hammer having a serrated knob at the
top to provide a griping surface for cocking.
Camming lug bolts that type which employs one or more bolt
locking logs which are cammed outward from the interior of the
bolt cylinder to unlocked the action.
Chamber the rear portion of the barrel where the cartridge is
inserted.
Cylinder serves as chamber and magazine and a revolver.
Cylinder Stop stops and holds the cylinder in alignment for
firing.
Delayed Blowback Sometimes called hesitation locking the
breech, although not positively locked, must overcome a
mechanical disadvantage, such as knuckle joint, to open.
39.
40.
41.
42.
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43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Photography is an invaluable aid to modern day scientific crime
detection and investigation as well as crime prevention. Perhaps it could be
stated that without photography our law enforcement officer in the so-called
modern day scientific crime detection would still be lagging a hundred years.
The year 1839 is considered generally as the birth year of
photography. Its first landmark in police history is generally confined to its
application to the problem of personal identification. In those days the
Bertillon system of the facial features of the criminal were measured, as well
as the bone structures of the various parts of the body. These measurements
were worked into a classification system and the photograph of the criminal
was used to supplement the classification. Later, the Bertillon system was
superseded by the fingerprint system of personal identification. Under the
fingerprint system the photograph of the subject is still placed on his finger
print chart, not to supplement the identification system but to have available
photograph if needed for investigation purposes.
This course is divided into two main topics: TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY
AND FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY.
TECHNICAL: technical concepts and principles which includes
characteristics of photographic rays, the use of camera, lenses, filters,
structure of film and photographic papers, chemical processing and others.
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9.
FORENSIC: covers investigative photography, preparation of mug file and
crime scene photography.
Objective:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Significance:
The usefulness of Forensic Photography in criminal investigation
is very extensive. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed
may escape in the first phase of examination by the investigator but may be
seen and recovered, only after closed examination of the photographs of the
crime scene.
Investigators are sometimes compelled to reconstruct or describe in
court some of the details of the crime scenes they investigated several months
ago. With the bulk of cases the investigator handle, perhaps he would be
confused or may not exactly recall some of these details or exact location of
objects. However, with the aid of photographs taken from the crime scene,
investigator will not find hard time to refresh in their minds and will be able to
describe or explain exactly the details in court.
A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record, which is
always available, especially in court presentation. In court proceedings,
judges, prosecutors and defense lawyers have generally never visited the
scene of the crime. Therefore, photographers should bear in mind to obtain a
normal, sharp and free of distortion photograph. As a general rule, take many
photograph of the crime scene and select the best.
A photograph of the crime scene is a factual reproduction and
accurate record of the crime scene because it captures TIME, SPACE AND
EVENT. A photograph is capable of catching and preserving the:
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
As means of identification.
As a method of discovering, recording and preserving evidence.
As a way to present, in the courtroom, an impression of the
pertinent elements of a crime.
As a training and public relations medium for police programs.
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not able to see the beam of light, but only the light source itself and any object
that reflects the light.
SPEED OF LIGHT
Even an electric light appears to glow immediately it is switched
on, a small but definite time lag occurs between the light coming on and the
electromagnetic radiation entering our eyes. In a room, this time lag is too
short to be noticeable, but for distant objects like stars, the lag is thousand of
years. Even light from the moon, which is relatively close to earth,
experiences a time lag of one second. The speed of light, measured in a
vacuum is 299, 792.5 km/sec (approximately 186,281 miles/sec / 186,000).
BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT
INTERFERENCE - Any phenomenon having a periodic
disturbance of some sort and travels outward from a source is called a wave.
To understand how energy can travels in waves, think of a wooden log
floating in the ocean. Light maybe visualized as such as the high points are
called crest while the low points are called troughs. The distance between two
successive crest and troughs is called a wavelength.
When two light beams cross, they may interfere in such a way that
the resultant intensity pattern is affected. When two waves meet or interfere,
they reinforce one another (crest form a higher crest than either) at some
points and annul one another (crest of one wave interfere with the trough of
the other) at other points.
The crest of one wave meets the trough of another wave. The
phenomenon is called annulment of waves. The British physicist Thomas
Young in the experiment illustrated first demonstrated such an interference
pattern. Light that had passed through one pinhole illuminated an opaque
surface that contained two pinholes. The light that passed through the two
pinholes formed a pattern of alternately bright and dark circular fringes on a
screen. Wavelets are drawn in the illustration to show that at points such as A,
C, and E (intersection of solid line with solid line) the waves from the two
pinholes arrive in phase and combine to increase the intensity. At other points,
such as B and D (intersection of solid line with dashed line), the waves are
180 out of phase and cancel each other.
SOURCES OF LIGHT
There are two sources of light, they are known as natural and
artificial. Natural lights are lights which come to existence without the
intervention of man and artificial lights are lights which are man made. In
photography natural light is used for outdoor photography and artificial lights
are utilized in indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting condition.
NATURAL LIGHT
The source of all daylight is the sun. The combination of color and
contrast ascertains the quality of the daylight. The lighting contrast depends
upon the sunlight available in the daylight, when clouds do not cover the sun.
Then, the contrast is high on the contrary; if clouds cover the sun the contrast
is low. In the process of photographing and object; the lighting contrast must
be considered in the exposure of the film. It is suggested that the
recommendations, given by the manufacturer of the film be observed
religiously to produce good and presentable photographs.
Color of the daylight will also affect the appearance of the objects
being photographed specially in color photography. Some of the factors
affecting the color of the daylight:
a) atmospheric vapor
b) atmospheric dust
c) reflected light reached the objects and directly coming from the
source.
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In Hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by thin cloud and the shadow
appears bluish because of the decrease of light falling on the subject in open
space. The shadow cast is transparent to the eye and more details are visible
under this lighting condition than a bright sunlight.
ATTRIBUTE OF COLORS
Radiant energy within a limited frequency range has the property
of stimulating the retina of the eye to create color sensation, which the brain
interprets. Radiant energy, which has this property, is called light, the physical
stimulus of vision.
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
Almost all artificial light sources can be used in photographing of
objects, as long as the light is capable of exposing the sensitized materials
(film). Some of the artificial lights are electronic flash, photoflood lamp,
fluorescent lamp, and Infrared and Ultra-Violet lamp.
Approximate
Red (longest wavelength)
Blue
Green
700 mu
450 mu
550 mu
Complementary Colors
A. Magenta (shortest wavelength)
B. Cyan
C. Yellow
400
500
590
Neutral Color
A.
B.
C.
Gray
White
Black
COLOR MIXING
1. Color Addition
R+B+G = W
R+B= M
R+G= Y
B+G= C
2. Color Subtraction
W-R= C
W-B=Y
W-G=M
M+Y= R
Y+C= B
Y+C= G
W-C=R
W-Y=B
W-M=G
MEDIUMS OF LIGHT
Objects that influence the intensity of light as they may reflect
absorb or transmit.
C-G=B
Y-G=R
Y-R=G
Painted objects do not produce their own light, they reflect light,
when objects look red, because it is reflecting only red light to our eyes. To
do this, it absorbed the other primary colors in the white light it is reflecting. It
absorbed green and blue and reflects red.
OPTICS
A.
B.
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Absorbed
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C.
Transmitted
The essentials of any camera, therefore, are light tight box, a lens,
a shutter, and a holder of sensitized material. All other accessory of any
camera merely makes picture taking easier, faster, and convenient for the
operator and is call accessories.
The lens, which must be focus at the object at the time of picture
taking, is one of the most important parts of any camera. The function of the
lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates more or less the
same way as the lens of the eye. It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness of
the image formed through which light passes during the exposure of the
sensitized material inside the light tight box. The area of the lens may large or
small during the exposure of the sensitized material depending upon the light
coming form the subject to be pictured. The quantity and quality of the light
coming from the subject depend upon the light source. As a rule the more light
we have from the source the more light will be reflected and vice versa.
Should the light be too great the area of the lens maybe reduced with the focal
number adjustment. The smaller the area of the lens the greater is the
numerical value of the focal number. The greater the focal number
numerically the less light will pass through the lens but more distance will
appear in reasonable sharpness.
The shutter has for its function through its action called shutter
speed the control of the duration of the exposure of the sensitized material to
light. The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed the shorter will be
the duration of the opening and closing of the lens. As an effect only a small
amount of light will pass through the lens.
Reflex cameras, both the SLR and the TLR types, are equipped
with mirrors that reflect in the viewfinder the scene to be photographed.
The twin-lens reflex is box-shaped, with a viewfinder consisting of a
horizontal ground-glass screen located at the top of the camera. Mounted
vertically on the front panel of the camera are two lenses, one for taking
photographs and the other for viewing. The lenses are coupled, so that
focusing one automatically focuses the other. The image formed by the
upper, or viewing, lens is reflected to the viewing screen by a fixed mirror
mounted at a 45 angle. The photographer focuses the camera and adjusts
the composition while looking at the screen. The image formed by the
lower lens is focused on the film at the back of the camera. Like
rangefinder cameras, TLRs are subject to parallax.
In the SLR type of reflex camera, a single lens is used for both
viewing the scene and taking the photograph. A hinged mirror situated
between the lens and the film reflects the image formed by the lens through
a five-sided prism and on to a ground-glass screen on top of the camera. At
the moment the shutter is opened, a spring automatically pulls the mirror
out of the path between lens and film. Because of the prism, the image
recorded on the film is almost exactly that which the camera lens sees,
without any parallax effects.
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With additional equipment, electronic images can also be sent over telephone
lines or printed on paper.
FILM CAMERAS - Takes pictures that re-create the motion of a
subject when they are viewed. Professional filmmakers generally use large
cameras that take 35 or 16 mm film. Most amateurs records on 8 mm film
called super 8. Today, many amateur filmmakers use portable video cameras
called CAMCORDERS. These cameras convert light reflected by the subject
into electronic signals that are recorded on magnetic tape. Most film cameras
and camcorders can record sound at the same as they record images. Most of
them also have a zoom lens.
Singleor
cameras
are
most common in
today. Singlelens
reflex
means that the
lens is used for
and
lens reflex,
SLR,
among the
use
same
viewing
taking the
photograph. The movable
mirror between the lens and the film reflects the image on a groundglass viewing screen while the user adjusts the focus. When the shutter
release button is depressed, a spring pushes the mirror out of the way,
and the image is recorded on the film. The cameras are popular because
users often have the option to control elements such as shutter speed,
focus, and aperture manually or automatically. This option allows
photographers to achieve a wide variety of effects with relative ease.
The quality of SLR camera pictures is generally superior to that of the
so-called point-and-shoot camera.
Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
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electronic shutter control. After the shutter is released the control uses a light
sensing device called a photocell to determine when enough light has been
received for a proper exposure and it then it closes the shutter automatically.
A lens can be used to focus the light onto the film to produce a
bright, clear image. The hole behind the lens is called the aperture and on
many cameras the size of the hole, or aperture can be altered. The length of
time that light is allowed to enter the camera is called the exposure and is
controlled by the shutter. In its normal position the shutter is closed and
prevents light entering the camera. When the button is pressed, the shutter
flies open for a pre - determined length of time, depending on the light
conditions in which the photograph is being taken. This can be as long as one
second or as short as 1/1000 second or even shorter. On a dull day you need a
longer exposure than on a sunny day.
The shutter is located behind the lens, between the elements of the
lens (between the lens shutter) or immediately in front of the films (focal
plane shutter).
The shutter is a sliding door that allows light to pass through the
aperture (opening) onto the film. Different settings on a small dial on the top
of the camera determine how long the shutter will remain open. The aperture
selector is on the body of the lens. The numbers that indicate the size of the
aperture are called f-numbers or f-stops. The f-stop is equal to the ratio of the
focal length of the lens to the diameter of the opening. The shutter speed and
f-stop determine the exposurethat is, the overall amount of light that will
reach the film. However, even when the amount of light is constant, the effect
may be different. Photographers experiment with different combinations to
achieve various effects.
The light power of the lens is determined by the ratio of its focal
length to its effective diameter (the effective diameter is equal to the diameter
of the aperture - the circular opening that controls the amount of light that
passes through the lens). The ratio expressed with the symbol f/, is called the
f- number. The larger the aperture in relation to the focal length, the smaller is
the f- number.
SHUTTER The shutters on most cameras can be adjusted to
different shutter speeds. The shutter speed means the length of time the shutter
is open. This might be several seconds ( or even hours if you are
photographing a night sky ) or one thousandth of a second or even less with
special cameras. Most cameras have a shutter speed dial showing speeds from
one second to, for example, one thousand of a second. The dial is set to the
speed the photographer wants. Of course, the faster the shutter speeds the
shorter the time the shutter is open and the smaller the amount of light let in.
Shutter speed are arrange so that each setting will let in half the amount of
light let it half the amount let in by the one below it and twice the amount of
the one above it. There is usually also a time exposure setting so that the
shutter can be left open for minutes or even hours in certain conditions.
The shutter is a device that prevents light from reaching the film
until the photographer is ready to take a picture. When a lever or button is
released or button is pushed, the shutter is released, and a spring or magnet
snaps its aside, exposing the film to light for a certain light of time. The length
of time is adjustable on all but the simplest camera,, it ranges from one second
to 1/1000 of a second or less. Most adjustable cameras are capable of making
time exposure exposure of more than one second. Typically, time exposure
is made by using a special shutter setting marked T (FOR TIME) or B
(FOR BULB) referring to a shutter release device used with early cameras.
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visible in the viewfinder. At each succeeding stop, the lens admits half as
much light as at the previous one.
time. Thus, the faster the shutter speed, the sharper the moving object will
appear on the final image, and the slower the shutter speed, the more blurred
object will appear.
The camera shutter must stop the subjects apparent speed or the
speed at which its image move across the film, regardless of the subjects
actual motion through space. Factors such as distance, direction of motion,
and focal length of the lens must all be taken into consideration. Generally, the
closer the moving subject is to the camera, the greater its apparent, motion
will be. Thus, if they wish to get sharp image, most photographers avoid
extreme close ups of moving subjects.
2.
3.
F-STOP RING
F-NUMBERS
ASA DIAL/SHUTTER SPEED DIAL
FLASH UNIT
FLASH TERMINAL
FLASH ACCESSORY SHOE
TIMER/SELF-TIMER
CABLE RELEASE
TRIPOD
SS 125 or250
LO F5.6 or F8
- SS 125
Bright Hazy
-LO F5.6 or F4
Low Hazy -LO F2 or F4
-LO F5.6 or F4
Low Shaded
-SS 30 or 125
-LO F2 or full open
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History of Lenses
The early history of lenses is unknown. In 1845, an archeologist
uncovered in what is now Iraq an ancient rock crystal ground to form a small
convex lens, but there is no evidence that lenses were widely known or used
in ancient time. An early investigation of the principles of lenses was made in
the 11th century by Alhazen, a Persian physicist. Spectacles with convex lenses
were in common use both in Europe an din China as early as the 13th century.
CAMERA LENSES
A camera lens is a transparent material made of glass or plastic,
which has two opposite symmetrical and spherical surfaces. A lens is also a
piece of transparent material that has at least one curved surface. The lenses
refract (bend) light rays and in doing so can form images of an object. The
image maybe larger, smaller or the same as the object itself.
The lens, which must be focus at the object at the time of picture
taking, is one of the most important parts of any camera. The function of the
lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates more or less in
the same way as the lens of the eye. It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness
of the image formed through which light passes during the exposure of the
sensitized materials inside the camera. The area of the lens may large or small
during the exposure of the sensitized materials depending upon the light
coming from the subject to be pictured. The quantity and quality of the light
coming from the subject depend upon the light source. Should the light be too
great, the area of the lens maybe reduce with the focal number adjustment.
The smaller the area of the lens the greater is the numerical value of the focal
number. The greater the focal number numerically the less light will pass
through the lens but more distance will appear in reasonable sharpness.
The glass used for a lens is of the highest quality. It is first molded
into blanks, which are disk about the size of the finished lenses. A lens is
formed by grinding and polishing a blank into shape. Grinding operations are
performed by revolving dish-shaped devices coated with abrasives. The first
grinding, with a carborundum abrasive, gives the lens its general shape. Later,
grindings with finer and finer abrasives give it its final shape. The lens is then
polished with rouge (fine ferrous oxide) and cut to the proper size.
Principles of Lens Action
The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed, the shorter
will be the duration of the opening and closing of the lens. As an effect only
small amount of light will pass through the lens.
A lens refracts light rays in such a way that on of three things will
occur:
1.
2.
3.
A LENS can be used to focus the light onto the film to produce a
bright, clear and sharp image. The hole behind the lens is called the aperture
and on many cameras the size of the hole or aperture can be altered. The
length of time that the light is allowed to enter the camera is called the
exposure and is controlled by the shutter. In its normal position the shutter is
closed and prevents the light entering the camera. Both the diaphragm and the
shutter need to be adjusted according to the amount of light that is available
for taking a photograph.
All photographic lenses do the same basic job. Collect light rays
from a scene in front of the camera and project them as images unto the film
at the back. However, the choice of lenses also plays a very important role in
the creative aspects of photography.
CAMERA LENSES CAN BE USED TO CONTROL THE
1.
2.
3.
IMAGE FORMATION
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lens, the shorter its focal length will be. Lens that posses at least one surface
that curves inward. It is a diverging lens, spreading out those light rays that
have been refracted to it. Concave lens is thicker at the edges than they are at
the center. Light rays passing through a diverging lens are bent outward.
Diverging lens form only virtual image.
The focal length of a single lens is the distance from the lens to the
point at which incoming parallel rays focus. Light converged in the manner
can produce a real images, that is, an image that can actually be projected onto
screen. In a negative lens, rays do not actually come to a real focus but appear
to originate from a point called the virtual focus.
TYPOLOGY OF LENSES
There are two types of lenses, the converging and diverging lens.
As to converging lenses we have the double convex, Plano convex and the
concavo-convex. Under diverging lenses we have double concave, Plano
concave and the concavo concave.
1.
3.
If the object is less than one focal length from the lens, no real
image can be formed. Instead a magnified virtual image is formed behind the
object and is right side up. Light rays from the object do not pass through a
virtual image, and such an image cannot be focused on the screen.
COMPOUND LENSES
Simple lenses generally produce aberrated (imperfect) images.
This imperfection in image formation can be reduced using
compound lenses.
2.
FAST LENS Lens with high lens speed, a high lens speed is
used during nighttime or in dark room.
SLOW LENS lens with low lens speed, used during daytime or
where the room is very bright.
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3.
2.
4.
FOCAL LENGTH the distance between the lens and the film
plane when the lens is focused on infinity. Focal length controls magnification
(the size of the image formed by the lens). A lens is also described in terms of
its view angle, the mount of the image shown on the film.
Super wide Angle Lenses In this category are fish eye lenses
with a 180 degrees angle of view. Focal lengths run from an
amazing 6 mm to about 18mm. F stop ranges begin at F 1.8 but
average f 3.5 and f 4.
5.
Macro Lenses The word macro is derived from the Greek word
and means, to enlarge . In photographic terms, a macro lens is
designed with extended focusing capabilities to shoot a few inches
from a subject. A lens used for close up photography particularly in
taking pictures in minute objects. Using a macro lens, the subject
being photographed will appear bigger than its actual size. This
group of lens is most helpful in fingerprint work, in recording
evidences such as pollen grains, hair, fiber and the like.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Wide Angle Lens The wide-angle lens has a shorter focal length
than the normal lens. As a result, it covers a picture angle of 60
90 degrees. It enables photographing a widely extended scene from
a close proximity or within a confined area. The range for wide
angles for 35 mm SLR cameras includes 8mm, 24mm, 28 mm, and
35 mm. The 28 mm and 35 mm are the most important for general
wide angle for police work.
CHARACTERISTICS:
6.
7.
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LENS DEFECTS
No lens is perfect in every respect. Usually a lens maker tries to
find the best compromise among such qualities as sharpness of definition,
speed of light transmission, simplicity of construction and others. Special
purpose lenses however are computed for a single purpose only and in order
to achieve the maximum of usefulness in one special field, other qualities are
sacrificed.
Except, the very finest lenses, traces of the following common lens
defects will be found in all, such as chromatic aberration, spherical aberration,
curvilinear, distortion, curvature of field, astigmatism and others. No camera
lens will produce defects so exaggerated as the ones which will be
demonstrated. However, even considerably less pronounced fault
manifestation maybe enough to produce fuzziness, which usually becomes
more severe toward the edges of a picture.
Spherical Aberration
Chromatic Aberrations
Astigmatism
Coma
Curvature of Field
Distortion
SPHERICAL ABERRATION
Aberration Geometrical optics predicts that rays of light
emanating from a point are imaged by spherical optical elements as a small
blur. The outer parts of a spherical surface have a focal length different from
that of the central area, and this defect causes a point to be imaged as a small
circle. The difference in focal length for the various parts of the spherical
section is called spherical aberration
When a lens, even a fine lens is used at its widest aperture, the
extreme edges of the lens are being used to form part of the image. These
edges are major source of aberrations. Stopping down prevents these aberrated
rays from reaching the film; it might seem logical, then, that the further the
lens is stopped down, the better. This is not the case, here what actually
happens. As the lens is stopped down, further and further, the opening gets
smaller and smaller. When the opening gets so small two things happen. First
of all the opening gets so small that the thickness of the diaphragm leaves
approach the diameter of the opening. When this happen, the edges of the
diaphragm become a refractive unit and a general loss of sharpness occurs. A
second phenomenon of a completely stopped down lens is shift of focus.
Since the image that strikes the film is made up of light from all portions of
the lens, and the lens is actually set for the focus of the rays passing through
an area about 1/3 from its center. In many lenses the point of focus between
these extreme central rays that provides most of the illumination (1/3 from the
center) fall at different points, hence a loss of sharpness due to apparent shift
of focus.
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CHROMATIC ABERRATION
For correction two similar lenses, each of half necessary power are
placed a short distance apart, with a diaphragm between. Such a lens is called
RECTILINEAR LENS.
OTHER OPTICAL DEFECTS
ASTIGMATISM
Astigmatism is the defect in which the light coming from an offaxis object point is spread along the direction of the optic axis. If the object is
a vertical line, the cross section of the refracted beam at successively greater
distances from the lens is an ellipse that collapses first into a horizontal line,
spreads out again, and later becomes a vertical line
MECHANICAL FLARE
Are bright spots on the film caused by stray light from worn shiny
parts of the lens such as the stop, shutter lens mount, or from the camera itself.
LIGHT LOSS
Most corrected lenses is coated with a substance which will reduce
one type of flare ( optical ) and which will also increase the optics ability to
transmit light thus reducing light loss.
STRAY LIGHT
Can be reduced or eliminated by using the proper lens shade
placed on the front of the lens as shield.
COMA
The result of differences in lateral magnification for rays coming
from an object point not on the optic axis is an effect called coma. If coma is
present, light from a point is spread out into a family of circles that fit into a
cone, and in a plane perpendicular to the optic axis the image pattern is cometshaped. Coma may be eliminated for a single object-image point pair, but not
for all such points, by a suitable choice of surfaces.
FOCAL LENGTH
What is focal length?
It is usual to think of the focal length of the lens as the distance
from the lens center or the position of the image it forms of a distant object. It
is important to know that it is the focal length that determines how large an
image is formed by the lens. All lenses of the same focal at the same distance
produce the same of size; whether they are called wide angle, or by any other
names.
A pear shaped image of small circle or point near the edges of the
image plane.
Coma occurs when light falling obliquely on the lens and passing
through different circular zones is brought to a focus at different distances
from the plane film. A spot of light appears to have a tail, rather like a comet.
In come, the images appear progressively elongated toward the edge of the
field of view. The term Coma was coined 1733 by French mathematician
Alexis Clairaut ( 1713 1765 ).
The focal length of a lens can be define as the distance from the
optical center of the lens to its focal plane, when the lens is focused upon an
object at infinity in practical terms, means focused on a subject a great
distance away ( 200 ft. or more ) the light rays reflected by that the subject
will be traveling on parallel paths, for all practical purposes, when they reach
the film. The photographer seldom or need not measure the focal length of a
lens, for this characteristic is almost always marked on the front of the lens
mount.
CURVATURE OF FIELD
A curved, concave, or saucer shaped image of an object which
has a flat surface produced by simple lens.
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a.
b.
c.
The focal length also controls the image brightness, speed of the
lens and the image size of the focal plane; IMAGE SIZE, the focal length
determines the size of the image at the focal plane, the longer the focal length,
the greater the size of the image on the film when the subject remains at the
given distance. In fact, image size and focal are directly proportional,
doubling the F.L. results in doubling the image size. Because the image size
increases with focal length, it is logically to follow that the longer the focal
length the less of the subject the lens will include on the negative, that is the
negative size remains constant. Or, to state it another way, the greater the lens
focal length, the narrower its field of view (often called angle of view). A
short focal length produces smaller image.
d.
3.
4.
SENSITIZED MATERIAL
When color film is exposed to light by a camera, latent blackand-white images are formed on each of the three emulsions. During
processing, the chemical action of the developer creates actual images in
metallic silver, just as in black-and-white processing. The developer
combines with dye couplers incorporated into each of the emulsions to
form cyan, magenta, and yellow images. Then the film is bleached,
leaving a negative image in the primary colors. In color transparency film,
unexposed silver-halide crystals not converted to metallic silver during the
initial development are converted to positive images in dye and silver
during a second stage of development. After the development action has
been arrested, the film is bleached and the image fixed on it.
2.
3.
4.
C. TYPOLOGY OF FILMS
Exposure is made simultaneously in the three layers. Each layer
responding to only one of the additive primary colors (red, blue and green).
After exposure and during the film processing, the yellow color of the filter
layer is destroyed.
Films maybe classified according to their forms and types.
Basically, films that are available in the markets today are in various forms.
They can be in rolls, in cartridges and cut sheets. Light sensitivity of the film
can be ascertained through its various types.
There are some films that are sensitive to all colors while there is
some that are sensitive only to one or specific set of colors.
Classification according to USE
1.
Blue filter
Yellow filter CAREY LEA silver suspended in
gelatin, it is coated between the top and second layer to
absorb any penetrating blue light but allowing green
and red light to pass through.
Green filter a layer that is orthochromatic, the layer
sensitive to blue light (which can not reach it) and
green, but not to red light pass on to the bottom of the
emulsion layer.
Red filter a panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue
(which cant reach it) and red. It is also sensitive to
green light but to a slight degree that is insignificant.
1.
2.
TOP LAYER sensitive to blue light only, green and red light
passes through it without exposing the color halide.
EMULSION LAYER
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The negative in this type of film is divided into blocks and is color
positive. It is composed of hue dyes. In between the blue and green hues,
yellow gelatin is placed so that the blue rays of light would not affect the
green hue and in between the green and the red dye, magenta gelatin is placed
so that the green rays of light would not affect the red hue dye of the
emulsion.
3.
4.
1.
2.
2.
b.
c.
4.
1.
2.
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One film maybe rated ISO 100, and another film ISO- 200. This
means that the 200 films are twice as fast ( twice more sensitive to light ) than
the ISO-100 film. Hence, it would only require half the amount of light to
produce a satisfactory negative. Each time the film speed is doubled, it is
equal to one f / stop higher. For instance, in the example given, if ISO-1 is
exposed at f / 8, then ISO-200 should be exposed at f / 11 to produce the same
negative image quality. Any film above ISO-200 can be considered grain. The
suggested uses of the following film exposure under varying conditions are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
FILTERS
Filters made of gelatin or glass; filters are used in front of a
camera lens to alter the color balance of light, to change contrast or
brightness, to minimize haze, or to create special effects. In black-andwhite photography, color filters are used with panchromatic film to
transmit light of the matching color while blocking light of a contrasting
color. In a landscape photograph taken with a red filter, for example, some
of the blue light of the sky is blocked, causing the sky to appear darker and
thereby emphasizing clouds. Under a blue sky, a yellow filter produces a
less extreme effect because more blue light is transmitted to the film. The
No. 8 yellow filter is often used for outdoor black-and-white photography
because it renders the tone of a blue sky in much the same way that the
human eye perceives it.
Conversion filters, light-balancing filters, and colorcompensating filters are all widely used in color photography. Conversion
filters change the color balance of light for a given film. Tungsten films, for
example, are designed and balanced for the color temperature of amber
tungsten light. Exposed in daylight, they will produce pictures with a bluish
cast. A series 85-conversion filter can correct this. Daylight film, on the
other hand, balanced for sunlight at noon, which has a greater
concentration of blue wavelengths than tungsten light, will have a yellowamber cast when exposed under tungsten light. A series 80-conversion filter
corrects this problem.
E. FILM SIZE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
EXPOSURE
When light is brought in its focus by the camera lens and strikes
the front surface of the film emulsion, a number of tiny crystals of light
sensitive silver halide rendered developable forming later the image is known
as the latent photographic image. This image becomes visible by chemical
development. This image conforms to the shape of the object points in the
subject according to the capability of the lens and film.
While at this point the light had done all that it has to do, however
it continue to penetrate the emulsion layers throughout whose depth lie
suspended millions of other light sensitive halide crystals. As the ray moves
deeper and deeper into the emulsion, it moves farther and farther away from
its original point of entry into the emulsion, and parts are scattered off in
every direction. During this travel it has struck and therefore made
developable, many more light sensitive crystals than it originally affected to
form the latent image at the surface of the emulsion. Finally, it bumps into the
anti- halation backing and is absorbed.
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difference the use of a green filter will render the green color lighter and the
red color darker (in the print or positive).
To render a color lighter in effect than it would appear, a filter,
which selectively transmits light of the same color, should be used. To render
a color darker a filter, which absorbs the color, should be used. To transmit
means to allow or to pass through while to absorb means to stop partially or
wholly.
Each type of emulsion has its own substance and use in the
preparation of photographs. The types of emulsion use in photo papers are:
1.
Silver Chloride emulsion
2.
Silver Bromide emulsion
3.
Silver Chlorobromide emulsion
B. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
BASED ON EMULSION USED
Filter Factor
1.
2.
3.
Filters F, A or G
G, X-1, X-2
4.
Filter A
Filter F or A
Filter F or G
Filter G or A
Filter Guide
G---B---X-1, X-2 - - A or F - - - -
Deep Yellow
Green
Lighter Green
Shades of Red
The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the
purpose of the photographs to be made. Black and White object are usually
printed in a white base photographic paper. Reproduction of photographs
would give satisfactory results if printed on glossy white photographic paper.
For portrait photograph, a cream paper base photographic paper is
recommended and for law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic
paper is necessary so that the detail of the image appear and appreciated by
the viewers.
ACCORDING TO CONTRAST
No. 1 ---- No. 2 ---- No. 3 ---- No. 4
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B.
C.
2. SURFACE TEXTURE
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
3. COLOR
A.
B.
C.
The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the
purpose of the photographs to be made. Black and White object are usually
printed in a white-based photographic paper. Reproduction of photographs
would give satisfactory results if printed in glossy white-based photographic
paper. For portrait photograph, a cream based photographic paper is
recommended. For law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic
paper is necessary so that the details of the image appear and appreciated by
the viewer.
F.
G.
B. KINDS OF DOCUMENT:
1.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT - notarized by a notary public or
competent public official with solemnities required by law.
(Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742)
2.
OFFICIAL DOCUMENT - issued by the government or its agents
or its officers having the authority to do so and the offices, which
in accordance with their creation, they are authorized to issue and
be issued in the performance of their duties.
DOCUMENT.
Any material containing marks, symbols, or
signs either visible, partially visible that may present or ultimately
convey a meaning to someone, maybe in the form of pencil, ink
writing, typewriting, or printing on paper.
The term document applies to writings; to words printed,
lithographed, or photographed; to maps or plans; to seals, plates, or
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3.
4.
discover the facts about them. Various types are undertaken, including
microscopic, visual photographic, chemical, ultra violet and infra-red
examination.
EXPERT WITNESS. A legal term used to describe a witness who by
reason of his special training or experience is permitted to express an
opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, which is
involved in a court action. His purpose is to interpret technical information
in his particular specialty in order to assist the court in administering
justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an expert witness.
Take Note:
A private document may become a public or official document
when it partake the nature of a public or official record. So if the falsifications
committed on such document that is, when it is already a part of the public
record, falsification of public or official document is committed. However, if
such private document is intended to become a part of the public record,
even though falsified prior thereto, falsification of a public document is
committed.
a.
b.
ADDITION - Any matter made a part of the document after its original
preparation may be referred to as addition.
CONCLUSION - A scientific conclusion results form relating observed
facts by logical, common-sense reasoning in accordance with established
rules or laws. The document examiner's conclusion, in legal term is referred
to as "opinion".
DOCUMENT EXAMINER. One who studies scientifically the details
and elements of documents in order to identify their source or to discover
other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to as
handwriting identification experts, but today the work has outgrown this
latter title and involves other problems than merely the examination of
handwriting.
B.
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F.
2.
Examination of fake documents
Miscellaneous aspects
1.
Determination of age of documents
2.
Identification of stamps
3.
Examinations of seal and other authenticating devices
SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
EXAMINATION
A.
B.
C.
LOGICAL PROGRESS
EXAMINATION
OF
INQUIRY
IN
QUESTIONED
DOCUMENT
A.
B.
IN
DOCUMENT
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22.
23.
24.
D.
E.
F.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
USED
IN
A.
1.
2.
3.
QUESTIONED
TECHNIQUES
DOCUMENTS
IN
THE
EXAMINATION
OF
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
QUESTIONED
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
A.
A.
B.
B.
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6.
7.
B.
DO's
and DON'T's in the CARE, HANDLING AND
PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS
1.
DOS
a.
Take disputed papers to Document Examiner's Laboratory at
the First Opportunity.
b.
If storage is necessary, keep in dry place away from
excessive heat strong light.
c.
Maintain in consequential document, unfolded and in
transparent plastic envelope or evidence preserver.
2.
DONTS
a.
Do not underscore, make careless markings, fold, erase,
impress rubber stamps, sticker, write on, or otherwise alter
any handwriting.
b.
Do not smear with fingerprints powder or chemicals.
c.
Do not carry handwriting document carelessly in wallet,
notebook or brief case on grounds of interviews.
d.
Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry then in
pocket for a long time.
e.
Do not marked disputed documents (either by
consciously writing instruments or dividers)
f.
Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing,
cutting, tearing or punching for filing purposes.
g.
Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make
chemical or other tests; do no treat or dust for latent finger
prints before consulting a document examiner.
C.
2.
THE
CARE
OF
DISPUTED
DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
DOCUMENTS
3.
AND
B.
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C.
Take Note:
V. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL
Is handwriting/signature identification an exact science?
1.
2.
3.
4.
3.
2.
3.
IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION
1.
2.
3.
CAUSES OF VARIATION
1.
Palmer Copybook
DNealian Copybook
British Copybook
French Copybook
German Copybook
2.
3.
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4.
MANUSCRIPT WRITING. A disconnected form of script or semiscript writing. This type of writing is taught in young children in
elementary schools as the first step in learning to write.
1.
2.
3.
4.
TERMINOLOGIES
RELATED
TO
IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATIONS
MARGINS The amount of space left around the writing on all four
sides.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any study or examination which
is made with the microscope in other to discover minute details.
HANDWRITING
ARCADE FORMS Forms that look like arches rounded on the top
and open at the bottom.
PEN HOLD The place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen
and the angle at which he holds it.
PEN POSITION - relationship between the pen point and the paper.
PEN PRESSURE - the average force with which the pen contacts
the paper. Pen pressure as opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual
of average force involved in the writing rather than the period increases.
FORM The writers chosen writing style. The way the writing looks,
whether it is copybook, elaborated, simplified or printed.
PROPORTION or RATIO - the relation between the tall and the short
letter is referred as to the ratio of writing.
SIZE May refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions
between zones.
LINE QUALITY - the overall character of the ink lines from the
beginning to the ending strokes. There are two classes: Good Line
quality and Poor Line quality. The visible records in the written
stroke of
the basic
movements
and
manner
of
holding
the writing instrument is characterized by the term "line quality". It is
SKILL - In any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a
specimen of handwriting usually contains evidence of the writer's
proficiency; degree, ability, or skill of a write proficiency.
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4.
1.
2.
RHYTHM IN HANDWRITING
VARIATION The act or process of changing.
Rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes working in
full coordination. This is manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes, which
increase and decrease in which like perfect cones. Pressure is always in a state
of change moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.
A. KINDS OF MOVEMENT
1.
Finger Movement - the thumb, the first, second and slightly the
third fingers are in actual motion. Most usually employed by
children and illiterates.
2.
Hand Movement - produced by the movement or action of the
whole hand with the wrist as the center of attraction.
3.
Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm
with the support of the table.
4.
Whole Forearm Movement - action of the entire arm without
resting. i.e., blackboard writing.
B. QUALITY OF MOVEMENT
1.
Clumsy, illiterate and halting
2.
Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness
3.
Strong, heavy and forceful
4.
Nervous and irregular
5.
Smooth, flowing and rapid
HANDWRITING STROKE
STROKE is a series of lines or curves written in a single letter;
one of the lines of an alphabet or series of lines or curves within a single
letter; the path traced by the pen on the paper.
1.
2.
MOTOR COORDINATION
3.
4.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
4.
UPSTROKE Movement of the pen away from the writer.
5.
SEQUENCE OF STROKES - The order in which writing strokes are
placed on the paper is referred to as their sequence.
6.
SUPPORTED STROKES Upstrokes partially covering the previous
down strokes. Originally taught in European schools.
7.
TRAIT STROKE a school o handwriting analysis that assigns
personality trait manners to individual writing strokes.
QUALITIES OF THE STROKES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
HANDWRITING PROBLEMS
1. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality is
genuine and corresponds perfectly to the ordinary, and habitual
signatures of that person.
2. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality was
written by him but in a way which was different from the
ordinary manner and which is more or less different from the
common genuine signatures of that person.
3. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality was
written by a third person and which is a forgery written in an
attempted imitation of a model.
4. A spurious signature/handwriting written by somebody who did not
attempt to imitate the signature of a person and who uses a fictitious name and this to give his work the appearance of a signature.
5. An uncontested signature/handwriting, in fact, genuine but written by an
unknown person whose name must be deciphered by the document
examiner.
GENERAL CLASSES OF QUESTIONED WRITING
1.
2.
Take Note:
B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS - They are characteristics which
are the result of the writer's muscular control, coordination, age, health,
and
nervous
temperament, frequency of
writing,
personality
and character. They are found in Writing movement, Form and design of
letters, Motor Coordination, Shading, Skill, Alignment, Pen pressure,
Connection, Pen hold, Rhythm, Disconnections or pen lifts between
letters, Speed, Slant as a writing habit, Proportion of letters as an
individual characteristic or habit, Quality of stroke or line quality,
Variation and Muscular control or motor control -
1.
AIRSTROKE The movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper
and continues in the same direction in the air.
2.
COVERING STROKE A stroke that unnecessarily covers another
stroke in a concealing action.
3.
FINAL The ending stroke on a letter when it is at the end of a word.
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a.
b.
2.
3.
4.
CORRECT CONCLUSION
1.
2.
Indications of slow writing
a.
Wavering forms and broken strokes.
b.
Frequent signs or tendencies to the left.
c.
Conspicuous certainly as to the location of the dots of small
letters "I","j","or "t" crosses with scarcely perceptible
deviation from the intended direction.
d.
Frequent pauses by meaningless blobs, angles, divided letters
and retouches.
e.
Careful execution of detail of letters, toward the end or
names.
f.
Narrow writing.
g.
No difference in emphasis in upstroke and down stroke
h.
Ornamental or flourishing connections.
i.
Sinking lines
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
HANDPRINTING
The procedure and the principle involved are similar to that of cursive
handwriting. In block capital and manuscript writings, personal individual
rests principally in design, selection, individual letter construction, size ratios
and punctuation habits. The initial step in handwriting examination is to
determine whether the questioned handwriting and standards were
accomplished with:
1.
F.
EXAMPLES OF SOME OF THE INDIVIDUAL
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Hook to the right and hook to the left
2. Shape, position, size and angle of "i" dots "t" crossing
3. Idiosyncrasies
4. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure
5. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement endings
6. Abbreviation of letters
7. Simple and compound curves and graceful endings
8. Labored movement producing ragged lines
9. Terminal shadings and forceful endings
10. Presence and influence of foreign writing, with the introduction of
Greek "e"
2.
STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS
STANDARD - They are known writings, which indicate how a
person writes. A writer manifests fixed habits in his writings that identify him.
This fact provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion regarding any
writing identification problem.
EXEMPLARS - Specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly
known as exemplars. The term standards is a general term referring to all
authenticated writings of the suspects while exemplars refers more especially
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1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
SUGGESTED
PROCEDURE
FOR
TAKING
REQUEST
HANDWRITING STANDARDS IN ALL TYPES OF QUESTIONEDDOCUMENT PROBLEMS
1. Have subject seated in a natural position at table or desk having
smooth writing surface.
2. Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those
used in questioned writings, lie; paper should be same size, and
ruled or unruled; as questioned document: if questioned document
is in written furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.
3. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned
document.
4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is
hand printed): give no assistance in spelling or arrangement on
page. Dictate at a rate of speed, which will produce the subject
natural writing habits.
5. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in
consequence, date, time and identify by initiating each, and request
subjects to sign each specimen.
6. Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt
of disguise, and whether subjects appears to be normally right or
left handed, etc.
2.
3.
Canceled Checks
Signature cards for saving, checking and charge accounts and safe
deposit boxes.
Credit applications and cards
Signature on sales slips, on job orders slips, requisition slips and
purchase slips.
Court records and affidavits, such as naturalization papers,
bankruptcy proceedings, divorce papers. Probated wills and estate
files, powers of attorney, etc.
Passports, marriage application, license and affidavits.
Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of licensee
applications
Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services
Loan application and receipts
Records from currency exchanges, check-cashing agencies and
pawnshop
Time sheets, payroll, pay receipts and personal forms
Barangay registration, petitions
Signature for certain drug purchases, hotel registrations
Church, club and professional society record
Veteran records
Fingerprint records
School or University class records and cards
Application for firearm and licenses
Application for export and import and dollar allocations
ID cards
SPECIAL
PROCEDURE FOR
TAKING
REQUEST
HANDWRITING STANDARDS WHERE CHECKS FORGERY IS
CHANGED OR SUSPECTED
1.
D.
E.
MISCELLANEOUS
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Type of Signature
DISGUISES IN HANDWRITING
A. COMMON DISGUISES
1.
Abnormally large writing.
2.
Abnormally small writing.
3.
Alteration in slant (usually backhand).
4.
Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing (with in
a single signature).
5.
Printed forms instead of cursive forms.
6.
Diminution in the usual speed of writing.
7.
Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing.
B. KINDS OF DISGUISES
1.
Change of slant - from right to left or vice versa.
2.
Change of letter, either from cursive to block style or vice-versa.
3.
Change from cursive (conventional style) to block form or viceversa.
4.
Change of style from small to big or vice versa.
5.
Deteriorating one's handwriting.
6.
Using the wrong hand (AMBIDEXTROUS).
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING
A.
B.
DETAILED
EXAMINATION
2.
3.
Receipt Signature.
4.
Signatures of Physical
Impaired Writer
a.
a.
The
intoxicated
signature
b.
Old
age
deterioration
c.
Disguised signature or
writing
b.
C.
FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE. A forged signature. It involves the writing
of a name as a signature by someone other than the person himself,
without his permission, often with some degree of imitation.
D.
FREEHAND SIGNATURE. A fraudulent signature that was executed purely
by simulation rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine
signature.
E.
GUIDED SIGNATURE. A signature that is executed while the writers hand
or arm is steadied in any way. Under the law of most jurisdictions
such a signature authenticates a legal document provided it is shown
that the writer requested the assistance. Guided signatures are most
commonly written during a serious illness or on a deathbed.
F.
IMITATED SIGNATURE. Synonymous with freehand forgery.
G.
MODEL SIGNATURE. A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an
imitated or traced forgery.
H.
THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of setting two or more signature in
an inverted position to weigh their identifying significance, the
reason being that those we fail to see under normal comparison
may readily be seen under this theory.
INVESTIGATION
SIGNATURES
1.
5.
OF
B.
C.
FORGERY
Forgery is, strictly speaking, a legal term which involves not only
a non-genuine document but also and intent to fraud. However, it is also used
synonymously with fraudulent signature or spurious document.
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1.
A.
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2.
They
have
peculiar style
&
are
uniform
in
size
&
thickness.
2.
Water marks
LACEWORK DESIGN
COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION
3. Spacing of 3.
the numbers
1. Appears
life-like
is uniform
&
is
2. Thealignment
eyes sparkle.
even.
3. The tiny dots and
1.
2.
2.
3.
2.
1.
2.
Portrait
1.
1.
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A.
TYPES:
1.
2.
3.
B.
COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT
Passports are rarely counterfeit, because they are quite complicated
in design and manufacture. The most usual method of forgery is to steal a
genuine passport and make change in it. Many safety features are incorporated
in passport and are easily detected by close inspection. Ultraviolet light is very
useful in this type of examination. The investigator should look particularly at
the photograph in any passport as identification card. This is always
necessary because sometimes forgers remove and change or substitute the
picture. Hence, the position of perforation caused by staples and another
pasting device should be studied carefully.
C.
- B
- C
- D
- E
7 - Chicago- G
8 - St. Louis- H
9 - Minneapolis- I
10 - Kansas- J
11 - Dallas - K
12 - San Francisco
- L
- Washington
- Jefferson $100
- Lincoln
- Hamilton $1000
- Jackson
A.
1.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
B.
C.
D.
B.
E.
2.
2.
3.
4.
COINS
A.
$50
- Grant
- Franklin
$500
- McKinley
- Cleveland
$5000
- Madison
1.
2.
Coin made of gold was to widely use but are not now often see.
Government kept their gold in the form of heavy bars called
bullions and then issue papers for the value of gold.
Metal coins issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its
face value. In most countries, the possession of gold coins is now
forbidden except for coin collectors.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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WRITING MATERIALS
A.
11.
B.
C.
D.
12.
13.
14.
15.
WATERMARKS
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
A.
PAPYRUS - This came into use about 3,500 B.C. - people of Egypt.
Palestine, Syria, and Southern Europe used the pith (soft spongy
tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grass-like herb) CYPERUS
PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.
B.
C.
D.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
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1.
5.
2.
B. QUILL PEN
1.
Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers
of any bird, those of goose, swan, crow and (later) turkey, were
preferred. The earliest reference (6th century AD) to quill pens
was made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF
SEVILLE, and this tool was the principal writing implement for
nearly 1300 years.
2.
To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first hardened by
heating or letting it dry out gradually. The hardened quill is then
cut to a broad edge with a special pen knife.
3.
The writer had to re-cut the quill pen frequently to maintain
its edge. By the 18th century, the width of the edge had
diminished and the length of the slit had increased creating a
flexible point that produced thick and thin strokes by pressure
on the point rather than by the angle at which the broad edge
was held.
DISCOLORATION
One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance
of the changes in its physical characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION.
Naturally, a paper will discolor after a passage of time due to numerous
environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc. In case of
papers out of wood pulp, they start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years.
While RUG-SHIP QUALITY papers, they are very old before discoloration
starts.
CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2.
3.
D. FOUNTAIN PENS
1.
In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent,
patented the first practical FOUNTAIN PEN containing its own
ink reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that fed ink to
the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly
while writing.
2.
By the 1920's, the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument
in the west and remained so until the introduction of the ball
point pen after WORLD WAR II.
WRITING INSTRUMENTS
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
5.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
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2.
3.
etc.
As a vehicle, dextrine, gum arabic, or tannin
is sometimes added.
Through the addition of tannin,
the stamp impression becomes water resistant after drying.
Hectograph Inks - These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks
and are exclusively made with basic dyes.
To the
dyestuff solution several other substances are added such as
glycerol, acetic acid and acetone.
Typewriter Ribbon Inks - These inks are usually composed of a
blend of aniline dyes, carbon black and oil such as olein or castor
oil. The two-tone ribbons however contain no dyes, but pigments
suspended in oil base. This is necessary because aniline dyes tend
to bleed and would cause the sharp division between the differently
colored halves of the ribbon to merge.
Printing Inks - Printing inks often consist of a mixture of colored
pigments, carbon black and a "base" which may consist of oil, resins, synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is possible to remove
printing ink from a document by scrubbing the document with an
aqueous solution of a suitable detergent. The rubbing and
breaking up of the surface of the ink and the detergent facilitates
the suspension and eventual removal of the carbon and other
ingredients by the water.
Canceling Inks - These inks often contain carbon and
this fact should be burned in mind when it is required to decipher
faint cancellation marks on a postage stamp and wrappers. Carbon
is opaque to infra-red sensitive plate and be relied upon to improve
the legibility of any marking affected by a carbon containing
canceling ink. Erasure of canceling ink on valuable stamps is
usually affected by attack on the medium which bind the carbon to
the surface of the stamp and it is to be regretted that many canceling inks are manufactured with media which offer resistance to
attack so that the resistant carbon can simply be swabbed off.
This can be usually be detected by infrared photography which will
reveal the traces of carbon, which almost invariably remain on the
stamp.
Skrip Ink - These are manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen
Company since 1955. The inks contain a substance that is
colorless in visible light and has a strong affinity for the fibers of
the paper, and yet is not bleached by hypochlorite ink eradicators
or washed out by soaking on water.
10.
11.
G.
Felt-tip markers are made of dense natural or artificial
fibers impregnated with a dye.
These markers can be cut to a
variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A
modification of the ball point pen using a liquid dye fed to a
metal/plastic ball was introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.
12.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
13.
14.
2.
3.
4.
5.
THE CHROMATOGRAPHIC
EXAMINATION
SEPARATION OF THE DYESTUFFS IN THE INK
1.
Stamp Pad Inks - They are made with the acid of substances such
as glycerol, glycol, acetin or benzyl alcohol and water. Airline
dyes are added as coloring matter. For quick drying stamp pad
inks, more volatile organic solvents are used as acetone, ethanol,
2.
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3.
4.
5.
B.
c.
2.
Procedure:
a.
Ball Point Pen Inks
(1) If a document has been written with a ballpoint pen, the
writing in question is bound to date in all probability
from a point of time later than 1945.
(2) The analysis of ballpoint inks may yield an important
clue to the age of the ink.
(3) The first ballpoint inks were practically without
exception based on oleic acid. These inks will flow out
when a drop of benzene or petroleum ether is applied to
them.
(4) Not until 1950 were these inks made on a basic of
polyethylene glycols, which are resistant to treatment
with benzene or petroleum ether.
(5) However, the presence of oleic acid is not yet proof that
the writing in question is old for oleic acid is sometimes
also used in modern ballpoint inks.
(6) In the later case, however, the ink will as a rule not flow
out with the petroleum ether because these inks, no
water soluble coloring matter is worked out. Instead
pigments and dyestuffs are used that will not dissolve in
petroleum ether.
(7) The presence of phthalocyanine dyestuff is an
indication of an ink produced later than 1954-1956.
(8) Thus it is not possible to determine the absolute age of
ballpoint inks. Neither it is possible to determine the
relative ages of two ballpoint ink writings, not even if
they are of the same kind. The ink dries rather quickly
because the base is absorbed by the paper.
(9) Recent ballpoint writing can be offset, and efforts have
been made to use the copying power for age
determination.
B.
C.
b.
Dyestuff Inks
(1) The dyestuff inks lack properties that would permit age
determination but the presence of an obsolete or
modern dyestuff may indicate age of writing.
(2) If a phthalocyanine dye is found in the ink, it would be
improbable for the document to be dated prior to 1953.
D.
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E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.
P.
Q.
R.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
OF
TYPEWRITTEN
EVOLUTION OF TYPEWRITERS
1.
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4.
5.
6.
B.
C.
A.
B.
WHAT TO CONSIDER?
1.
BASED
ON
A typewriter coming out fresh from the factory has already some
defects which give its own personality. Whatever the quality of the
manufacture, a typewriter is never absolutely perfect.
Later, through faults of the typist and also by wear, the typewriter
will acquire a stronger individuality by new defects which become
more and more prominent and in time, progressively overcome the
initial ones.
2.
Each typewriter has its own individual characteristics that enable one
to differentiate the typed characters from a similar machine of the same make.
Typewriter of the same make and model but of different age have differences
attributed to wear.
OF
K.
CLASSIFICATION
DESIGNS
The comma , tail may extend to the left of the dot or only very
slightly to the left of the dot.
Take Note: Two typewritten documents are said to be typed from one
and the same typewriter if they agree in type face style, design, spacing,
alignment and three or four scars or damaged type faces.
TYPES OF TYPEWRITERS
A.
J.
PROCEDURE
1.
LETTER
2.
2.
3.
C.
The small letter g upper oval is either much smaller or the same
and/or different or the same in shape than the lower oval. Upper and
lower ovals are either very closely spaced or not.
D.
Small letter r right arm is either long with very small curve at its end
or a long right arm with full curve at the end and/or the right arm is
short with its curve moderate to full.
E.
F.
4.
DEFECTS OF A TYPEWRITER
G.
H.
I.
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impact of the character. The same signs print themselves on the right or on
the left of their theoretical point of impact.
TYPEFACE MISALIGNMENTS synonymous to alignment defects:
1.
2.
3.
METHODS OF PRINTING
A. RELIEF PRINTING (LETTERPRESS)
In this method of printing, the image characters are raised above
the level of the non-printing areas. The ink is applied to a raised surface
that in turn is applied to paper. The letterpress process is the oldest of
all printing procedures. It prints with cleaner and sharper letters.
After the type has been set, the next step is the actual printing
which is made on one of three principles:
1.
The platen or flatbed press opens and closes like a clam shaft; it
has raised type on one flat surface and paper on another flat surface
and the two are pressed together. Small hand presses are generally
platen presses.
Alteration of the Platen - The rubber of the platen gets old and
hardens, the surface formally smooth becomes more and more irregular and
rough and does not offer anymore intimate contact with all surface of the sign.
The writing becomes inconsistent and the same sign will print itself partially
or entirely and with a greater intensity and more intensively on the tight or the
left, on the bottom or the top.
General Wear of a Typewriter - The typebars are subjected to a
lateral play particularly felt at the top. This gives poor accuracy at the point of
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2.
3.
Cylinder presses roll the paper around a cylinder and then across
the flat surface of inked type.
Rotary presses pass the paper between two cylinders, one of which
holds the curved printing plates.
1.
2.
3.
4.
2.
3.
4.
B.
HANDWRITING
Graphology, the study of handwriting to determine one's
personality traits, is not handwriting analysis. It's not even considered a
science; more like a parlor trick. True handwriting analysis involves
painstaking examination of the design, shape and structure of handwriting to
determine authorship of a given handwriting sample. The basic principle
underlying handwriting analysis is that no two people write the exact same
thing the exact same way. Every person develops unique peculiarities and
characteristics in their handwriting.
B.
1.
2.
3.
LETTERPRESS
Study of this printing shows that the edges of the letters are more
sharply defined than offset printing.
Careful microscopic study and measurement may reveal different
runs of letterpress printing which have been made from the same
set-up; the y type face may exhibit evidence of damage and the
spacing and alignment may be different due to pressure applied by
the frame.
OFFSET
The edges of the letters are more irregular than in letterpress;
The middle portion and the edges of the letters are more or less of
the same density; and
There is no indentation of the paper in the area of the printed
letters as is sometimes found in letter press printing.
TYPEWRITING
All typewriters of a particular make and model are pretty much the
same but, through use, the develop defects that translate to paper when the
machine is used. These defects on the typed page can be matched back to the
typewriter that was used to create it.
Body size of a type responsible for the width of a line and depth
of a column.
Unit measurement six picas making an inch.
The body size in metallic type varies from six points up to
seventy points, larger ones being made mainly in wood.
According to the type face there are eight main designs
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called 'flashing.' As wear and tear increases, the defects become more
exaggerated.
Just looking at the type style, or font, the spacing (horizontal and
vertical) and type size allows for determining the make and model of the
typewriter. Ribbons are a major evidentiary component. It is possible to read
a ribbon to see what it has been used to type.
oo
The disputed signature marked Q-3 across the revenue stamp is a
forged signature as compared with the genuine signature marked
A-1.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
What are the objectives of a Polygraph Examination?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
5.
6.
7.
Aid in investigation
Speeds up processing of investigation
Eliminates innocent suspects
Pre-employment screening
Honesty test (Periodic test)
4.
5.
What is Ordeal?
A severe test of character or endurance; a trying course of
experience, A medieval form of judicial trial in which the accused was
subjected to physical tests, as carrying or walking over burning objects or
immersing the hand in scalding water, the result being considered a divine
judgment of guilt or innocence.
It is also a term of varying meaning closely related in the Medieval
Latin Dei Indicum meaning Miraculous decision. Ordeal is also an
ancient method of trial in which the accused was exposed to physical danger
which was supposed to be harmless if he was innocent.
What are the Early Methods of Detecting Lies?
1.
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Red hot iron ordeal - Practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in the
North Bengal; Accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron nine
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
3.
4.
5.
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DEVELOPMENT
COMPONENT
OF
THE
CARDIOGRAPH
B.
DEVELOPMENT
COMPONENT
OF
THE
PNEUMOGRAPH
OTHER
PERSONALITIES
TO
THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLYGRAPH AS KNOWN
TODAY
HUGO MUNSTERBURG (1908)
1.
Proposed that lie test based on lie detector should be
admissible as evidence in court.
2.
The detection is based on using blood pressure
variations for deception detection.
3.
He advocates the used of lie detection in court.
4.
But it was not known if the same was followed.
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1.
4.
2.
3.
5.
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b.
What are the Tripod Foundations of Polygraph Technique?
c.
1.
2.
3.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
1.
7.
polygraph
9.
10.
Specifically, the 25% errors of lie detection test come from the
following circumstances:
Nervousness or extreme emotional tension experienced by a
subject who is telling the truth regarding the offense in question
but who is nevertheless affected by:
a.
Apprehension induced by the mere fact that suspicion
or accusation has been directed against him.
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C.
Problem encountered by Law Enforcement Officer during investigation
and interrogation
1. Determination whether subject is telling the truth regarding the
crime index investigation.
2. Obtaining admission or confession from a suspect after his guilt
has been established.
3. In cases of witnesses, informer and informant who are in
possession of helpful information who are willing but fearful or
reluctant to disclose it to interrogator.
Qualities of a Good Examiner (Backster)
1. To make himself understand and not resented by subject, by his
very exposure to him.
2. Ability to establish or create a rapport with the subject.
3. Much investigative experience as possible.
4. Interrogation Experience.
5. Must be deeply involved in his work (even beyond the call of
duty).
D.
3. Pneumograph section:
a) Rubber jellows
b) Beaded chain
c) Rubber flexible tubing
d) Pneumograph tube connection
e) Pneumograph connecting tube
f)
Pneumograph distributing ink
g) Pneumograph pipe line
h) Vent valve and vent bottom
i)
Tambour assembly
j)
Sphygmomanometer
k) Resonance control
4. Cardio section:
a) Pump bulb assembly
b) Blood pressure pump connection
c) Blood pressure cuff assembly
d) Connector block
e) Sphygmomanometer pipe line
5. Galvanograph section:
a) Hand electrode
b) Electrode jellow
c) Galvanometer
B.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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5.
2.
3.
1.
2.
1.
2.
Descending limb:
a) Physical cause is caused by a reverse in the subject
resistance toward the original position thus bringing the
circuit back to or toward balance again producing a lateral
clockwise or downward movement of the pen.
b)
COMPUTING RATE
Turn power switch from off and on position. Then the galvo pen
fails to the bottom of the chart, and then galvo section is then ready for
operation from 15 to 18 seconds after you have turned the switch to an on
position.
THE EXAMINER
Basis to all that has been said with regards to the utilization and
accuracy of the polygraph technique is the matter of the examiner
qualifications and skills.
1.
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THE SUBJECT
Types or kinds of Subjects for Polygraph Test are:
1.
Subject whose guilt is definite or reasonably certain.
2.
Emotional offender
3.
Person who commit crimes in the heat of passion
4.
Person whose offenses are for accidental in nature
5.
Non-Emotional offender
6.
Person who commit crimes for financial gain
7.
Subject whose guilt is doubtful or uncertain
4.
5.
Three (3) General Types of Subjects
1.
Victim or Complainant
2.
Witness
3.
Suspects
Take Note: All Subjects must be in good physical and mental
condition before he/she may be submitted for polygraph examination. The
following may not be submitted for Polygraph Test:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
IMPORTANT REMINDERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Do not wait until the last minute to ask a person to take the test.
Do not tell the subject everything that you know about the offense
or about him.
Do not fail to investigate the case before you ask a person to take
the test.
If for some reasons, it must be temporarily taken, the investigator
must continue investigating the case.
Do not depend on mass screening of possible suspects to produce a
real or the guilty one.
Do not tell anyone that the lie detector will decide whether one is
innocent or guilty. The court will make the decision.
If the test indicates that the person did not tell the truth or if the
person confesses after the test, do not think that the investigation is
over.
1.
PHASE I (PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS) Initial Interview with the investigator handling the case or person
requesting it. The group involve in this stage are the Victim /
Complaint, Suspects, Witnesses. This stage includes obtaining and
evaluation of facts, determining the areas the subjects needs to be
asked and the investigator must furnish the examiner of the
following:
a.
Sworn statement of the suspect / witnesses/ victim/
complainant, Incident or spot report, B.I. of the suspect,
witnesses, and victim / complainants, rough sketch or
pictures of the crime scene and other facts such as
Specific article and exact amount of money stolen.
b.
Peculiar aspect of the offense or any strange set.
c.
Exact time the offense was committed.
d.
Known facts about the suspects action or movement.
e.
Facts indicating any connection between the suspects,
victim and witnesses.
f.
Exact type of weapon, tool or firearms used.
g.
Result of laboratory test.
h.
Unpublished facts of the offense known only by the
victim, suspects and the investigator.
2.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
When conducting the polygraph examination:
1.
2.
3.
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d.
Right to refuse
g.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.
a.
b.
c.
4.
PHASE
III
(THE
EXAMINATION/INSTRUMENTAL TEST) The conduct of
Instrumentation and Actual Test.
e.
f.
Irrelevant
questions
(unleaded/immaterial
questions) these are questions which have no bearing to the
case under investigation.
Relevant questions (leaded/material questions)
these are questions pertaining to the issue under
investigation. It is equally important to limit the number of
relevant questions to avoid discomfort to the subject.
Relevant questions must be very specific to obtain an
accurate result.
Control questions These are questions unrelated to
the matter under investigation but are of similar nature
although less serious as compared to those relevant questions
under investigation. The use of control question is considered
by many polygraphists to be the most reliable and effective
questioning technique. These are usually asked if there is
doubt in the interpretation of the subjects response to
relevant and irrelevant questions.
c.
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OTHER QUESTIONS
c.
d.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2.
SUPPLEMENTARY TESTS
b.
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
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C. Electrodermal Response
This is the most current popular name for the human body
phenomenon in which the body, mainly the skin, changes resistance
electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli. It consists of two
categories - Normal Response and the Abnormal Response.
Examples of Abnormal Responses
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CHART MARKING
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
X / 60 / 1.5 A
XX / 60 / 1.5 A
X
XX
60
sphygmamometer dial
1.5
A or M
amplifier used
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| |
- point where each question begins and end
(also called stimulus mark)
+
- Yes answer to question
- No answer to question
A
- adjustment
T
- subject talked instead of answering with
single Yes or No
R
- subject request for repetition of question
C
- coughing
N
- noise
S
- sigh by the subject
PJ
- paper jam
SN
- subject sniffed
BI
- breathing instruction
OS
- tracing changed caused by outside stimulus
M
- movement
IM
- movement instruction
L
- laugh
B
- used to signify belch
C+
- increase in galvo sensitivity
C- decrease in galvo sensitivity
Y
- yawn
IS
- ink stop
CT
- clearing of throat
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CHART INTERPRETATION
A. The accuracy of instrumental detection of deception is
dependent upon the examiners ability to diagnose truth or deception by
reading and interpreting a subjects charts. The polygraph chart is the
composite record of the pneumograph, cardiograph and galvanograph tracing
from one series of questions. The chart is ruled vertically to represent time
element at an interval of either in second, five seconds of ten seconds division
and horizontally in fractions of inch for amplitude measurements. There
are three heavy spaced horizontal lines that serve as the guideline for the 3
tracings. The motor that pills the chart under the recording pens has a
constant speed of either 6 or 12 inches per-minute. A single test may consist
of three or more charts taken from one series of questions.
The first appellate court decision upon the admissibility the results
of a deception test was rendered in 1923 by a federal court in Fry V. United
States, in which the accused (on trial for murder) offered as evidence the
results of a Marston systolic blood pressure test. The trial court refused to
permit Dr. Marston to testify concerning his results, and upon appeal this
ruling was affirmed. The reason which impelled the court to arrive at the
conclusion of inadmissibility are very clearly stated in the following except
from its reported opinion.
Ten years after the Fry case decision the Wiscons Supreme Court
was called upon to consider the admissibility of the results of a Polygraph
examination. In this case, State V. Bohner, defense counsel offered to prove
that the results of a Polygraph examination established the truthfulness of the
defendants alibi to a robbery charge, which offer the trial court refused.
Upon appeal the Wiscons in Supreme Court sustained the trial courts ruling
and held that although the Polygraph technique may have some utility at
present, or may ultimately be of great value in the administration of justice a
too hasty acceptance of it during this stage of its development may be
assumed to have.
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In the case the defendant (on trial for murder) requested the courts
permission to be tested on the same instrument and by the same examiner
(Summers) as in the Kenny case. This request was denied on the ground that
despite the view taken by the court in the Kenny case, the validity of such a
test judicial acceptance. Upon appeal the trial courts ruling was affirmed by
the New York Court of Appeals.
2.
3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
NARCOANALYSIS OR NARCOSYNTHESIS
This method of deception detection is practically the same as that
of administration of truth serum. The only difference is the drug used.
Psychiatric sodium amytal o sodium pentothal is administered to the subject.
When the effects appear, questioning starts. It is claimed that the drug causes
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depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the brain and the subject talks
freely.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
The ability of alcohol to reveal the real person behind the mad
which all of us are said to wear (mask of sanity) is reflected in the age-old
maxim, In vino veritas (In wine there is truth). (Pathology of Homicide
by Lester Adel son, Charles Thomas, 1974, p. 895)/
21.
22.
23.
HYPNOSIS
It is the alternation of consciousness and concentration in which
the subject manifests a heightened of suggestibility while awareness is
maintained. Not all persons are susceptible to hypnotic induction. The
hypnotic state is characterized by:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Sweating
Color Change
Dryness of the mouth
Excessive activity of the Adams apple
Fidgeting
Peculiar feeling inside
Swearing in the truthfulness and assertion
Spotless past record
Inability to look at the investigator straight in the
eye
10.
FINGERPRINTING (DACTYLOSCOPY)
NATURE OF FINGERPRINTS
A FINGERPRINT is a composite of the ridge outlines which
appears on the skin surface of the bulbs on the inside of the end of joints of
the fingers and thumbs. The ridges appearing in a fingerprint are commonly
referred to as papillary or frictional ridges. The ridges have a definite contour
and appear in definite individual details by which positive identification can
be made.
Take Note:
Ridge literally, the top of long hill
Ducts these are little pockets underneath the skin where oils or
sweats are carried by small holes to the surface of the skin.
OBSERVATION
Ridge Destruction: Creases little white lines that are found on a
fingerprint that look like sears (burn/blister). These are not permanent, and
will not show any turning or puckering. Skin conditions such as warts and
blisters of temporary impairments caused by certain occupations, e.g.
bricklayers, carpenters, have no permanent effect and the individual
characteristics revert to their natural alignment once the temporary skin
condition has been corrected.
Are there any ancient records concerning the use of Finger and Palm
Prints?
Swearing to God.
Failure of subject to look straight into examiner eyes.
Rapid movements of adams apple among males.
Hysteria among females or woman.
Shedding tears of both sexes.
Arrogance or indifference to interrogation.
Bitting upper and lower lips after a hot stimulus is
profounded.
Changes on the color of the face.
Complete and total denial of the case under
investigation. Questioning accuracy on the polygraph
machine.
1.
2.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
What are the important dates concerning the development and use of
fingerprint in the United States?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
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35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
3.
1.
2.
3.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
12.
13.
14.
15.
1.
2.
3.
Following the Illinois case was one in New Jersey, State vs.
Cerciello, in which fingerprint evidence was permitted to be
introduced.
4.
2.
STUDYING FINGERPRINTS
1.
11.
2.
Take Note:
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In the case of State vs. Conners (87 N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl. 812
(1915) ) it was held competent to show by a photograph the
fingerprints upon the balcony post of a house entered, without
producing that post in court, and to show by expert testimony hat
the fingerprints found on the post were similar to the fingerprints
of the defendant.
6.
7.
8.
Weight of Fingerprint
The weight to be given to evidence of correspondence of
fingerprint when offered to prove identity of the accused as the person
committing a crime is for the determination of the court in the light of all the
surrounding facts and circumstances.
In a California case, People vs. Coral (224 cal. 2d300 (1964( ), the
court stated, it is completely settled law that fingerprints are the
strongest evidence of the identity of a person. This Doctrine was
reasserted in another California case, People V. Riser (47 cal.
2d566 (1956) ) in which the court stated, fingerprint evidence is
the strongest evidence of identity and is ordinarily sufficient alone
to identify the defendant.
9.
10.
Give the reasons why Fingerprints is one of the most Infallible Means of
Personal Identification
1.
11.
People vs. Medina (59 Phil. 330) - The first leading judicial
decision in the Philippine jurisprudence on the science of
fingerprinting.
2.
3.
4.
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Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of intrauterine life and will remain unchanged throughout life until the
final decomposition of the body.
The pattern formation formed by the papillary ridges contains
peculiar characteristics upon which a person can always be
identified by fingerprint examiners.
Almost every police and law enforcement agencies
throughout the world accept, adopt and utilize the fingerprint
system as a means of absolute identification of a person.
The court and other authorities had taken cognizance of its
importance and reliability as a means of identification.
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5.
21.
22.
25.
26.
27.
Pattern Interpretation
1.
2.
3.
Arches 5%
Loops 60%
Whorls 35%
1.
2.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rules in Delta location when there is a choice between two or more Delta
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Take Note - It
applies only to loops.
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2.
PATTERN, like the central pocket loop whorl. It arises from the
fact that these patterns are a composite or combination of two 92)
patterns in one, with two cores and two deltas.
ARCHES
1.
2.
Tented
Plain
1.
2.
3.
4.
Plain whorl
Central pocket loop whorl
Double loop whorl
Accidental whorl
C.
1.
Radial Loop - R - derived its name from the radius bone of the
forearm; it is one type of fingerprint patterns in which the ridges
run its direction to the radius bone or to the thumb.
2.
8.
5.
7.
WHORLS
4.
ulnar
radial
B.
3.
6.
c.
Take Note - An
up thrust must have an
ending ridge.
REAL FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS
Real Impressions - Impressions of the finger bulbs with the use of
the printing ink on the surface of the paper. Any other coloring materials may
be used but less visible and indelible.
Methods of Producing Real Impressions
1.
2.
Plain Method.
Rolled Method
Step 2 - Next, using the same roller motion (without rolling back
and forth), spread the layer toward the front edge of the slab, until a smooth,
uniform coating of ink forms. The front edge is where the fingerprints are
rolled. When the ink on the front edge becomes too thin, replenish the ink
roller on the back edge of the slab and repeat step two.
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2.
3.
4.
a.
b.
c.
2.
e.
5.
6.
6.
7.
8.
9.
3.
TAKING
OF
REAL
FINGERPRINT
1.
2.
3.
Cleanliness of equipment
The right kind and correct amount of ink.
Proper distribution of ink on the glass slab or inking plate.
The distance of the subject from the inking on the fingerprint card.
The advice of the operator to the subject to relax and never to aid
in the operation.
The pressure exerted must be slight and even the rolling be
continuous movement including lifting.
The nail of the fingers should be at rights angle to the slab or to the
card before starting the rolling and always roll the fingers until the
other side of the nail is reached (180 degrees).
The inking and printing must always reach below the first of the
fingers.
The thumbs should be rolled towards the subjects body and all
other fingers away from the subjects body.
1.
Fingers soon after death - Wipe out fingers with a piece of gauze
containing alcohol if they are stained. In case where satisfactory
roll impressions are not obtainable by the ordinary impressing
technique, the impression paper shall be cut to a proper size, and
impressing shall be made onto it using such aids as a fingerprint
taking pallet from a dead body.
2.
3.
EXTRAORDINARY
IMPRESSIONS
Permanent Disabilities
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Temporary Disabilities
Fingers with percolate - Take their mold with silicon after drying
with lycopodium powder. In order to obtain fingerprint impressions from
silicon molds, strippable paint or cortex shall be used this technique is as
follows:
The first and most important step is clear the plate thoroughly.
A daub of printers ink is deposited near the edge of the plate away
from the operator.
The subjects hand and fingers must be relaxed.
Take Note:
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5.
CHANCE FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS
Chance Impressions - These are fingerprints which are imprinted
by mere chance or without any intention to produce the print. Chance print
may be
1.
2.
3.
6.
LIFTING METHOD
Collecting method by lifting fingerprint developed with powder
include methods employing cellophane tape, vinyl tape or other adhesive tape,
and methods employing silicon rubber.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
5.
6.
7.
POWDERING METHODS
Powdering methods include the brushing method, rolling method,
spraying method and light hitting method
LIQUID METHOD
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
2.
3.
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Lifting material - All lifting materials used for lifting under the
solid method, gelatin paper, lifter, cellophane tape, transparent vinyl tape, and
other adhesive tapes can be used; but in most cases, gelatin paper is used.
a.
b.
c.
GAS METHOD
This is a method where a latent fingerprint is developed by means
of coloring by affixing gasified reagent or by causing chemical change in
elements of excreta, and then collected by photographing or by lifting onto
lifting material. This method is suitable for developing fingerprints from
papers, unpainted wood and textiles.
Iodine is exclusively used as a reagent. The developed pattern
disappears with in a few minutes. Therefore, reduction is unnecessary.
a.
b.
c.
FLAME METHOD
This is a method of developing or clarifying by affixing soot to a
latent or unclear fingerprint. The developed fingerprint shall be collected by
lifting in onto lifting material or by photographing. This method is suitable
for collection from metal or other object with a porous surface.
Soot-generating materials (burning material) include magnesium
(photo flash powder), camphor, pine resin, benzene, kerosene, edible oil,
paraffin and candles.
LIFTING METHOD
PROTOGRAPHING METHOD
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fingerprints shall be lifted at the same time with lifting tape, etc. to
clarify the place where the fingerprints are impressed. In addition, the
name of incident, date and hour collected, object of collection, place of
collection, signature of witness, and collectors affiliation and name
shall also be entered on the back of the lifting paper.
a.
c.
With nonporous items (e.g., plastic bags, glass, and so forth), the
evidence is first fumed with cyanoacrylate. If prints are not visible by means
of normal techniques employed, the material is washed with a methanol
solution of rhodamine. Excess rhodamine is washed off with methanol, using
a laboratory plastic wash bottle. If prints are present, the small amount of
excess rhodamine will adhere to them and show up under laser illumination
can be used. A zinc chloride solution is used to change the Ruhemans purple
coloration, caused by the reaction of ninhydrin with the amino acids present in
the prints, to a yellow-orange color. The color change is luminescent in laser
light, and visible prints may be photographed.
At this time there are three types of lasers used in latent print work:
the argon ion laser, copper vapor laser, and neodymium: YAG laser.
PRESERVATION WITH FINGERPINT LIFTERS Frequently, curved surfaces, such as doorknobs, with latent fingerprints
present are difficult to photograph or do not lend themselves to the use of
cellophane lifting tape. For such surfaces, elastic or rubber lifter material
works well. Rubber lifters are commercially available items made of thin,
rubbery material coated with an adhesive. The adhesive is protected by a
transparent celluloid material removed prior to use and replace onto with
different fingerprint powders.
The Kromekote card is used to lift the print from the skin surface
by placing the card over the skin in the suspected area and applying pressure
for about 3 seconds. The card is carefully removed and then dusted with
black fingerprint powder to develop the print transferred onto the card. The
fingerprint obtained is the mirror image of a normal print, which can be
reversed through photography. After the Kromekote technique is used,
fingerprint powder can be applied directly to the skin to develop prints. The
literature reports that the Magna-Brush gives results superior to a fiberglass
filament brush. If a print is developed by this method, it must be
photographed and then may be lifted using cellophane lifting tape.
Plastic prints remain for any length of time provided that the object
on which they are left or the substance in which they are formed is itself
stable. In investigations, it sometimes happens that police officers find
fingerprints that give the impression of having been made in dust, but on
closer examination are found to be dust-filled plastic prints in oil paint made
years earlier.
FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE
EVIDENCE PRESERVATION OF CHANCE FINGERPRINTS
1.
2.
3.
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care, before the object is brought to a warm place. Only when the object is
dry should the print be developed.
1.
2.
What is the concept of fingerprint identification?
The identification of a fingerprint is to compare two fingerprints
with each other, to indicate their characteristics, and to determine whether
they match or do not.
c.
d.
2.
3.
4.
1.
Aside from the photographic equipment, what are other the needed
materials?
A roll of scotch photographic tape -1 inch wide to outline the areas
of the fingerprints on the negative to be used: some stiff cardboard
approximately 1/32 inch thick on which to mount the prepared charts, a tube
of rubber cement and a bottle of translucent ink, other than black or white.
In blocking, the negative is affixed to the window pane or lightbox by means of strips of photographic tape across the corners, with the side
to be blocked up. This prevents constant shifting of the negative while it is
prepared. The latent print should be blocked first. Corners of the blocked
areas should be square.
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1.
2.
3.
If the negative is a photograph of an opaque lift the print appears in
reverse position; that is, as a mirror image, and the negative will accordingly
have to be blocked from the dull or emulsion side in order for it to appear in a
position comparable to that of the inked prints. Failure to present the prints in
question in the same color and position may confuse the observer and nullify
the purpose for which the chart is made.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
What are the rules for beginning and ending ridge count?
1.
Ridge tracing begins at the extreme left delta and stops at the point
directly in front of the right delta.
2.
In a double loop whorl, the tracing begins at the extreme left delta.
When the tracing passes inside the right delta, one stops at the
nearest point to the right delta on an up thrust.
3.
In an accidental whorl having three deltas, the tracing begins at the
extreme left delta and goes towards the extreme delta. Any other
delta encountered is ignored.
4.
If no up thrust is represented, one continues the tracing until a
point opposite the right delta, or the left delta itself, is reached.
CLASSIFICATION OF FINGERPRINTS
CLASSIFICATION IN GENERAL, in this context, refers to the
sorting things into division or group so that they can at later time be quickly
located.
What are the steps in fingerprint classification?
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INDEX FINGER
A
T
R or /
Arbitrary count of one (1) ADDED - To each total, an arbitrary count of one
is added. The purpose of the arbitrary count of one is to avoid a classification
of zero over zero in a set of print in which no whorls appear; this might be
mistaken for the letter O which has another specific meaning in the
classification.
OTHER FINGERS
a
t
U or \
W
C
D
X
Take Note: After getting the Primary Classification, you must file
the fingerprint in the following manner:
1/1
- Lowest Classification
32/32
- Highest Classification
c
d
x
Illustration:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Take Note:
Rules on Amputation and Fingerprint Missing at Birth
1.
2.
1.
changed.
THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
2.
What is the Pure Henry System of Classification?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Primary
Secondary and small letter groups
Sub-secondary
Final
Major
Key
SECONDARY CLASSIFICTION
Rank The secondary classification follows the primary
classification.
PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
Position of Secondary The secondary classification appears just
to the right of the fraction which represents the primary.
Right hand 1 2 3 4 5
Left hand 6 7 8 9 10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Arch (A)
Tented Arch (T)
Radial loop (R)
Ulnar loop (U)
Whorl (W)
Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C)
Double Loop Whorl (D)
Accidental Whorl (X)
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MIDDLE FINGERS:
One (1) to Ten (10) ridges I (Inner)
Eleven (11) or more ridges ... O (Outer)
RING FINGERS:
One (1) to thirteen (13) ridges .. I (Inner)
Fourteen (14) or more ridges. O (Outer)
Loops and Whorls in Sub-Secondary - In a set of prints having
loops and whorl only the sub-secondary classification may include two (2),
but not more than three (3) fingers of each hand.
M SYMBOL - The symbol (M) meeting appearing in a subsecondary classification, indicates a whorl in the figures being considered,
since only a whorl can have a meeting tracing.
I and O SYMBOL - The symbols I and O in a subsecondary classification may relate to a set of prints having loops and whorls
or all loops or whorls. Whether the prints are loops, whorls or loops and
whorls may be ascertained from the primary classification since one over
one indicates no whorls, thirty-two indicates all whorls and other primaries
indicates both loops and whorls.
This aRa would mean a thumb arch, and index radial, and a
middle finger arch on the TUr right hand, and thumb tented arch, and index
ulnar, and a middle finger radial on the left hand.
Importance of small letters - The absence of small letter groups
are of vital importance to the classification system as the small letter occurs
relatively infrequently.
Frequency - The small letter groups, after the index fingers have
been grouped (small) in the following sequence:
1st: The denominator by count (the lesser number of small
letters proceeding the greater).
2nd: By position (small letter to the left of the index finger
proceeding these at the right).
3rd: By type (a,t, r).
1.
2.
Middle Finger
1-10 ridge count
I (Inner)
11 or more.
0 (outer)
Ring Finger
1-13 ridge count.
1(Inner)
14 or more ridge count
0 (outer)
For Arches
Use small letter (t) for tented arch.
Use small letter (a) for plain arch
If the index finger, middle finger, and ring finger are all plain
arches just put three dashes in the sub secondary classification and
A2a in the Secondary Classification. (Same is true when both
index and middle fingers are the same).
If the index finger, middle finger and ring finger are all tented
arches just put three dashes in the sub secondary classification and
T2t in the Secondary Classification. (same is true when index and
middle finger are the same).
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Meeting (M) = 0, 1, 2, ridges either from the left delta or the right
delta.
Outer (O) = 3 or more ridges below the right delta.
Inner (I) = 3 or more ridges above the right delta.
Take Note:
1.
2.
FINAL CLASSIFICATION
The final classification is the ridge count on the loop (ulnar and
radial) appearing in the right little finger.
Position - The final classification is indicated at the extreme right
of the numerator.
No Loop in the Right Little Finger - If a loop does not appear in
the right little finger, a loop in the left little finger may be used. The little
finger position in the formula remains unchanged, except that the ridge count
is noted as a denominator rather than as a numerator.
1 to 11SMALL (S)
12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L)
1 to 11 SMALL (S)
18 TO 22 MEDIUM (M)
23 or more LARGE (L)
1 to 11 SMALL (S)
12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L)
1 to 17 SMALL (S)
12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L)
Both Little Fingers are used - Both little fingers are considered
by some bureaus and the ridge counts of both are recorded. However, the
count of the right little finger governs the sequence for filing within the final
classification.
Sequence - The filing for prints follows definite within each group.
Denominator governs the sequence - As in all other groups, the
denominator governs the sequence and remains unchanged until the numerator
has exhausted the entire sequence.
Sequence for Loops - Since the loops in the thumbs are indicated
as small (S), medium (M), and large (L), the sequence is as follows:
NUMERATOR
SML
DENOMINATOR
SSS
SML
SML
SSS
SSS
NUMERATOR
IMO
DENOMINATOR
III
IMO
III
IMO
III
MAJOR CLASSIFICATION
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M 32 W MMM.
M 32 W MMM
If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the footprints
should be taken as they, too, bear friction ridges with definite patterns. A
footprints file is maintained by the FBI for identification purposes in instances
where the subject has all fingers amputated or missing at birth.
Little Fingers not used - If not used, the little fingers (regardless
of their type patterns or ridge count) as shown by the key for which they
represent, are reserved for the final.
Key no loops - Make ridge count of whorl appearing in the thumb
of the right at the extreme left delta. This may be used as a key.
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Nova Scotia
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
ARCH
LOOP
IDENTIFICATION CHARACTERISTICS
WHORL
RIDGE ENDING
BIFURCATION
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PLAIN ARCH
TENTED ARCH
PLAIN LOOP
PLAIN LOOP
WHORL
CENTRAL POCKET
LOOP
2
LATERAL POCKET
LOOP
TWINNED LOOP
ACCIDENTAL
Image 2 when measured 1:1 is just over 1/4" square. If you look
closely you should be able to identify 10 additional points that were not
mapped with the lines. In all I counted 22 points of identification on this 1/4"
square section of the impression. One thing to note here, you might be under
the impression that making a fingerprint comparison is relatively easy but you
should keep in mind a couple things.
On Fingerprint Identification
Identification by fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed
by the detection of certain ridge characteristics, also so known as Galton
details, points of identity, or minutiae, and the comparison of the relative
positions of these minutiae points with a reference print, usually an inked
impression of a suspect's print. There are three basic ridge characteristics, the
ridge ending, the bifurcation and the dot (or island).
First, image 1 and image 2 are both taken from the same image. In
real life you would have impressions made at separate times and subject to
different pressure distortions. Secondly, these images are relatively clean and
clear where many of the actually crime scene prints are anything but clear.
Last you have to consider that this is an easy comparison because you are
blessed with having a core pattern and a delta when in some cases you may
have a latent that could be a fingertip, palm or even foot impression.
Basic and composite ridge characteristics (minutiae)
Island
Dot
Bifurcation
Minutiae
Ending Ridge
Example
Minutiae
ridge
ending
bridge
bifurcation
double
bifurcation
dot
trifurcation
island
(short
ridge)
opposed
bifurcations
lake
(enclosure)
ridge crossing
hook (spur)
opposed
bifurcation/ridge
ending
Example
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PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Are articles and materials which are found in connection with an
investigation and which aid in establishing the identity of the perpetrator of
the circumstances under which the crime was committed or which in general
assist in the prosecution of the criminal. It encompasses any and all objects
that can establish that crime has been committed or can provide a link
between a crime and its victims or a crime and its perpetrator.
3.
2.
3.
4.
What are the Primary reasons which may contribute to the Destruction of
Physical Evidence?
1.
2.
3.
Go Slowly
Be thorough
Take note consult others
Use imagination
Avoid complicated theories
4.
5.
6.
Who maybe a Witness? (Eye Witness one who saw the fatal act)
What is BLOOD?
Composition of Blood
(45%) formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells
namely:
1.
1.
2.
3.
2.
3.
(55%) PLASMA The fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells
are suspended. It is principally composed of:
1.
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2.
Phenolphtalein Test
Guaiacum Test
A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a
solution of 1:50,000 dilution. It may not react to very old stains.
Blood Collection
REAGENTS: Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (Few lumps of this to
95% alcohol, then filter) and 3% of hydrogen peroxide or few drops of
turpentine.
PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on
porcelain dish. Soak with fresh tincture of guaiac. Add a few drops of
hydrogen peroxide.
POSITIVE RESULTS:
Beautiful blue color that appears
immediately.
LIMITATION: The test also reacts with salvia, pus, bile, milk, rust,
iron salts, cheese, gluten, potatoes, perspiration and other oxidizing
substances.
2.
3.
4.
Hemoglobin is the red coloring matter of the red blood cells of the
blood.
Benzidine Test
Luminous Test
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Antibody or Agglutinin
3.
Spectroscope Test is the almost delicate and reliable test for the
determination of the presence of blood in both old recent stains.
This is performed by means of an optical instrument known as
SPECTROSCOPE.
ANTIBODIES/AGGLUTIN
IES PRESENT IN THE
SERUM
ANTI-B
ANTI-A
AB
A& B
NO A & NO B or NONE
NO A & NO B or NONE
Reagent: Precipitin/antiserum
PROCEDURE: Scrape off blood stain if on hard material. Powder
the scrapings and exact with saline solution. If the stain is cloth, paper or
similar material, cut a small portion and then place in a test tube and add
extract with saline solution. Allow mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to
clean the solution. Dilute with saline solution. Layer an extract of the
bloodstain on top of the human antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube.
POSITIVE RESULT: A white cloudy line or ring or band at the
contact points of the fluid that appears immediately or within one or two
minutes.
LIMITATION: The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins
but also with other body proteins as those as saliva, semen, mucus and other
body fluids.
3.
Group O
Group A
Group B
Group AB
4.
5.
Agglutinogen or Antigen
These are characteristic chemical structures or principles that the
found on the surface of each red blood cells which stimulates the production
of agglutinins or antibodies. There are two different agglutinogens or antigens
classified as AGGLUTINOGEN A OR ANTIGEN A AND AGGLUTINOGEN
B OR ANTIGEN B.
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2.
seminal fluid
formed Elements Cellular
spermatozoa
epithelial cells
crystal and choline
3.
Cellulose nitrate
10H2O
4C3H5(NO3)3
+ 6N2 + O2
4.
Glyceryl Nitrate
9CO
12CO2
Under clotting
Clothing
Skin
Air
Vagina
Rectal contains of the victim
Around the genitals
Seminal Examination
There are four examinations for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the
form of stains namely:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Physical Examination
Chemical Examination
a.
Florence Test
b.
Barberios Test
c.
Acid-phospahtase Test
Microscopic Examination
Biological Examination
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Possibilities that a person maybe found Positive for Nitrates even if he did
not actually fired a Gun
1.
2.
Nature of fabric
Age of stain
Condition to which the stain was exposed reaching the laboratory
Handling of the specimen
Take Note - Rust - Formation of rust inside the barrel after a gun
has been fired is a good indication of the determination of the approximate
time the gun has been fired. If a gun has not fired at all, no rust can be
detected inside the barrel of the gun. If a gun has been fired, iron salts are
formed and are found inside the barrel. This iron salts are soon oxidized
resulting in the formation of rust.
+ c + S
K2S
+ N2
CO2
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
EXPLOSIVES
Explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its
sudden decomposition or combustion. Explosive is also a material either pure
single substance or mixture of substances which is capable of producing an
explosion by its own energy.
Color
Melanin (brownish-black pigment in hair, skin, etc. it is the
chemical responsible for the color of the hair. Black and brown
hair differs only to the amount of melanin.
Length by actual measurement
Character of hair whether stiff, wiry or soft
Width (breadth)
Character of hair tip if present
Manner by which hair had been cut
Condition of root or base or bulb of hair
Hair Root
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
2.
3.
4.
1.
Parts of Hair
2.
1.
2.
3.
Character of cuticle (the size, the general shape and the irregularity
of the scale)
Character of cortex (structural features are studied under the
microscope)
Cortex is embedded with the pigment granules the impart hair with
color. It is the color, shape and distribution of these granules
provide the chemist with important points of comparison between
the hairs of the different individuals.
Presence of dye in hair
3.
4.
Parts of Shaft
Comparison between Human and Animal Hair
1.
2.
3.
HUMAN
1.
2.
3.
4.
ANIMAL
1.
2.
3.
4.
Take Note: Certain hair has no medulla. Therefore hair can be classified
into two categories namely a) hair without medulla b) hair with medulla.
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Characteristic by race
a.
b.
c.
2.
b.
c.
a.
b.
a.
b.
mineral fiber ( examples glass fiber wool, glass rock, and slag
wools
metallic fiber ( examples finewire filament, steel wool, tinsel
threads.
Characteristic by sex
Test Used for Fibers
a.
b.
3.
a.
manner of burning
odor of fumes
color of ash
b.
c.
d.
The religion of the body from which the human hair has been
removed
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
4.
Scalp hair ( they are more mature than any other kind of
human hair
Beard Hair ( coarse, curved, very stiff, and often triangular in
cross section
Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ear-short, stubby, and
have wide medulla. Eyebrow and eyelashes are usually very
short and has a sharp and has a sharp tip.
Trunk hair (very in thickness along the shaft and are
immature but are somewhat similar to head hairs. They have
fine, long tip ends.
Limb hair (similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long
or so coarse and usually contain less pigment.
Axillary Hair (is fairly long unevenly distributed pigment.
They vary considerably in diameter along the shaft and have
frequently a bleached appearance. It has an irregular shape
and structure. Looks like public hair but the ends are shaper
and the hair is not so curly.
Public hair-similar to axillary hair but are coarser, and do not
appear bleached. More wiry, have more constriction and twist
and usually have continuous broad medulla. Has many
broken ends the clotting rubs.
b.
c.
Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have fine pigment and
are rudimentary in chapter. Childrens hair through
adolescence is generally finer and more immature than and
hair but cannot be definitely differentiated with certainly.
If it is noted that the pigment is missing or starting to
disappear in the hair, it can be stated that the hair is from
adult. It is common for a relatively young person to have
prematurely gray or white hair(head hair) but not body hairs.
The root of hair from an aged person may show a distinctive
degeneration
10% NaOH
5% oxalic acid
Half saturated oxalic acid
Concentrated sulfuric acid
Concentrated and dilute ammonium hydroxide
Concentrated nitric acid
TEXTILE FIBERS
1.
thread.
2.
3.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
4.
Take Note: OPACITY the quality of paper that does not allow
light to pass through or which prevents dark objects from being seen through
the paper.
3.
4.
a.
b.
Composition of Paper
Paper is made of three components namely:
Fiber Composition
Sizing Material to improve quality of paper
Loading Material to add weight to the paper
Take Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Whether the ink is the same or like or different inking from ink on
other parts of the same documents or other document.
Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made
with the identical ink, or inks of different qualities or in different
conditions.
Whether an ink is as old as purports to be
Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently
dated book entries show the natural variations in ink writing or
whether the conditions point to one continuous writing at one time
under identical conditions.
Types of Ink
1.
c.
1.
2.
3.
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2.
3.
4.
e.
f.
What is GLASS?
Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India Ink the oldest ink material
known. Made of carbon in the form of lampblack. Does not
penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it may easily be
washed off. Not affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
Composition of Glass
5.
Colored writing ink today, almost all colored inks are composed
of synthetic aniline dyestuffs dissolved in water. In certain colored
inks ammonium vanadate is added to render the writing more
permanent.
6.
Ball Point Pen ink made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type
solvents as carbitol, glycol or oleic acid. Paper Chromatography is
the best way of determine this type of ink.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2.
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the radial rays also bend away from the direction of the destroying force. By
this bending the glass is stretched along the front surface and when the limit of
elasticity is reached the glass breaks in concentric cracks. These originate on
the front of the glass because of stretching.
7.
8.
9.
3.
Hastening add one half teaspoonful of the table salt to the plaster.
Retarding add one part of a saturated solution of borax to ten
part water to be used in making the plaster.
Hardening to give a cast a greater durability it can be place on a
saturated solution of sodium carbonate, and allowed to remain in
the solution for sometime. It is then removed and dried.
If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will
suffer more flaking than the right. Excessive flaking on the right side of a
window pane would indicate a shot fired at an angle from the left.
1.
2.
Take Note:
a.
b.
c.
Robbery
Theft
Hit and run
Bomb and explosion
Nail Examination
Counterfeit coins
Restoration of tampered serial numbers
1.
2.
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patterns are sometimes found to have penetrated clothing to the skin area
beneath.
Application of TMDT Test Solution
The area to be examined is completely coated with the TMDT test
solution. a spray container is generally the most suitable for this purpose.
Whenever possible, the surface should be in a vertical position while being
sprayed to prevent the formation of puddles. Although the TMDT test solution
is nontoxic to skin surfaces, it should not be taken internally. Care should be
taken to avoid spraying the solution into the subjects eyes. If spray does get
into the eyes, the subject should immediately flush his eyes with water for at
least ten minutes and obtain medical acid.
For cast iron and cast steel 10% sulfuric acid and potassium
dichromate
For wrought iron and forged iron-Solution 1 : hydrochloric acid +
water + cupric chloride + alcohol and Solution 2:15% nitric acid
For aluminum-glycerin + hydrofluoric acid + nitric acid
For lead 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water
For stainless steel dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid
in alcohol for copper, brass, silver, and other copper alloys-ferric
chloride + hydrochloric acid + water
For Zinc 10% sodium hydroxide
For Tin 10% hydrochloric acid
For Silver concentrated nitric acid
For Gold and Platinum 3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part
nitric acid
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though gloves have been worn while metal objects have been handled. Skin
areas directly beneath clothing areas where metal traces have been found
should be examined by TMDT. However, it should be noted the plastic,
leather and rubber materials are impervious to penetration of metal traces.
entered ultraviolet light and the type, make and model of the specimen
handgun.
Detection of Tools and Metal Objects
Some tools and other metal objects leave patterns that are
characteristics of their shape, normal handling and use (for example: pliers,
wrenches, shears, scissors, etc.) while other tools and metal objects may leave
patterns that are similar because they are alike in shape and diameter (for
example: crowbars, pipes, metal bars, etc.). Accurate analysis and
determination of patterns on suspects hands depend upon relating the above
factors to circumstances, information, and evidence of the case upon the
technicians experience and skill in using TMDT. Again, as an aid in obtaining
such experience and skill, the technician should prepare a catalog of patterns
and metal traces produced by tools and other metal objects.
The suspects hands are extended from the sides of the body with
the palms in a vertical position and the fingers and thumb separated and
extended. The officer should make certain that the entire surface of the front
and back of the hands are covered by the spray.
The hands of individual may have metal traces from contact with
metal objects such as handles, doorknobs, keys, etc. The intensities of the
traces will be proportional to the force and duration of contact with these
metal objects. In some cases, the metal traces will be faint because of
momentary and light contact with the objects, but in other cases the traces
from no significant metal traces and distort the patterns of significant metal
objects.
Examination of Hands
The officer can next examine the suspects dry hands under
ultraviolet light. He should make a written record of the following
observations and analysis of the suspects hand:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
First, note and record the fluorescent colors of the metal traces that
make up the pattern for the purpose of identifying the metallic
content of the gun.
Look for the appearance of metal traces (fluorescent colors
differing from the light yellow fluorescent color produced by
TMDT test solution) on those parts of the hand that come in
contact with the gun: the index finger which rested on the trigger,
the remaining fingers and thumb which enclosed the gun, the palm,
and the degree of protrusion of the gun into the area between and
beyond the junction of the thumb and index finger. (Extensive
protrusion of metal traces beyond this area are made by the
overhang at the top of the back edge of the handles of automatics,
which is common to the design of this type of handgun.)
Look for any irregularities or distinguishing marks in the pattern
which may have been made by screws, protrusions,
ornamentations, and other markings of the gun.
Look for interruptions in the pattern which may be due to nonmetal
parts of the gun. Compare these observations with the suspect
handgun or, if it has not been recovered, with a Catalog of
Handgun Signatures. This comparison serves to identify the
signatures of the handgun or possession thereof by the suspect.
Take a photograph of the pattern produced on the suspects hand
under illumination by ultraviolet light.
If the suspect handgun has been recovered before the apprehension
of the suspect or shortly after his arrest (it has been found that
detectable metal traces may be found up to 38 48 hours after
contact with metal objects), the pattern of the handgun should be
produced on a subject who has not recently handled a gun. The
patterns on the subjects hands should be examined side-by-side
under ultraviolet light to determine whether or not the handgun has
been in the possession of the suspect. Photographs should be taken
as evidence.
If the suspect handgun has not been recovered, the pattern on the
suspects hand should be compared with the photographs of
handgun patterns entered in a Catalog of Handgun Signatures. A
photograph of the pattern on the subjects hand should also be
taken and compared with those in the catalog to aid in the possible
identification of the type of gun the suspect has had in his position.
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Photography Techniques
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
Alluvial Soil formed from soil particles that were washed, blown,
or moved by gravity to the lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc.
deposited by moving water.
Colluvial Soil formed from decomposition of igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, the decomposed particles
moved by gravity.
Sedentary Soil inactive, not migratory soil.
Precautions
Shortwave ultraviolet light in injurious to the eyes. Do not look
directly into the light or shine the light into individual eyes. Protective goggles
are commercially available that prevent passage of shortwave ultraviolet but
transmit visible fluorescent light which is not injurious to the eyes.
Fluorescence Photography
Constituent of Soil
1.
2.
3.
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Primary Minerals
Clay Mineral
Organic Constituents
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4.
1.
The value of soil as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that
soils differ in various characteristics over the surface of the earth. This
difference makes it possible to establish the identity or non-identity of two soil
samples.
2.
3.
4.
5.
15.
Composition of Dust
Classification of Dust
Forensic Medicine is a branch of medical science which deals
with application of medical knowledge to elucidate legal problems.
2.
Road and Footpath Dust - produced by the wear and tear of the
road surface be vehicular and pedestrian traffic together with
particles of soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining regions.
3.
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Kind of Witnesses
a.
b.
1858 The first textbook in Legal Medicine and its practice by Dr.
Rafael Genard Y Mas, who is a Spanish chief army physician was
published and is entitled Manual de Medecina Domestica.
March 31, 1876 The medico titulares which took charge of the
public sanitation and medico-legal aid for the purpose of justice
was created by the King of Spain in his Royal Decree No. 188.
March 10, 1922 The Philippine Legislature enacted Act No. 1043
which became incorporated in the administrative code as Section
2465 and provides that the Department of Legal Medicine and
Ethics of the University of the Philippines became a branch of the
Department of Justice.
1945 The Provost Marshall of the United States Army created the
criminal investigation laboratory with the Medical Examiner as an
integral part under Dr. Mariano Lara as the Chief Medical
Examiner.
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d.
e.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Occupational marks
Race Color of skin, shape of skull
Stature
Teeth
Tattoo Marks
Weight
Deformities
Birth Marks
Injuries leaving permanent result
Moles
Scars
Tribal marks
Sexual organ
Blood Group
Fingerprint
a.
b.
DEATH is the termination of life. It is the complete cessation of all the vital
functions without possibility of resuscitation.
1.
2.
3.
Kinds of Death
Somatic or Clinical Death state of the body in which there is
complete, persistent and continues cessation of the vital functions
of there brain, hearth and lungs which maintain life and health.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
5.
Physical Violence
Heat or cold
Electrical energy
Chemical energy
Radiation
Change in the atmospheric pressure
Signs of Death
1.
2.
3.
4.
Natural Death
Violent Death - Accident, Negligent, Infanticidal, Parricidal ,
Murder, Homicidal
Judicial Death
1.
Coagulation of blood
Post mortem lividity
Hypostatic lividity- inside blood vessels
Diffusion lividity - outside the blood vessels in the tissue of
the body
Causes of Death
Types of Death
2.
1.
Classification of Wounds
1.
As
Severity
a.
b.
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Mortal wounds
Non-mortal wounds
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2.
3.
4.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Superficial
Deep penetrating or perforating
1.
b.
c.
d.
Types of Abrasion
Scratches
Grazes
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
L
acerated Wound - produced by forcible contact of the body
with a blunt instrument.
St
ab Wound - produced by a sharp-pointed and sharp edge
instrument.
P
unctured Wound
produced by a sharp-pointed
instruments
W
ound produced by powder explosion - Firearm, Grenade,
dynamite, etc.
M
utilation
A
vulsion
In
cised wound - produced by forcible contact
A
brasion characterize by the removal of the superficial layer
of the skin brought about by friction against a hard rough
surface.
Forms of Abrasion
Linear
Multi-linear
7.
6.
5.
Simple fracture
2.
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3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
b.
c.
d.
b.
c.
d.
e.
b.
c.
d.
e.
11.
Production of Combustions
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.
Firearm Wounds
a.
Gunshot Wound
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ENTRANCE
Appears to be smaller than missile owing to elasticity of
tissue except contact fire.
Edges inverted
Usually ovaloid or rounded
Contusion collar present
Other product of combustions when firing is near
Paraffin test may be positive
3.
Degree of healing
Changes in the body in relation to the time of death
Age of the blood stain
Testimony of witnesses when the wound was inflicted.
4.
9.
a.
8.
7.
10.
6.
5.
5.
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1. Alwa
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Edge
Varia
Cont
Alwa
Alwa
1.
2.
a.
b.
c.
Distance of 2 to 3 yards
a.
The wound of entrance has big central hole with rugged edges with
few stray wound of entrance wound.
b. Smudging & tattooing no longer evident
Distance of 4 yards pellets may enter skin area of about 6 to 8 inches
diameter although there may be a central care where a group might have
entered.
Death by Asphyxia
Classification
1.
2.
3.
1. Hanging
2. Strangulation
a. by ligature
b. manual or throttling
c. special forms of strangulation
c.1. palmer
c.2. garroting
c.3. mugging or yoking
c.4. compression of neck with stick
1.
2.
3.
superficial 2 to 3 days
extensive tear 7 to 10 days
complicated if with intervening infection will require longer to
heal
3. Suffocation
a. smothering closing mouth and nostrils by solid objects
b. choking
1.
Moral virginity
Demi-virginity
Virgo-Inacta
Physical virginity - True physical virginity, False physical virginity
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6.
Kinds of Abortion
1.
Spontaneous or natural
2.
Induced therapeutic or criminal
Medico-Legal Aspects of Birth
Legal importance of the study of birth
4.
1.
2.
3.
Methods of delivery
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
3.
a.
b.
By omission or neglect
Failure to litigate the umbilical cord
Failure to protect the child from heat and cold
Omission to take the necessary help of a midwife or skilled
physician.
Omission to supply the child with proper proof food.
Omission to remove the child from the mothers discharge
with resulted to suffocation
By Commission
By inflicting physical injuries
By suffocation
By strangulation
By drawing
By poisoning
By burning
By deliberate exposure to heat and cold
Other allied causes
Abandoning a minor
Abandoning a minor by person entrusted with custody
indifference of parents.
Intentional Abortion
1. That the woman is pregnant
2. Violence was applied on such pregnant woman without the
intention of abortioning her.
3. The woman aborted as result of the violence.
Unintentional Abortion
1. The woman must be pregnant
2. Violence was applied on such pregnant woman without the
intention of abortioning:
3. The woman aborted as aborted as result of the violence.
1. For succession
2. For enforcement of the naturalization and immigration laws.
Kinds of children
1.
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Artificial Insemination
It is the introduction of seminal fluid with spermatozoa in the
generative of a woman by any means of springe, pipette, irrigator, etc.
The impotence of the husband; the fact that the husband and
wife were living separately in such a ay that access was not
possible.
By the serious illness of the husband.
a.
b.
c.
2.
Legitimated Children
d.
2.
a.
3.
b.
c.
Cause of impotency
a.
General or functional, unconnected directly with the sexual
organs: age, Illness, Emotion, Hormonal dysfunction
b.
Local or organic, in direct connection with the sexual organs:
Congenital defects in males like non-development of the
penis, mal development of the penis, penis adherent to the
scrotum, duplex organ; or in females like absence of vagina,
vagina ill-developed, vagina occluded by intra-uterine
disease.
c.
Disease or Accident - In males: acute disease of the penis as
gonorrhea, chronic disease of the penis as epithelioma,
complete amputation of the penis, removal of the testes,
sexual abuse; In the females: vaginal laceration, disease of
the vulvae, obstruction of the vaginal canal due to tumor cyst
or fibroid.
Illegitimate Children
a.
b.
Non-Medical Evidences
Record of birth in the civil registrar, or by an authentic
document or a final judgment.
Continuous possession of the status of a legitimate child.
Any other allowed by the Rules of Court and Special Laws.
Adopted Children
4.
Medical Evidences
Parental likeness
Blood grouping
Evidence from the mother - Proof of previous delivery, Proof
of physical potency & fertility, Proof of capacity to have
access with the husband
Evidence from the father - Proof of physical potency and
fertility, Proof of access
Natural Children
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1.
Congenital
a.
In the male: Absence of testicle, Absence of penis, Maldevelopment of the testicle, Misplacement of the testes, Malformation of the penis, as epipadias or hypospadias
b.
In the female: Absence or mal-development of the ovary,
Absence or mal-development of the uterus, Absence of the
vagina
2.
Acquired conditions
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a.
b.
oo
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