Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Introduction
Basic principles
Plane Table Surveying
Chain Surveying
levelling
Tables
page
1
3
8
11
'9
33
EQUIPMENT
BOAT LEVEL
ALlDADE
o
PIN
TRIPOD
PLUMB
BOB
Fig 1
Factory
------
,,\
MARTINS LANE
Fig 2
ID
CHAIN SURVEYING
Chain Surveying has long been established as the easiest
an basic form of land mea$urement and is still in common use.
3ased on triangulation and consisting of carrying out the
survey in the field and plotting the survey to scale in the
drawing office from recorded measurements in the field book.
~t is a job for two people the surveyor and his assistant.
There are several possible inaccuracies which may occur
'.'hen
carrying out a chain survey and great care should be
~aken to avoid the,. The most common being confusing the
-~llies, miscounting the links, the chain having knots in
ink joints, bent links, the chain not being laid out in a
straight line between stations, incorrect bookings, miscalled
i ensions and booking offsets at wrong points. Practice in
~he field will highlight some of these problems as there is
~o substitute for experience in the use of a chain.
EQUIPMENT
The basic equipment for chain surveying is the metric
chain 20metres in length with 100 links each .20metres in
_e. th. Every tenth link is marked by a brass tag or teller
'-i
t:-t
intermediate tags for every link. The chain is made of
E eel wire and great care should be taken when folding so as
~o avoid entanglement and bending the links. When the chain
is to be used and laid out it is done by grasping both
:a~dles of the chain and throwing it out in one operation and
~ .en straightened out ensuring all links and joints are
outst ret ched properly.
There are two other chains used these being the Gunter
Chain which is 66 feet in total length with 100 links of
7.92 inches, and the Engineers Chain 100 feet in length and
:.~E_00 links each a foot long and marked at 10 foot
i:r:tervalsv:ith tallies accord.i
ng Ly ,
Tapes
These are made of steel being the most accurate and being
r-e I'e
r-r-e d to linen tapes. They are c ornmon.l y in lengths of 10,
11
EQUIPMENT
90
THE METRIC CHAIN
TAPE
CHAIN
ARROWS
((
"g 3
RANGING POLES
POLE SUPPORT /
.,.
e'
12
ArmlWS
.-..
':c are used to mark the end of each chain line and are
JOOmm to 450rmTl
in length and carr-y a red cloth
so that they can be easily spotted on the ground.
poles
:~ese ere usually 2 metres in length of wood or metal
. :n bands alternately in red, white and black.
book
_
13
The S e
_.ClllJjAP
,.(~~.
Fig 4
14
CHAIN
SURVEYING
intermediate
pole
ranging
Fig 5
15
CLINOMETER
~ strument is used for measuring slopes of 3' or
is simply illustrated below. By firstly viewing
~nstrument on the horizontal plane the instrument
and focussed onto the ranging pole up the
ope with the counterweight in the vertical position
- ~ ~_evation can be read on the dial, in this case 300
strument is hand held and is most useful for
slopes quickly and easily giving instant readings
_~s
16
CHAIN
SURVEY
SLOPING SITES
To measure "Leg" slopes greater than
o
3 , measure convenient horizontal
distances, plumb down to ground level
to fix point from which to take next
measurement.
B
~e of slope with CLIlWJ::ETER
''0(11
Trigonometry AB=AC Cose{.
....---- >--
CLES
--- ---
measure slope
- - --
---- RANGING
---
OVER HILLS
ft
17
1Il:dll"\IIWl
G ACROSS A RIVER
'~------~------~------~------~D
-----
__
-!:
~_------=rtIVER -
EY OF LAKE OR WOOD
- - ~ fraJework of chain lines
_= area and triangulate
- _ -ies across the corners
_:'e'; C:- IN TRAVERSING.
18
I TRODUCTION
This book has been set out to illustrate the fundamental
basis of land measurement and procedures to adopt when
surveying areas of land. The actual practice of carrying
out surveys has not changed much over the years with only
perhaps the refinement and advanced equipment now in use.
Wost of the procedures detailed in this publication are in
corr~on practice and will give a good grounding to
Architectural, Surveying and Building students.
It is emphasised t.at only practice in the field will
give a good and thorough understandinG of the methods
outlined here and the key being accuracy in performance.
LEVELLING
.-:;,_<::;;:;.=- __
_.::!: =o::"_o'ting
statements are accurate for most practical
{fJR/A./CIA9L
IlxIs
Or al..5.
Fig 1
fJL!J,UO COA./c4V
re
on the principal axis whose distance from the tRO
_ :'sproportional to their radii.
19
- -~~c~~
fro. one transparent material to another
- -~~ec~ion. For example, a stick partly immersed in
-_ears to be sharply bent at the surface of the water
r-or above the water surface. Thus, in passing
:e~s the rays of light will be bent or refracted as
e -. ';;i
th a convex lens the rays of light will
~ _assing ttrough it.
co__
ea e lens the rays will diverge on passing through
lens is suitable as a burning glass while
ib.IS,
Fig2
~!"
fJ'
etc.
20
Production of an image
An object being viewed through a lens is considered to
consist of a number of connected points, each radiating tV10
rays of light; one ray passing through the optical centre of
the lens without being refracted, the other, parallel to the
principal axis, refracted through the focal point, both
intersecting to produce an inverted "real image" (See Fig.3.)
v
/t)/A./T
{)I../
~a~~
mtaBJlCT~~
~KA
&JUc,
VltWD
Fig3
~~D
Po/AlT
/MIlGE)
/M/lt;E
v WED
CF
(RlAL
I
V
11
and
I
1
V
I
U
21
The telescope
The surveyors telescope show~ in Fig.4. provides a line of
collimation passing through the optical centres of the lenses
and the cross hairs. The e epiece magnifies both the real
image and the cross hairs in the same proportion as these are
both on a common plane. The eyepiece is usually the Ramsden
type, consisting of two pIano-convex le~ses mounted a short
distance apart in a self-contained case, wh i ch is threaded on
the outside to allow it to be screwed f'o
rwar-d or back in the
telescope body to bring the cross hairs and image into clear
focus. This arrangement of lenses reduces spherical aberration.
The object glass is usually a compound lens to reduce
chromatic aberration.
j.!1../
)
/MIlCr~
Focussing
Fo.(?N/D
BY #' PIECt.
1..11./&o.t: SI(jIlr:
Fig 4
22
Cross-hairs
Originally, spiders yeb was used, but these broke easily
and were difficult to replace. Today, very fine lines are
etched on a piece of very thin optical glass fastened to a
"reticule", forming an interchangeable capsule which fits
into a flanged metal ring called the "diaphragm", held in the
telescope barrel by four capstan headed screws - which should
only be touched when changing or making major adjustments to
the cross-hairs.
Parallax
This term refers to relative motion between the object and
the cross-hairs when the eye is moved to and fro across the
eyepiece, and means that the image and cross-hairs are not on
the same plane. To eliminate parallax a piece of white paper
is held in front of the object lens and theeye-piece moved in
or out until the cross-hairs stand out clear and black. The
telescope is then focussed on the object and tested for
parallax again, the procedure being repeated if necessary
until the parallax is eliminated.
23
Types of levels
DU.DV Level: The simplest form of level consists of a
bubble tube attached to a telescope which is rigidly fixed
to a horizontally rotating centre post and top plate, in its
turn connected to a bottom plate by three or four levelling
foot screws, which can be adjusted to bring the spirit
lev~l and telescope axis horizontal.
T~o conditions are essential for accurate work.
1.
2.
example
24
example
Back sight:
Foresight:
Intermediate
HeiGht of Instrument:
25
Reduced level:
(R.
=..
poin
Change Point:
METHOD
Setting up the level
0
plan
c:;
axis at ric;ht
ent:
of
26
Corrections
Curvature: as the ear t.h is curved, a horizontal sight
does not give the true relati e heights of two points over
a long sighting distance. See Fig.6.
Fig 6
27
Forms of levelling
Simple Levelling: in which all levels are obtained with
the instrument in one position, or, in other words:
(a) there is onl
220
1/5.
2-Se
---/I'"
.,I,-
,,/1
r
1~
/)/S7,tftJCc~
(y
2'/0
'::":::"_-!F2~
----f,--..1-J---./'{
Fig 1
1-70
.-------.{)O
2'00.
_yl.
'(
I"
-,J
~~~---~.--------~r--~O~~/~~~~~--~~~l----~~----l~
_
1
'1
28
LAND
SURVEYING
GENERALLY
The main function of carrying out a practical land
survey is to ascertain as accurately as possible the size
and shape of building sites, fields or other areas of land
masses. They may have on them ponds, buildings or include
other features such as ditches, streams and trees etc. which
may need to be recorded and plotted on a survey dravring.
This is generally known as land measurement.
In addition to this information it will also be
important toknow how the site slopes for which you will
need to carry out a level survey. Basically it is forming
a three dimensional picture of a particular area of land
with points of elevation marked on it so that vertical
can be taken through showing planes of elevation.
There are various methods of gathering this information
which will be illustrated and explained in this book. It
will be necessary to have knowledge of geometry and a good
understanding of mathematics in order to plot and calculate
information gathered by the practical survey.
Experience and practical knowledge can only be gained by
actually carrying out the methods and procedures described
in the field.
BOOKING
There are two forms of booking down level readings,
Collimation also known as Height of Instrument and Rise and
Fall method.
SI{H-IT
jA/T[J:(
srcrllT
rcRE-
SJaI/T
RISE
/"JJLL
,uyL
/JIS1~E
RlMllRKS
/00-00
/40
/0/4{p
(B)Chq~t'-Po;I)/.
{)60
lo.2-0~
rq
It;OQ6
(q)
2-00
0-54
RlIJ/la~
2-30
;.70
/-/0
2-$0
o-so
J-60
100
'/0
()ck"e 181711
/60
,2-00
5-90
t9 -IIf
S.<fo
0-24,,/
(0/,,<;
2-06
-.no
:2 -of
0-4()
q9-7~
(31-
/00-00
er)
9Cj-7{'
021-)/
o-24
29
Collimation Method
Again using Fig.l. to illustrate this method the
succeeding reading is subtracted from the last calculated
collimation height i.e. reading at A is height of instrument
being 102.00 after datum of 100.00 is added. This will then
give a Reduced level at each staff position.
To check add the back sights and add the foresights and
find the difference. By finding the difference between the
level of datum and the last reduced level should equal the
difference between the backsight and foresight totals.
Always check if possible back to the datum point by
taking flying levels this will avoid a return visit to the
site.
COLLIMATION METHOD
84a:
3ti/IT
:2. eo
/I./ffR
sasr
RJRE-
y,aIlT
/lE/aI/Tor
os4
roa-oo
10)-76
/0/.46
@) Cha~~!b/iJ!
10206
CC)
/70
280
1"0
3'90
6/i/590
o24V
LErfL.
/)aIOM.
/00
360
PIS1#WCE
-co
/62
.,230
I?.EO(lCEf)
13/vt/lRk$
cJr4T/04/ (It)
/AI.Jr.ep/'-f~T
10;' 7~
96
/00./6
:2 -co
qq7C,
6l!JZ--
/00.00
(P)
, Ck~t!: 1(,//17.
9q7~
021/
CJlECI. ts
30
2.
3.
4.
Parallax - adjust.
Collimation error;
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
check.
31
"7
k ,b11
~o.
/
f
-+----~----~--~~--~----~--~-
MARTINS
lANE
Fig 6
3~
LAND MEASUREMENT
BASIC PRINCIPLES
The basis of all land measurement is the use of a base
line and fixed points from which measurements can be taken.
The following examples are used as basic principles for all
surve;ying methods.
1.
RIGHT
ANGLED CO-ORDINATES.
xK
FOCAL CO-ORDINATES.
J. ANGULAR CO-ORDINATES.
, 'A
'
4. POLAR CO-ORDINATES.
Y
Point A is located or fixed by a known point Z along a
chain line XY and measuring the distance ZA together with
angleo(. A method used in radiating lines on a plane table
and locating points generally.
Triangles
Area = base x height
2
a
Area =
222
aesinL
c
B
_be sin A
Trapezium
The parallelogram
D~
a~
area =(a x h)
Side8 included ~ known but not h.
Area = ab Sin A or ab Cos B.
IRREGULAR FIGURES
Simpsons rule
~ssume that the bound ries are parabolic in shape and is most
Eccurate for normal survey conditions. Can be used for VOLUJlr:ES
if areas are substituted for ordinate lengths.
Y7
Are
j
+
x_
[(y ~
'1
+ v7
v ) + 2(" "3 +vv r.; ) + 4(V2+YA~+Y6)J
er
L!
Trapezoidal rule
sed when there are any nu _ber of or-d i na t s or height s ,
-ay be used for volumes if are~s of sections are substituted
for ordinate lengths.
Area = Interval (half sum of 1st and last ordinate + remaining
ordinates.)
Prismoidal formula
of middle 08ction.
EQUIPMENT
To carry out a Plane Table Survey you will need a drawing
board on an adjustable tripod with rotating head. A small
level i.e. boat level with a compass to orientate the survey.
An Alidade sighting straight edge, plumbing fork and plumb
bob with stationers pin. Ranging poles, pegs and arrows with
steel measuring tape or chain. Some of these items are shown
in Fig.1.
RADIATION METHOD
To illustrate the method of Plane Table Surveying Fig.2.
shows a typical building site to be surveyed.
Set up the Table in the centre of the site and level board
ensuring that all aspects of the site can be seen. Locate all
other points i.e. change of boundary lines, positions of
.anholes, gates, poles, trees etc. Then using the Alidade
sight onto the fixed points measure the distance from the
centre peg marked on the ground. By using a suitable scale
draw in the radiated line on the paper fixed securely to the
board from the centre pin which should be directly plumbed in
over the measuring peg on the ground. When carrying out this
process the board should be clocked into position until
EiBhtings and measurements can be taken in sequence A,B,C etc.
for the whole of the site. If this procedure is carried out
carefully then a reproduction of the site will be recorded to
sc~le onto the board.