Functions of the Skeletal System

1) Support
a. Strong bone is well suited for bearing weight and is the major supporting
tissue
b. Cartilage provides firm, yet flexible support
2) Protection
3) Movement
4) Storage
a. Calcium and phosphorous
b. Adipose tissue stores in bone cavities
5) Blood cell production
a. Bone cavities are filled with bone marrow give rise to blood cells and
platelets
Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is most associated with bone
o Precursor for most bones in the body
o Bone lengthening and repair involve the production of hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage consist of chondroblasts
o Chondroblasts produce a matric surrounding themselves
When matrix surrounds chondroblasts it becomes chondrocyte
Chondrocyte: round cell that occupies a space called lacuna within
a matrix
o The matrix contains collagen (provides strength) &
proteoglycan (make cartilage resilient by trapping water)
Perichondrium: a double-layered connective tissue sheath covering most cartilage
o Blood vessels and nerves penetrate the outer layer of the perichondrium but do
not enter the cartilage matrix
Nutrients must diffuse through the cartilage matrix to reach the
chondrocytes
o The outer layer dense irregular connective tissue
Containing fibroblasts
o The inner layer more delicate layer
Few fibers and contains chondroblasts
Articular Cartilage: hyaline cartilage
o Covers the ends of bone where they come together to form joints
o No blood vessel, perichondrium, or nerves
Cartilage grows in two way
1) Appositional growth
a. Chondroblasts in the perichondrium add new cartilage to the outside edge
of existing cartilage
i. The chondroblasts lay down new matrix and add new chondrocytes
to the outside of the tissue

2) Interstitial growth
a. Chondrocytes within the tissue divide and add more matrix between
existing cells
Bone Histology
Bone consists of extracellular matrix and bone cells
o Bone cells produce the matrix and become entrapped within it
Bone Matrix
Organic material: collagen and proteoglycans
Inorganic material: calcium phosphate crystal called hydroxyapatite
Collagen adds flexible strength to the bone
Mineral components adds weight-bearing strength
Bone cells
Classified as:
1) Osteoblasts
2) Osteocytes
3) Osteoclasts
Osteoblasts
Osteoblasts: bone forming cells
o Have an extensive endoplasmic reticulum and numerous ribosome
Produce collagen and proteoglycan
Release matrix vesicles
o Matrix vesicles: membrane-bound sacs formed when the plasma membrane buds,
or protrudes outward, and pinches off
Concentrate Ca2+ and PO43- & form hydroxyapatite crystals
When the crystals are released they stimulate further
hydroxyapatite formation and mineralization of the matrix
Ossification (osteogenesis): formation of bone by osteoblasts
o Appositional growth on surface of previously existing bone or cartilage
Osteocytes
Once an osteoblast becomes surrounded by bone matrix referred to as osteocyte
o Osteocytes are relatively inactive compared to osteoblasts
Lacunae: spaces occupied by the osteocyte cell bodies
o Canaliculi: Spaces occupied by the osteocyte cell processes
Bone cells are in contact with each other through the canaliculi
Nutrients and gases can pass through the small amount of fluid
surrounding the cells in the canaliculi and lacunae or pass from cell
to cell through gap junctions connecting cell processes

Osteoclasts
Osteoclasts: bone destroying cells
o Perform reabsorption, or breakdown, of bone that mobilizes crucial Ca2+ and
phosphate ions
Huge cells
Originate within red bone marrow monocyte/macrophage lineages
Mature osteoclasts carry out bone reabsorption
1) Osteoclasts must access the bone matrix
2) Form an attachment structure via interactions with cell-surface proteins called
integrin
3) Podosome develop and form a sealed compartment under the osteoclast
4) Osteoclasts cell membrane further differentiates into a highly folded form
a. Ruffled border
i. Specialized reabsorption-area of the membrane
1. Acid vesicles fuse membrane
2. H+ enzymes are inserted into the membrane
a. Creates an acidic environment within the sealed
compartment causes decalcification of bone
matrix
5) After breakdown of matrix, the degenerated products are removed by a transytosis
mechanism
6) Degenerated products are secreted into extracellular space enter blood & are
used elsewhere
Origin of Bone Cells
Osteochondral progenitor cells: stem cells that came become osteoblasts or chondroblasts
o Located in inner layer of perichondrium & in layers of connective tissue that
cover bone
Periosteum & endeosteum
Potential new source of osteoblasts or chondroblasts
Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts
o Derived from stem cells in red bone marrow
Woven and Lamellar Bone
Woven bone: collagen fibers are randomly oriented in many direction
o First formed during fetal development or during repair of fracture
After its formation osteoclasts break down bone and osteoblast build new
matrix
Lamellar bone: mature bone
o Organized into thin sheets or layers
Lamellae

Osteocyte are arranged in layers packed between lamellae

Spongy and Compact Bone

Spongy bone has less bone matrix and more space than compact bone
Spongy Bone: consisted of interconnecting rods or plates of bone
o Trabeculae
Space between trabeculae are filled with bone marrow and blood vessels
Thin
Consists of several lamella with osteocytes located in lacunae between the
lamellae
Surface is covered with a single layer of cells consisting mostly of
osteoblasts & few osteoclasts
Trabeculae are oriented along the lines of stress of a bone
Compact Bone: denser and has fewer spaces than spongy bone
o Blood vessels enter the substance of the bone itself
o Lamellae of compact bone are primarily oriented around the blood vessels
Central canals: vessels that run parallel to the long axis of the bone
Lined with endoesteum
Contain blood vessels, nerves, & loose connective tissue
Concentric Lamellae: circular layers of bone matrix that surround a
common center Central canal
o Osteon: consists of a single central canal, its contents, associated concentric
lamellae & osteocytes
Osteocytes are located in lacunae between the lamellar rings, and
canaliculi radiate between lacunae across the lamellae
o Circumferential lamellae: thin plates that extend around the bone
Outer surface of compact bone
o Interstitial lamellae: remnants of concentric or circumferential lamellae that were
partially removed during bone remodeling
Between osteons
Osteocytes receive nutrients and eliminate waste produce through canal systems within
compact bone
o Perforating canals: run perpendicular to the long axis of bone
Blood vessels from the periosteum or medullary cavity enter the bone
through these canals
Pass through concentric lamellae of osteon
Structure of a Long Bone
Diaphysis shaft
o Compact bone & some spongy at ends
Articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage
o Within joint the ends of a long bone are covered with articular cartilage

Bone develops from centers of ossification

o Diaphysis is the primary ossification center
Epiphysis: the part of a long bone that develops from a center of ossification distinct from
that of a diaphysis
Epiphyseal plate: area of hyaline cartilage between diaphysis and epiphysis
o Growth in bone LENGTH
Cartilage growth followed by endochondral ossification
Epiphyseal line: when the bone stops growing in length & the epiphyseal plate becomes
ossified
Diaphysis also has medullary cavity
o Medullary cavity large internal space
Filled with marrow
Red marrow: site of blood formation
o Connective tissue in spaces of spongy bone or medullary
cavity
o In fetus spaces within bones are filled with red marrow
Yellow Marrow: adipose tissue
o Fat stored within medullary cavity or spaces of spongy
bone
o Replaces most red marrow
Periosteum: a connective tissue membrane that cover the outer surface of a come
o DOUBLE LAYERED
Outer fibrous layer dense irregular collagenous connective tissue
Contains blood vessels and nerves
Inner layer: single layer of bone cells
Including osteoblasts, osteoclast, and osteochondral progenitor
cells
o Ligament and tendons attach through periosteum
Perforating fibers: bundle of collagen periosteum that strengthens the
attachment of the tendons & ligaments
o Blood vessels & nerves of periosteum supply the bone
o WHERE BONE GROWS IN DIAMETER
Endoesteum: single layer of cells that lines the internal surfaces of all cavities within
bones
o Include osteoblast, clasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells

Structure of Flat, Short, Irregular Bone

Flat Bone: spongy bone sandwiched between compact bone
Sinuses: air-filled sac spaces
o Lined with mucous membrane
o Found in flat and irregular bones

Bone Development
During fetal development, bone forms in two patters
1) Intramembranous ossification: takes place in connective tissue
2) Endochondral ossification: takes place in cartilage
Intramembranous ossification
Centers of ossification: locations in membrane where ossification begins
Fontanels: large membrane-covered spaces between developing skull bones; unossified
Ossification Process:
1) Embryonic mesenchyme forms a collagen membrane contain osteochondral
progenitor cells
2) No stage is comparable
3) Embryonic mesenchyme forms the periosteum, which contains osteoblasts
4) Osteochondral progenitor cells becomes osteoblasts at centers of ossification
a. Internally: osteoblasts form spongy bone
b. Externally, the periosteal osteoblasts form compact bone
5) Intramembranous bone is remodeled and becomes indistinguishable from
endochondral bone
Endochondral Ossification
1) Embryonic mesenchymal cells become chondroblasts, which produce a cartilage template
surrounded by perichondrium
a. Hyaline cartilage
2) Chondrocytes hypertrophy enlarge
a. The cartilage matrix becomes calcified and chondrocytes die
3) The perichondrium becomes periosteum when osteochondral progenitor cells within the
periosteum become osteoblasts
a. Bone collar: formed by osteoblasts producing compact bone on the surface of
cartilage model
4) Blood vessels and osteoblasts from the periosteum invade the calcified cartilage template
a. Internally osteoblasts form spongy bone at primary ossification centers
b. Externally osteoblasts form compact bone
5) Endochondral bone is remodeled and becomes indistinguishable from intramembranous
bone

Bones of the base of the skull, part of the mandible, epiphyses of the clavicles, and most
of remaining bones of skeletal system
Cartilage formation begins at end of fourth week of development
Some ossification beginning at about week eight; some does not begin until 18-20 years
of age

Growth In Long Bone

Long bone increase length because of epiphyseal plate

o Growth at epiphyseal plate involves the formation of new cartilage by interstitial

cartilage growth followed by appositional growth on the surface of the cartilage
Four Zones of epithelial plate:
1) Zone of resting Cartilage
a. Nearest to the epiphysis
b. Contains randomly arranged chondrocytes that do no divide rapidly
2) Zone of Proliferation
a. Chondrocytes produce new cartilage through interstitial growth
b. Chondrocytes divide and form columns resembling stacks of plates of
coins
3) Zone of Hypertrophy
a. Chondrocytes produced in zone of proliferation mature and enlarge
i. Maturation gradient exists in each column
1. Cells nearer the epiphysis are younger & active
4) Zone of Calcification
a. Very thin
b. Contains hypertrophied chondrocytes and calcified cartilage matrix
i. Hypertrophied chondrocytes die
1. Blood vessels from diaphysis grow into area
2. CT surrounding the blood vessels contains osteoblasts
a. Osteoblasts line up on surface of the calcified
cartilage & through appositional bone growth
deposit new bone matrix

Growth at Articular Cartilage

Epiphysis increase in size because of growth at the articular cartilage
Growth in Bone Width
Long bones increase in width (diameter) and other bones increase in size or thickness
because of appositional bone growth beneath the periosteum
o Puberty
Process:
1) Osteoblasts beneath periosteum lay down bone to form ridges separated by
grooves.
a. Blood vessels of the periosteum line in the grooves
2) The groove is transformed into a tunnel when the bone is built on adjacent ridges
meet
a. Periosteum of the grooves becomes endosteum of the tunnel
3) Appositional growth by osteoblasts from endoseum results in the formation of a
new concentric lamella
4) The production of additional lamellae fills in the tunnel and completes the
formation of osteons
Factors Affection Bone Growth
Size and shape of a bone determined genetically but can be modified and influenced by
nutrition and hormones

Nutrition
Lack of calcium, protein and other nutrients during growth and development can
cause bones to be small
Vitamin D
Necessary for absorption of calcium from intestines
Can be eaten or manufactured in the body
Rickets: lack of vitamin D during childhood
Osteomalacia: lack of vitamin D during adulthood leading to softening of
bones

Vitamin C
Necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts
Scurvy: deficiency of vitamin C
Lack of vitamin C also causes wounds not to heal, teeth to fall out
Hormones
Growth hormone from anterior pituitary. Stimulates interstitial cartilage growth
and appositional bone growth
Thyroid hormone required for growth of all tissues
Sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone
Cause growth at puberty, but also cause closure of the epiphyseal plates
and the cessation of growth

Bone Remodeling
Converts woven bone into lamellar bone
Caused by migration of Basic Multicellular Units
Groups of osteoclasts and osteoblasts that remodel bones
Involved in bone growth, changes in bone shape, adjustments in bone due to stress, bone
repair, and Ca ion regulation
Relative thickness of bone changes as bone grows. Bone constantly removed by
osteoclasts and new bone formed by osteoblasts.
Formation of new osteons in compact bone
Osteoclasts enter the osteon from blood in the central canal and internally remove
lamellae. Osteoblasts replace bone
Osteoclasts remove bone from the exterior and the bone is rebuilt
Mechanical Stress and Bone Strength
Stress causes bone remodeling to:
Increase osteoblasts activity in bone tissue
Increase bone mass (density)
Align trabeculae with stress
Changes causes by:
Osteoblast activity
Increases with stress

Bone Repair
1) Hematoma Formation
a. Blood released from damaged blood vessels, but confined within organ or space
b. Usually with form a clot
i. Consists of fibrous protein that stop bleeding
c. Disruption of blood vessels inadequate blood delivery to osteocytes
i. Bone tissue adjacent to the fracture site dies
ii. Tissue becomes inflamed & swollen
2) Callus formation
a. Internal callus forms between the ends of the bone and the external callus forms a
collar around the break
i. Callus: mass of tissue that forms at a fracture site & connects broken ends
ii. Internal callus: form between the ends of broken bone
b. Blood vessels grow into the clot
c. As clot dissolved:
i. Macrophages clean up cell debris
ii. Osteoblasts break down dead bone tissue
iii. Fibroblasts produce collagen & extracellular materials to form granulated
tissue
d. External callus: forms a collar around the opposing ends of bone fragments
3) Callus ossification
a. Woven, spongy bone replaces the internal and external calluses
4) Bone Remodeling
a. Compact bone replaces woven bone
i. Part of internal callus is removed restoring medullary cavity
Calcium Homeostasis
Bone is major storage site for calcium
The level of calcium in the blood depends upon movement of calcium into or out of bone.
Calcium enters bone when osteoblasts create new bone; calcium leaves bone
when osteoclasts break down bone
Two hormones control blood calcium levels- parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.
PTH: when Ca2+ levels are too low
PTH stimulates an increase in the number of osteoclasts, which
breaks down bone and elevated Ca2+ levels
Calcitonin: secrete from the thyroid gland when blood Ca2+ levels are too
high
Decreasing the osteoclasts activity, decreasing Ca+ level
Effects of Aging on Skeletal System
Bone matrix decreases.
More brittle due to lack of collagen
But also less hydroxyapatite.
Bone mass decreases.
Highest around 30.

Men denser due to testosterone and greater weight.

African Americans and Hispanics have higher bone masses than Caucasians and
Asians.
Rate of bone loss increases 10 fold after menopause.
Spongy bone lost first, then compact.
Increased bone fractures
Bone loss causes deformity, loss of height, pain, stiffness
Stooped posture
Loss of teeth

Bone Fractures
Open (compound) Bone break with open wound.
Bone may be sticking out of wound.
Closed (simple) Skin not perforated.
Incomplete
Doesnt extend across the bone.
Complete Does extend across bone
Greenstick:
Incomplete fracture that occurs on the convex side of the curve of a bone
Hairline: incomplete where two sections of bone do not separate.
Common in skull fractures
Comminuted fractures:
Complete with break into more than two pieces