Biotransformation is the chemical modification (or modifications) made by an

organism on a chemical compound. If this modification ends in mineral

compounds like CO2, NH3+ or H2O, the biotransformation is called mineralisation.
Biotransformation means chemical alteration of chemicals such as (but not
limited to) nutrients, amino acids, toxins, or drugs in the body. It is also needed
to render nonpolar compounds polar so that they are not reabsorbed in renal
tubules and are excreted.

Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid

during a chemical reaction or by diffusion in a solid. When the reaction occurs in a
liquid, the solid formed is called the precipitate, and the liquid remaining above
the solid is called the supernate. Powders derived from precipitation have also
historically been known as flowers.

Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the centrifugal force for the
separation of mixtures, used in industry and in laboratory settings. More-dense
components of the mixture migrate away from the axis of the centrifuge, while less-
dense components of the mixture migrate towards the axis. Chemists and biologists
may increase the effective gravitational force on a test tube so as to more rapidly
and completely cause the precipitate ("pellet") to gather on the bottom of the tube.
The remaining solution is properly called the "supernate" or "supernatant liquid".
The supernatant liquid is then either quickly decanted from the tube without
disturbing the precipitate, or withdrawn with a Pasteur pipette.

Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process of formation of solid crystals

precipitating from a solution, melt or more rarely deposited directly from a gas.
Crystallization is also a chemical solid-liquid separation technique, in which mass
transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs.
Protocols for centrifugation typically specify the amount of acceleration to be applied to the
sample, rather than specifying a rotational speed such as revolutions per minute. The acceleration
is often quoted in multiples of g, the standard acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface.
This distinction is important because two rotors with different diameters running at the same
rotational speed will subject samples to different accelerations.
Since the motion is circular the acceleration can be calculated as the product of the radius and the
square of the angular velocity. Traditionally named "Relative centrifugal force" (RCF), it is the
measurement of the acceleration applied to a sample within a centrifuge and it is measured in
units of gravity (times gravity or × "g"). It is given by

where

is earth's gravitational acceleration,

is the rotational radius,

is the rotating speed, measured in revolutions per unit of time.

When the rotational speed is given in revolutions per minute (RPM) and the rotational radius is
expressed in centimetres (cm) the above relationship becomes

is the rotational radius measured in centimetres (cm),

is rotating speed measured in revolutions per minute (RPM).