10.0000@Www Unix - Ecs.umass - Edu@generic AF3F57CB224F

2007 NORTHEAST GEOTECHNICAL GRADUATE
RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM
PROCEEDINGS
H. Q. Nguyen and A.G. Boscardin, Editors

Amherst, MA - 26 October 2007
Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

University of Massachusetts Amherst
Kellogg Room - ELAB II
Friday, 26 October 2007

Symposium Program
9:00
Registration and Check-In

at the Kellogg Room, Engineering Elab-II Building
9:30
Session IWelcome and Introductory Remarks

Student Presentations: Site Characterization and Instrumentation
Moderator: Hoang Q. Nguyen (BA)
10:45
Refreshment break
11:00
Session IIStudent Presentations: Case Studies

Moderator: Michael Tupper
12:30
Lunch Break
1:30
Session IIIStudent Presentations: Soil Behavior

Moderator: Adriane G. Boscardin
3:00
Session IVGuest Lecture Landfill Development over Difficult Site

Conditions- Crossroads Landfill.
Scott Luettich, P.E., Geosyntec Consultants.
Moderator: Don J. DeGroot
4:00
Session V Presentation of Abstract Awards and Symposium Closing

Moderator: Steven E. Poirier, Geosyntec Consultants
2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium
Table of Contents
Presentation Session I: Site Characterization and Instrumentation
I.1. Vertical Variability of Hydraulic Conductivity of an Unconfined Aquifer

Measured Using a Pneumatic Multilevel Slug Testing Packer System
A. Judge University of Massachusetts Amherst
I.2. A New Approach to Liquefaction Potential Mapping Using Satellite Remote

Sensing and Machine Learning
T. Oommen Tufts University
I.3. Dynamics of Wind Turbine Soil-Structure Interaction

M.J. Whelan Clarkson University
I.4. Evaluation of Miniature Full Flow Penetrometers and Push Cone for
Laboratory Measurement of Remolded Undrained Shear Strength of Soft Clays
A.G. Boscardin University of Massachusetts Amherst
I.5. Static and Dynamic Analysis of Annulus Plugging of Large Diameter Pipe Piles
M.P. Smith University of Massachusetts Lowell
10
I.6. Effects of Fines on Cone Penetration Resistance and Liquefaction Resistance of

Sands
L. Oka University of Vermont
12
I.7. The Hydrogeologic Characterization of a Public Drinking Water Aquifer Site in

Dedham, Massachusetts
D.F. LaMesa University of Massachusetts Amherst
14
Session Presentation II: Case Studies
16
II.1. Evaluation of an Automated Early Warning System for Unstable Soil Slopes
J. Lloyd University of Massachusetts Amherst
17
II.2. Development of a Resistance Factor for the Minnesota Department of

Transportation Pile Driving Formula
C. OHearn University of Massachusetts Lowell
19
II.3. Expanding the College Classroom: Developing Engineering Skills through

International Service-Learning Projects
M. McCormick Tufts University
20
ii
II.4. Uncertainty Evaluation of Displacement and Capacity of Shallow Foundations

on Rocks
R. Muganga University of Massachusetts Lowell
21
II.5. A Study on Stream Bank Erosion and Instability

J. L. Borg University of Vermont
24
II.6. Investigating Gas-generated Excess Pore Pressure as a Failure Mechanism for

the 1996 Finneidfjord Slide
E. Morgan Tufts University
26
II.7. Full-Scale Pilot Study to Reduce Lateral Stresses in Retaining Structures Using
GeoFoam
M.W. Ciuffetti University of Massachusetts Amherst
28
II.8. Kinematics of Tsunamigenic Submarine Failures

O. Taylor University of Rhode Island
30
Session Presentation III: Soil Behavior
32
III.1. Bender Element Test Setup for Large Soil Specimens

R.O. Deniz Northeastern University
33
III.2. High Quality Deep Water Geotechnical Sampling and Shear Wave Velocity
C.D. Jones University of Massachusetts Amherst
35
III.3. Lattice Discrete Particle Model (LDPM) for Quasi Brittle Materials
A. Mencarelli Renssellaer Polytechnic Institute
37
III.4. Characterizing Local Heterogeneities in Unsaturated Soils Using Acoustic

Techniques
L.A. George University of Vermont
39
III.5. Laboratory Investigation of Disturbance Effects at Preconsolidation Pressure

N. Kontopoulos Massachusetts Institute of Technology
41
III.6. Liquefaction Mitigation Using Entrapped Air

E.E. Bayat Northeastern University
43
III.7. Experimental Measurements of Geophysical and Mechanical Properties of

Weakly Cemented Fine Sand
R. Sharma University of Rhode Island
45
III.8. The Nano-Mechanical Morphology of Shale

C.P. Bobko Massachusetts Institute of Technology
47
iii
III.9. Mobilized Undrained Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils by Constant Volume

Direct Simple Shear and Ring Shear Testing
H.Q. Nguyen University of Massachusetts Amherst
iv
49
Session I: Site Characterization and Instrumentation
Vertical Variability of Hydraulic Conductivity of an Unconfined Aquifer

Measured Using a Pneumatic Multilevel Slug Testing Packer System
Aaron Judge
UMass Amherst, judge@ecs.umass.edu
Abstract
A pneumatic multilevel slug testing packer system (PMSTPS) was designed,
fabricated, and proof tested in this research to determine how the hydraulic conductivity of
the unconfined sandy aquifer in Plymouth MA varies with depth by performing slug tests
with this system from near the surface to the bottom of a fully screened well (25 m). The
multilevel slug tester was based on a previously developed slug testing system to use
compressed air to displace the water level during a slug test in highly permeable soils. The
results of the recovery were used with the model by Ostendorf et al. (2005) to determine K in
the unconfined sandy aquifer in Plymouth MA.
Figure 1: Pneumatic slug tester setup (Judge 2007)

Figure 1 presents the setup for conducting a multilevel slug test with the PMSTPS
which was lowered into a fully screened well. The packers above and below the screened
portion of the PMSTPS were inflated to the appropriate pressure (275-425 kPa) to isolate a
vertical interval of the well. The column of water in the riser tubes was then pressurized to
(9.7 kPa), lowering the water level by 1 m out of a vertical interval of the well screen of 0.5
m isolated by the packers. The air pressure in the manifold and the pressure of the water
2
Elevation (ft)
Elevation (m)
column at a known elevation were measured by pressure transducers. The air pressure was
then released allowing water to instantaneously re-enter the riser tubes through the screen
while the entire recovery of the water level was recorded at 1 kHz for 10 to 40 seconds.
Results
of
Permeability (m2)
Multilevel and Regular
0
1e-10
2e-10
3e-10
4e-10
5e-10
6e-10
Slug Tests in wells with
10
a 1.5 m screen were
within 15% of each
other. Multilevel slug
20
tests
were
then
5
performed at multiple
elevations
in
fully
screened wells (8090
feet long). Most results
0
0
at a specific depth were
within 20% of the
average value of K at
that depth.
-5
The ending result
-20
of this study is a detailed
vertical
profile
of
hydraulic conductivity of
the Plymouth Site based
-10
on all tests performed in
-40
Well CM as shown in
Figure 2. The four sharp
increases of hydraulic
-15
conductivity are believed
to be present due to
-60
geologic
sequences,
possibly due to retreats
-20
and advances of the
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
glacial front.
Hydraulic Conductivity (m/s)
Figure 2: Hydraulic Conductivity of the Soil
in the Basin at the Plymouth Site.
References:
Judge, A. (2007). Vertical Variability of Hydraulic Conductivity of an Unconfined Aquifer
Measured Using a Pneumatic Multilevel Slug Testing Packer System. Masters Thesis,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.
Ostendorf, D.W., DeGroot, D.J., Dunaj, P.J., Jakubowski, J. (2005). A Closed Form Slug
Test Theory for High Permeability Aquifers. Ground Water, Vol. 43, No.1, pp. 87-101.

A NEW APPROACH TO LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL MAPPING USING
SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING AND MACHINE LEARNING
Thomas Oommen
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 113 Anderson Hall,
Medford, MA 02155, USA. thomas.oommen@tufts.edu
Abstract
In order to help communities better plan and mitigate the effects of seismic hazards, it is
important to use innovations in science and technology to improve our techniques for mapping
the spatial extents of seismic hazards. Earthquake induced ground shaking in areas with saturated
sandy soils pose a major threat to communities as a result of the soil liquefaction. Liquefaction is
the process of changing a saturated cohesionless soil from a solid to liquid state due to increased
pore pressure. Many major earthquakes, especially those in coastal regions, result in liquefaction
related ground failures that can lead to infrastructure damage or slope stability issues. Currently
liquefaction potential is assessed on two scales: regionally based on surficial geologic unit or
locally based on geotechnical sample data. Regional liquefaction potential maps fail to capture
the variability of liquefaction potential on the local scale. On the other hand, collection of
geotechnical data on the local scale is costly and only done for specific engineering projects and
therefore not generally available for regional mapping.
Today, the advent of advanced remote sensing products from air and space borne sensors
allow us to explore the land surface parameters (geology, moisture content, temperature) at
different spatial scales (remote sensor footprint). In this study, we explore the use of satellite
based remote sensing data (Landsat 7 ETM+), together with digital elevation model, ground
water table, land cover classification, geology, water index and normalized difference vegetation
index (NDVI) to characterize the liquefaction potential of northern Monterey and southern Santa
Cruz counties in California. A supervised classification of the data into seven classes based on
the liquefaction potential map developed by Dupre and Tinsley 1980 was done using Support
Vector Machine (SVM). SVM is a machine learning/artificial intelligence algorithm that has the
ability to simulate the learning capabilities of a human brain and make appropriate predictions
that involve intuitive judgments and a high degree of nonlinearity. Figure 1 shows a comparison
of the developed liquefaction potential map using SVM to the map of Dupre and Tinsley 1980. It
is observed that the spatial variability in liquefaction potential is well captured by the developed
map. The accuracy of the developed liquefaction potential map was tested using independent
testing data that was not used for the model development. The results show that the developed
liquefaction potential map has an overall classification accuracy of 84%, indicating that the
combination of remote sensing data and other relevant spatial data together with machine
learning can be a promising approach for liquefaction potential mapping. Further, Machine
learning will be used to help understand the relative importance of the various parameters in
identifying liquefaction hazard and to optimize future data collection efforts.
Figure 1: Comparison of the liquefaction potential map developed using remote sensing and machine
learning to the map of Dupre and Tinsley (1980). It is observed that the spatial variability in liquefaction
potential is well captured by the developed map.
Research Contribution to Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Industry:

The liquefaction potential of a region is a major design consideration for a geotechnical
engineer. The lack of spatial variability captured by the regional liquefaction potential maps
based on surficial geologic units and the higher cost of collecting geotechnical data on the local
scale, has led the recent research to include geotechnical boring data along with the surficial
geology in characterizing the liquefaction potential. However, the challenge in this is deciding
how to combine surficial geology information, which is on a regional scale and geotechnical
boring information, which is on a site specific scale for the characterization.
Currently, the advancement in air and space borne remote sensing products allow us to
explore the land surface parameters (geology, moisture content, temperature, other soil
properties) at different spatial scales (0.6cm to 1km spatial resolution). This enables us to capture
the variability in surficial soil properties in a much finer scale compared to the earlier regional
surficial geology maps. This finer scale information can be further combined with the
liquefaction potential obtained from sample data by supervised classification using machine
learning/artificial intelligence algorithms. Thus this research provides a viable tool to
geotechnical engineers in mapping liquefaction potential of a region combining surficial soil
properties to sample data. This project also demonstrates the application of machine learning
algorithms in geotechnical engineering. Moreover, machine learning is well suited to many
problems in geotechnical engineering involving sparse data conditions and high degree of
nonlinearity.
Reference:
Dupre, W.R., and Tinsley III, J.C., 1980, Maps showing geology and liquefaction potential of
northern Monterey and southern Santa Cruz counties, California, U.S. Geological Survey, Map
MF-1199.
Dynamics of Wind Turbine Soil-Structure Interaction

Matthew J. Whelan
Doctoral Student
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Clarkson University
8 Clarkson Ave Box 5712
Potsdam, NY 13699
Email: whelanmj@clarkson.edu
Advisor: Kerop D. Janoyan
Abstract
Wind energy has been the fastest growing energy source in recent years and thus the number of
wind turbines has rapidly increased. However, wind turbines have been historically prone to
component failures; on average two or three incidents occur per year for a wind turbine with half
of the failures relating to mechanical components (Hahn, 1999). The predominant focus of
existing experimental research has been specific to the turbine mechanics, in particular to the
improvement of the rotor aerodynamics, blade efficiency, and optimum blade concentration.
Understanding the behavior of the entire system, including the response of the structure and
substructure, is needed to fully optimize the design of the wind turbine. Energy losses due to
reactionary dissipation of kinetic energy to the structure and sub-structure supporting the
generator should be investigated to address power generation efficiency as well as system
robustness. In this study, a large-scale distributed wireless sensor network is proposed for
measurement of the dynamic response of the entire wind turbine system, including the geostructural system. Extraction of modal properties of the coupled geo-structural system serve as a
means of examining the energy lost due to translation and rotation of the foundation as a result of
dynamic soil-structure interaction.
The effect of soil-foundation interaction on the dynamic response of the structure can be
calculated using accelerometers to measure vibrations at the foundation and across the structure
(Luco et al., 1988). Fixed-base structures exhibit inherently different motion response from
structures with soil-structure interaction. Vibrations induced along the height of the structure are
coupled with the foundation motion when soil-structure interaction is present. This coupling
results in a first natural frequency of motion that is less than either the fundamental frequency of
the structure on a fixed-base or of the foundation without the structure. Safak (1995) presented
the theoretical correlation between ratio of the coupled natural frequency to the fixed-base
structural natural frequency and the ratio of the fixed-base structural natural frequency to the
foundation natural frequency based on a two-degree of freedom spring and damper model. The
presence of soil-structure interaction effects on the structural response was shown to be detected
using the impulse response obtained from the acceleration at the foundation and at the apex of
the structure as the input and output, respectively. Furthermore, a method to estimate the natural
frequency of the structure for the case of a fixed-base was presented utilizing the same
measurement data. Stewart and Fenves (1998) presented a single-degree of freedom model of
the soil-structure interaction for analysis relevant to the primary modal frequency to develop a
method of estimating natural frequency and damping ratio for the fixed and flexible base
foundations. In summary, using a simplified system model and estimated natural frequency of
the structure under fixed-base conditions, it is possible to obtain an estimate of the modal
6
properties of the foundation, such as natural frequency and damping ratio, which are a function
of the soil-structure interaction.
A distributed wireless sensor network is proposed in this study to measure the dynamic response
of the coupled geo-structural system to examine the soil-foundation interaction and its
consequence to the overall structure. The wireless network enables sensors to be placed across
the sizable wind turbine structure, including the rotating blades, without the burdens associated
with cabling. Furthermore, free-field ground vibrations nearby the turbine foundation can also
be incorporated into the wireless system to enable measurement of ambient, environmental
vibration inputs for open-loop system identification. A high-rate wireless sensor network for
large-scale dynamic monitoring using low-cost micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)
accelerometers has been developed and validated through laboratory and field deployments
(Whelan et al., 2007a; Whelan et al., 2007b). The system has been demonstrated to
accommodate up to forty channels of measurement data from twenty distributed nodes at a
sampling rate of 128Hz with virtually no packet loss. A large array of multi-axis accelerometers
will be utilized to evaluate the modal properties of the geo-structural system and could be
installed permanently to enable long-term structural condition monitoring of the wind turbine as
well. Additionally, sensors for measurement of ambient parameters, including wind speed,
temperature, and humidity, will be interfaced with companion wireless nodes for correlation and
investigation of the effect of environmental loads. Deployment of this system on in-service wind
turbines will provide a method of investigating the behavior of the structural and geo-structural
response to aid in the design of next generation and retrofit of existing wind turbines with
reduced mechanical failures and maintenance costs.
References
Hahn, B. (editor) (1999) Reliability Assessment of Wind Turbine in Germany. Results of the
National 250 MW Wind Programme Institut fur Solare Energieversorgungstechnk.
Luco, J.E., Trifunac, M.D., and Wong, H.L. Isolation of soil-structure interaction effects by
full-scale forced vibration tests. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics 16(1) 1-21.
Safak, E. (1995) Detection and Identification of Soil-Structure Interaction in Buildings from
Vibration Recordings. Journal of Structural Engineering 121(5), 899-906.
Stewart, J.P. and Fenves, G.L. (1998) System Identification for Evaluating Soil-Structure
Interaction Effects in Buildings from Strong Motion Recordings. Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics 27(8), 869-885.
Whelan, M.J., Fuchs, M.P., Gangone, M.V., and Janoyan, K.D. (2007a) Development of a
Wireless Bridge Monitoring System for Condition Assessment using Hybrid Techniques. SPIE
International Symposium on Sensor Systems and Networks: Phenomena, Technology and
Applications for NDE and Health Monitoring Ed. Kara J. Peters, 6530H.
Whelan, M.J., Gangone, M.V., Janoyan, K.D., Cross, K., and Jha, R. (2007b) Reliable HighRate Bridge Monitoring using Dense Wireless Sensor Arrays Structural Health Monitoring
2007 Ed. Fu-Kuo Chang. 1207-1214.
Evaluation of Miniature Full Flow Penetrometers and Push Cone for Laboratory Measurement of Remolded Undrained Shear Strength of Soft Clays
Adriane G. Boscardin
University of Massachusetts Amherst, aboscard@engin.umass.edu
Abstract
Remolded undrained shear strength, sur, is an important parameter for design of offshore structures, pipelines, and slope stability and debris flow modeling (both on and offshore). In general,
many offshore soils are soft, sensitive, structured clays and lose strength upon disturbance. Yet
there are no internationally recognized standards for measurement of sur. This research focused
on developing a method to measure sur that has a sound theoretical basis, repeatable procedures,
and reliable results for design applications.
Three types of miniature full flow penetrometers (Ball, T-bar, and Shaft) and Push Cone (a cone
with a 60o apex), shown in Figure 1, were developed to investigate their use as tools to evaluate
the remolded shear strength, sur, of soft clays. The evaluation of sur using the miniature penetrometers were compared with sur values obtained using the Fall Cone, Torvane, and Miniature
Laboratory Vane on seven soft clays collected from both onshore and offshore test sites.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(d)
Figure 1. Smooth (left) and rough (right) Miniature (a) Ball, (b) T-bar, and (c) Shaft Penetrometers, and (d) Push Cone with smooth surface finish.
The remolded undrained shear strength was measured with the miniature penetrometers by cycling a penetrometer over a 50 mm interval at a rate of 1 mm/s until the resistance stabilized to a
minimum value, which typically occurred within 10 cycles. Figure 2 presents a typical cyclic
Miniature Ball curve. A resistance factor of N = 13 was used to evaluate sur from Miniature Ball
and T-bar test results based on theoretical and empirical recommendations presented in the literature (Randolph & Andresen, 2006; Yafrate & DeJong, 2006). N-values were also back calculated using sur values measured from the Fall Cone, Torvane, and Lab Vane. The range of NBall
was between 5.4 and 23.4 and NT-bar ranged between 4.5 and 20.6.
Since the location of the load cell was located outside the specimen, the Miniature Shaft Penetrometer was developed to assess the resistance due to the shaft during Miniature Ball and T-bar
testing and if the contribution of this resistance to the was significant enough (> 10%) to warrant
A. Boscardin
1 of 2
corrections on Miniature Ball and T-bar results. Shaft resistance accounted for 11 % to 26% of
the total measured Miniature Ball and T-bar resistances. These percentages reduced to 8-17%
when accounting for an open cavity of 2 cm depth at the top of the test specimen resulting from
probe insertion. Cyclic Miniature Shaft test results were also used to evaluate sur using pile design theory from both Shaft Penetration and extraction measurements, assuming = 1 and Nc =
9. The values of sur calculated from penetration and extraction strokes generally differed by 11%
and produced the lowest measure of sur for a given soil.
4.0
(a)
Onsy Smooth Ball
(b)
5.0
Force (N)
Depth (cm)
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
-6.0
Onsy Smooth Ball
0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
Force (N)
10
11
Cycle
Figure 2. Typical Smooth Ball Penetrometer (a) cyclic force-depth curve, and (b) force-cycle
data for z = 7.5 cm.
The Push Cone was manufactured with a 60o apex and a height of 50.8 mm and pushed into test
specimens at a constant rate of 1 mm/s to a depth of approximately 5 cm. Based on theoretical
conical footing analysis (Houlsby & Martin's, 2003), sur was calculated from the test geometry
and resistance curves.
The Miniature Ball, T-bar and Push Cone tests were relatively easy to perform and produced repeatable results. The Fall Cone (NGI), Torvane, and Push Cone measured the highest sur values
and the Miniature Shaft Penetrometer the lowest values. Lab Vane sur results are similar to
Miniature Ball and T-bar results using N = 13. Table 1 summarizes these sur results. Based on
results from this investigation, the Miniature Ball and T-bar is recommended for measuring the
sur of soft clays, but the Push Cone can potentially be used to measure sur of stiffer soils as well.
Table 1. Summary of sur results.
Remolded Undrained Shear Strength, sur (kPa)
Soil
FC
FC
NGI
SGI
LV
TV
HR
Miniature Penetrometers
HR-VR
Ball1
T-bar1
Shaft (pen)
Shaft (ext)
Shaft (pen)
Shaft (ext)
Push
Push
Cone
Cone (3 cm)
4.0
EPK Kaolin
3.5
2.2
4.7
2.0
1.4
2.0
2.2
0.51
0.47
1.1
4.7
BBC
2.4
1.5
3.6
1.9
1.8
1.5
1.7
0.48
0.43
1.1
3.5
3.0
2
BBC (0.8wL)
15.1
20.1
14.3
2.9
2.9
2.5
8.6
2.4
1.5
1.6
11.5
--
Burswood
9.6
6.0
10.0
3.3
2.4
3.6
3.3
1.0
1.1
0.9
7.0
6.7
Dalia
4.8
3.0
6.1
2.7
2.2
2.0
2.5
1.2
1.1
1.1
4.9
4.6
Gulf of Mexico
7.8
4.9
8.9
3.1
2.4
3.0
3.5
1.8
1.7
1.1
7.1
6.8
Onsy
5.4
3.4
5.3
2.3
1) N = 13
2) Test stopped before 3 cm depth
2.3
2.0
2.0
0.64
0.44
1.5
3.5
2.7
A. Boscardin
2 of 2
Static and Dynamic Analysis of Annulus Plugging of

Large Diameter Pipe Piles
Michael P. Smith
University of Massachusetts Lowell, Michael_Smith2@student.uml.edu
Advisor: Samuel Paikowsky, Research supported by GTR
Abstract
A supplemental test program in new england was carried out as part of a design of a
foundation system for a bridge replacement. The program was commissioned because the site
consist of problematic sensitive soil with high variability (fine sands and silts with densitys
ranging from loose to very-dense with bedrock deeper than 300 ft) and the foundation is to be
designed using the newly implemented AASHTO LRFD specifications for deep foundations. A
Phase I testing program conducted in 2006 with a HP14x117 ft pile, a 42 inch diameter x 69 ft
open pipe pile, a 72 inch diameter drilled shaft, and a 72 inch diameter x 114 ft open pipe pile
(denoted as pile 72-I). The test yielded undesirable results, requiring alternative options to be
explored. Of the piles tested in Phase I, the 72 inch pipe pile had the best performance; therefore
options for the pile were explored. Such options were to continue to drive the pile to refusal or
bedrock, increase the number of piles at the piers, or try to artificially plug the pile. Thus, a
Phase II test program was performed to examine alternative economical solutions.
Large diameter steel pipe piles have been typically used for offshore applications such as
oil rigs. Recent extreme events loading (mostly brought about by earthquakes) demands the need
of using such piles for bridges where smaller piles are not a feasible solution for the high lateral
loads demand. Large pipe piles are ideal for difficult sites such as poor soil, inclement weather,
and tidal waters; unlike drilled shafts which are sensitive to the later during drilling and
concreting. These piles have high strength to weight ratios; hence can carry large vertical and
lateral loads. Pipe piles however are expensive
due to material and installation cost; and therefore
it is worth while investigating innovative designs
that will make them more economical.
Plugging on open-ended pipe piles is a
phenomena the occurs when the soil entering the
inner section of pile builds up resistance and
prevents soil ahead of the pile from entering
making the pile behave as a closed-ended pile.
The affect of plugging significantly increases
static capacity as well as the energy required to
drive the pile. Plugging typically occurs in
smaller pipe piles and partially occurs in medium
sized pipe piles. Plugging of large diameter openended piles rarely happens due to the low
displacement nature of the pile and soil
deformations ahead of the pile. In this research an
original design is examined, in an attempt to
artificially plug the pile at a relatively shallow
depth below 150 ft.
10
For the Phase II test program two piles were tested in two stages. The first pile was an
experimental 72 inch diameter pipe pile fitted with a reinforced annulus 40 ft from the pile tip
(denoted as pile 72-II), as shown in Figure 1. The second pile is a 72 inch diameter open pipe
pile (denoted as pile 72-III). In the first stage piles 72-II and 72-III were driven to a depth of 133
ft using an IHC S-600 hydraulic hammer. Dynamic measurements were taken on both piles
during driving by: using a PDA, the S-600 hammer to record the energy per blow, and manually
recording blows per foot and plugging. In addition
electric strain gages were used on 72-II and pore
pressure was monitored directly under the annulus
to determine the effect of the pore pressure build
up on the driving. Once driven; one day, seven
day, and fourteen day restrikes were performed on
the piles. The piles were then statically load tested
via the quick load test to 6,000 kips or failure.
After completing the load test on both piles the test
program proceeded to stage two. The purpose of
stage two was to continue to drive the piles to
refusal (400 kip-ft at 12-14 blows/in for 6 inches
consecutively) or bedrock, and perform load tests
to determine gain in capacity. Dynamic
measurements were taken and restrikes performed,
as outline.
From the data obtained during the test
program a dynamic and static analyses were
performed comparing piles 72-II to 72-I and 72III. The dynamic analysis consist of analyzing the
energy per blow, energy per foot, blows per foot,
total energy, energy approach capacity, energy
measured by the PDA versus the hammer, electric
strain gage data, CAPWAP capacity, the effect of
pore pressure build up, and plugging. The static
analysis consisted of analyzing the load
displacement, load distribution, modeling the pile
as linearly elastic pile, and modeling the pile in
finite element software.
The above analysis showed the dynamic
behavior of the annulus pile during driving is
similar to a closed-end pile requiring more than
three times the total energy than the open pile to
drive to a specific depth, as shown in Figure 2.
The static capacity for 72-II is almost double
compared 72-III at 133 ft due to the increase of
end bearing capacity, depicted in Figure 3. The
success of the design is already proven, but fine
tuning for future applications may be required.
11
Effects of Fines on Cone Penetration Resistance and Liquefaction Resistance of Sands

Lalita Oka and Mandar Dewoolkar
School of Engineering, University of Vermont
For many years, liquefaction related phenomena were
thought to be limited to clean sands. Finer-grained soils were
considered incapable of generating high pore pressures, which
are commonly associated with soil liquefaction. Numerous
field performance data during earthquakes indicate that
liquefaction-related failures have also occurred at numerous
sites with sands containing fines and fine-grained soils. Fig (1)
shows CPT-based liquefaction curves (Stark and Olson, 1995)
for granular soils used in the recent form of the Simplified
Procedure for liquefaction potential evaluation (Youd, et al.,
2001). These curves reflect the effects of fines in such a way
that at constant penetration resistance, soils have increased
cyclic strength with increased fines (Ishihara, 1993). Whether
Fig (1) Liquefaction curves based on CPT
this increase is caused by an increase of liquefaction resistance
data (Stark and Olson 1995)
or decrease of penetration resistance is not clear (Youd, et al.,
2001). Some recent studies supported the present form of fines
correction shown in Fig (1), whereas some showed different trends. For example, Cetin, et al. (2004)
using probabilistic approaches and data from over 450 SPT-based case histories seem to indicate that only
incremental change may be required in the fines correction factors recommended by Youd, et al. (2001).
Carraro, et al. (2003) developed liquefaction curves using cyclic triaxial tests and stress-normalized cone
penetration using cavity expansion theory. Unlike Cetin, et al. (2004), they found an opposite trend
contradicting the curves currently used in practice. Sakai, et al. (2002) evaluated SPT data from a total of
846 borings from liquefied and non-liquefied sites during 11 earthquakes in Japan and observed an
evidence of limiting silt content to which liquefaction resistance stays constant and increases for silt
contents greater than this threshold value. Green, et al. (2006) reanalyzed 98 SPT case histories from 14
earthquakes to examine if any evidence of the limiting silt content can be observed in the field data. They
indeed showed significant reduction in the cyclic resistance of silty sands with fines content greater than
about 35%, indicating that current fines correction factors may overestimate the liquefaction resistance of
silty sands with fines greater than 35%. As evident, there is still no consensus on what effects fines
content have on liquefaction resistance in the context of the Simplified Procedure, which is used in
virtually every seismic evaluation worldwide.
The focus of the study is to investigate effects of nonplastic fines on the penetration resistance,
shear wave velocity, and liquefaction resistance of sands, and the manner in which they affect the
Simplified Method and fines correction factors currently used in practice. The specific objectives of the
study are to: (1) investigate effects of increasing nonplastic fines content on cone penetration resistance
and shear wave velocity in sands; (2) develop the liquefaction curves of cyclic resistance ratio versus
normalized cone penetration resistance and shear wave velocity for different fines contents; (3) based on
these curves, validate or suggest revisions for the fines correction factors currently used in practice; and
(4) attempt developing a set of fines correction factors that incorporate both cone penetration resistance
and Vs.
The research employs four devices: (i) a miniature cone penetrometer (piezocone), (ii) a
calibration chamber, (iii) an automated cyclic triaxial apparatus, and (iv) two sets of bender elements to
measure initial Vs in both calibration chamber and cyclic triaxial specimens. The cone penetration
resistance and liquefaction resistance will be measured on sets of two separate, but nearly identical soil
samples, one in the calibration chamber and the other in cyclic triaxial apparatus. The initial Vs
12
measurements have two purposes: (1) to ensure that the calibration chamber and cyclic triaxial specimens
have very similar fabric thus ensuring that the cone penetration resistance, Vs, and liquefaction resistance
were determined on essentially identical specimens, and (2) to develop Vs based liquefaction curves.
Fig (2) shows the photograph of the calibration chamber and piezocone setup. The soil specimens
in the flexible wall calibration chamber are 50 cm in diameter and about 50 cm high. The diameter of
miniature piezocone is 1.1 cm. Fig (3) shows a photograph of cyclic triaxial testing setup. We have
refurbished an older CKC cyclic triaxial apparatus with a new data acquisition and control system. Fig (4)
shows the bender elements incorporated in the triaxial device.
Fig(2)Calibration chamber
Fig(3)Cyclic Triaxial test setup
Fig(4) Bender elements
As a pilot experimental study we have conducted cone penetration test on clean sand sample in fixed
walled setup. We have also been successful in incorporating the bender elements in cyclic triaxial tests.
Shear wave velocity data using bender elements is being obtained with the help of AutoLab acoustic data
acquisition system modified for the use of bender elements. The charts in Fig (5) shows typical onset of
liquefaction in the cyclic triaxial test and Fig (6) shows the shear wave velocity (Vs) arrival signal
processing for different frequencies.
Fig (5) Cyclic triaxial test
Fig (6) Bender element: shear wave velocity arrival
It is expected that the analysis of the results obtained will either support the existing liquefaction
correlations or will help enhance the understanding of effects of fines on liquefaction resistance and CPT
resistance leading to modifications in liquefaction curves in the simplified procedure that are used
worldwide.
13
The hydrogeologic characterization of a public drinking water aquifer

site in Dedham, Massachusetts
Daniel F. LaMesa
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA
Abstract
This research project is part of a large multidisciplinary research project that is
aimed at determining if the Dedham Westwood Drinking Water Aquifer is being
contaminated by road deicing salt from the adjacent Route 128. A hydrogeologic
characterization of the site is required in order to determine the current and future
transport of road salt runoff in the vicinity of the aquifer.
The Dedham Westwood Drinking Water Aquifer resides under the former lake
bed of Glacial Lake Neponset. The aquifer has two distinct layers that overlay it.
Directly above the aquifer are lake bottom sediments and above that are delta deposits.
The aquifer itself is one of 15 stratified-drift aquifers in the 117 square mile Neponset
River Basin. The aquifer is thought to sit on a thin layer of glacial till and granite
bedrock. The site has two major hydraulic forces that oppose one another. On the
eastern part of the site is the Neponset River, which has a mean average discharge of 400
gallons per second. Opposing the Neponset River is a large public drinking water supply
well. The well is screened in the aquifer from 80 to 97 feet below the ground surface and
pumps out approximately 12.5 gallons per second. The public supply well runs almost
continually during the summer months and less during the fall, winter, and spring
months. It is speculated that either the river or the public supply well is controlling the
direction of the ground water flow at the site.
An extensive subsurface investigation is being conducted at the site to determine
the soil profile, soil properties (such as hydraulic conductivity), water levels and spatial
hydraulic gradients. Five locations at the site were chosen to perform continuous split
spoon sampling to a depth of 15 feet into the aquifer. The depth to the top of the aquifer
ranged from 78 to142 feet. Fixed Piston Osterberg samples were collected at one of the
locations for future laboratory hydraulic conductivity testing. At each location a cluster
of 5 to 11 monitoring wells was installed. The wells varied in depth from 5 feet to 153
feet.
Grain size and water content analyses are currently being conducted on the SPT
samples. Atterberg Limits and specific gravity tests are being performed on select
samples to fully classify the different soil units at the site. The fixed piston samples will
be used in constant head flexible wall tests with vertically and horizontally oriented
specimens to determine the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities. The piston
samples may also be used for various strength tests in the future. In situ slug testing is
presently being done in all of the wells at the site to get an in situ value for the horizontal
hydraulic conductivity. Empirical grain size equations for determining the hydraulic
conductivity will also be used. Monthly ground water levels are being taken at each well
along with precipitation data using a rain gage.
Using the collective data from the monthly ground water levels and the rain gage
data; ground water plots at various depths in the formation will be constructed. The
14
ground water plots will used in conjunction with the hydraulic conductivity data to
determine what direction the ground water is flowing and how fast it is flowing.
Figure 1. Site Map
B Cluster
Figure 3. Split Spoon Sample

Figure 2. Split Spoon Sampling
Figure 4. Typical Slug Test Equipment
Slug
15
Computer and Transducer
Well
Session II: Case Studies
16
Evaluation of an Automated Early Warning System for Unstable Soil

Slopes
Jeffrey Lloyd
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA
jlloyd@engin.umass.edu
Abstract
The movement of unstable slopes can create unsafe and costly damage to property and
infrastructure. Traditional monitoring of slope movement to provide early warning of
failure using inclinometers and site visits is personnel and time intensive and may still not
give sufficient warning. Use of automated monitoring via instrumentation data
acquisition, cellular technology and server based data reporting can provide an
economical solution.
Instrumentation was installed within an unstable slope at a research site in Waterbury
Center, VT. A CR10X datalogger with a cell phone monitors data from in-place
inclinometers, piezometers, a barometer, and a rain gauge (Figure 1). Continuous
monitoring of slope movement and ground water elevation has been ongoing since
January 2006. A dedicated server at UMass Amherst running Multilogger DB from
Canary Systems automatically collects the stored data every two days, adding it to a
database and publishes the calculated results to a website (Figure 2), which can be
viewed by any registered user from any internet connected PC.
Figure 1. CR10X installation
17
Figure 2. Multilogger web interface
Direct shear and constant rate of strain tests were conducted on tube samples collected
during the inclinometer casing installation. Using the results of the lab testing and the
boring logs, a model of the slope was created using slope stability software, Slide 5.0
from Rocscience (Figure 3). Current research includes refining the model to accurately
reflect actual slope behavior since 2006 and determining a critical water table elevation at
which the factor of safety of the slope drops below an acceptable value.
Figure 3. Waterbury Slide model
A secondary function of Multilogger DB is the ability to create alarms when specific data
elements reach predefined levels. Future research will focus on determining set points
for the ground water monitoring data to trigger an alarm if the water elevation reaches the
critical level as determined by the slope stability model. Such alarms can send email or
page key personal alerting them to potential slope movement.
18
Development of a Resistance Factor for the Minnesota Department of Transportation Pile Driving Formula
Colin OHearn
University of Massachusetts Lowell
Colin_OHearn@student.uml.edu
Abstract
A dynamic equation is an equation used to determine the capacity of a pile based on observing
the pile driving in the field. The equation traditionally uses such parameters as the pile penetration under a slow (set), the height of the ram fall, weight of the ram, weight of pile, and efficiency of the hammer. There have been many different formulations of these equations over the
years. Many of these formulas work well for one type of pile, soil strata, or hammer but fall
short when they come to different conditions other than those they were developed for. Some
other equations are plainly based on wrong mechanics. In order to develop a resistance factor for
the Minnesota DOT, different types of soil strata, pile types, and hammers used in the State of
Minnesota will be reviewed. In order to review all these different parameters a database has
been established. This database contains only H-Piles and Pipe Piles due to the fact that the
MnDOT does not use precast prestressed concrete piles. A specific pile driving equation will be
examined, its uncertainty determined, and the resistance factors associated with its use will be
determined.
19
Expanding the College Classroom: Developing Engineering Skills

through International Service-Learning Projects
Suggested authors: Mary McCormick, Chris Swan, Doug Matson, David M. Gute,
John Durant
Abstract
Project-based service-learning is a valuable pedagogical tool which confers educational
benefits that extend far beyond the charter of traditional classrooms. This unique form of
experiential education is based on a synergistic model in which community service is
compatible and integrated with the academic learning objectives. In the context of providing engineering services to poor communities in developing countries, students are
able to participate in all aspects of the engineering design process including problem
formulation, consideration of alternative technologies, and design, construction, and
evaluation of selected technologies. The reciprocal relationship that forms between the
students and community nurtures personal growth and a deeper sense of social responsibility among students while empowering communities as they become more selfsufficient. As a prominent advocate of this pedagogy, Tufts University has provided opportunities for students to work on water infrastructure projects in Ecuador, El Salvador,
Ghana, and Tibet over the past four years. Although the challenges students face are
unique to each project, overcoming them allows students to develop problem solving
skills that they would not otherwise get in their college education.
A prospective evaluation, comprised of a series of surveys, questionnaires, and personal
reflections, is currently being performed. The goal of this research is to quantify the benefits to participants of an international service-learning experience. This paper focuses on
the rigorous examination of two distinct types of skills: social and critical thinking. The
social skills include leadership and teamwork qualities, competency in communication,
and students abilities to perceive the societal, economic, and environmental impacts of a
solution. Critical thinking skills, which describe the ability of a student to solve real
world problems, will be assessed by examining when and how the student balances creative, practical and analytical approaches to problem solving. The methodology employed
in evaluating social and critical thinking skills will be reality based open-ended questions.
As a comparison population, students who have not participated in international servicelearning projects will be given the same open-ended questions and the results will be
compared. This study aims to demonstrate that students who become engaged in servicelearning projects enrich their education by developing new skills and strengthening others, receiving an education that cannot be gained in a classroom. The results are expected
to bolster the argument for implementation of service-learning projects into college-level
engineering curricula.
20
Uncertainty Evaluation of Displacement and Capacity of Shallow Foundations

on Rocks
Robert Muganga
University of Massachusetts, Lowell
Advisor: Prof. Samuel Paikowsky
Research supported by NCHRP Project 24-31 through GTR
Abstract
NCHRP Project 24-31 LRFD Design Specifications for Shallow Foundations is aimed at
improving LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) over the traditional Working Stress
Design (WSD). Compared to WSD, LRFD has the ability to provide a more consistent level of
reliability between different designs and the possibility of accounting for load and resistance
uncertainties separately. In the development of LRFD, a framework for the objective, logical
assessment of resistance factors is needed. Additionally, in order for LRFD to fulfill its promise
for designs with more consistent reliability, the methods used to execute a design must be
consistent with the methods assumed in the development of the LRFD factors. The research
addresses the need of resistance factors for the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and the Serviceability
Limit State (SLS) of shallow foundations on rock. Figure 1 presents a flow chart outlining the
research process leading to the establishment of resistance factors to be used in the AASHTO
specifications. The research emphasizes the loading conditions applicable for bridge foundations.
The topic of shallow foundations on rock is quite complex therefore significant effort has been
put into addressing different Bearing Capacity (BC) models, establishing uncertainty of
parameters extracted for material and load testing and correlations between rock index properties
and strength parameters.
A database of 122 case histories that includes cases by Zhang and Einstein (1998) and Prakoso
and Kulhawy (2002) was assembled. The data were analyzed with the goals being: (a)
establishing uncertainty of methods and parameters, (b) development of resistance factors (c)
development of final resistance factors and the conditions for their implementation. Figure 2
presents some preliminary results of the relationship between the Uniaxial Compressive Strength
(qu) and the Interpreted Foundation Capacity (qL2) obtained from load-displacement curves using
Hirany and Kulhawy (1988) method.
21
Laboratory Indentation
Tests
3.8 mm < B < 30.5 mm
Database
Utilization of Rock Test

Data to Establish the
Uncertainty of Strength
and Modulus
Parameters of Intact
Rock & Rock Mass,
Their Inter-relations,
and Correlations to
Index Properties
Uncertainty in BC (Nc) and

Shape Factors
Load Ranges
&
Distributions
Resistance
Factors for
BC and
Settlement
Inherent & Variability

of Intact Rock & Rock
Mass
used in
NCHRP 24-17
& other Codes
Worldwide
Establish the
Range of
Reliability
Index
Implicit in
Existing
Design Using
RBD format
Due to Limitation of
Data Use the Typical
Values and Conduct
MC Simulations
Assessing the BC and
Displacement
Parameters of Shallow
Foundations on Rock
Failure Modes of BC on Rock Sowers

(1979)
Open
Discontinuities
Sj < B
(Uniaxial
Compression)
Open
Discontinuities
Sj < B
(Shear Zone)
Identify Models for BC,

Settlement and Associated
Factors for each of the
Failure modes, e.g.:
Bell (1915)
Bishnoi (1968)
Kulhawy et al.
(1983)
Goodman (1980)
Open
Discontinuities
Sj < B
(Uniaxial
Compression)
AASHTO (2006)
Specification 10.6.3.2.1
BC on rock (not
specific), Sect. 10.6.2.1
Presumptive Bearing
Values, and Sect.
10.6.2.4.4 Settlement;
FHWA GEC 6 section
5.3.6 Kimmerling
(2002). FHWA
Reference Manual
Munfakh et al. (2001)
FE (PLAXIS)
Investigation of BC and
Shape Factors as a
Function of Discontinuity
Spacing & Orientation
Examine
Typical
Structures/
Case
Histories
Final Resistance
Factors and
Conditions for
Implementation
SLS
Methodology
from NCHRP
12-66
Established BC &
Settlement Models
Notes:
B Foundation Width
Sj Discontinuity Spacing
Target Reliability
RBD Reliability Based
Design
SLS Serviceability Limit
State
ULS Ultimate Limit State
AASHTO Modified Specification
Figure 1 Flow Chart Outlining the Research Plan to Develop LRFD Parameters for the
ULS and SLS Design of Shallow Foundations on Rock (GTR proposal NCHRP 24-31,
2006)
22
Interpreted Foundation Capacity qL2 (ksf)
100000
33 Footings (D=0) cases

28 Footings (D>0) cases
61 Rock Socket cases
Zhang and Einstein (1998)
qL2 = 21.4(qu)0.5 (Rock Sockets)
n = 39 r2 = 0.81
10000
RMR 80
All data
qL2 = 5.4(qu)0.853
n = 122
AASHTO
Rock Mass Classes
RMR 100
II
Good
Rock
III
Fair
Rock
IV
Poor
Rock
Very
Poor
Rock
r2 = 0.587
RMR 60
1000
RMR 40
RMR 20
100
Very
Good
Rock
Footings (D=0)
10
Footings (D>0)
Rock Sockets
1
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Uniaxial Compressive Strength qu (ksf)
Figure 2 Interpreted Foundation Capacity (qL2) versus Uniaxial Compressive Strength (qu)
for 122 case histories; Comparison of Zhang and Einstein (1998) with the Hoek-Brown
Analytical Relation
References
Carter, J. P., and F. H. Kulhawy (1988). "Analysis and Design of Foundations Socketed into
Rock. " Report No. EL-5918, Empire State Electric Engineering Research Corporation
and Electric Power Research Institute, New York, NY, p. 158.
Einstein, H. and Zhang, L. (1998). "End Bearing Capacity of Drilled Shafts in Rock." Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 124(7), July, pp. 574-584.
Geosciences Testing and Research, Inc. "NCHRP 24-31 LRFD Design Specifications for
Shallow Foundations." TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD, COOPERATIVE
RESEARCH PROGRAMS, October 18th, 2006.
Goodman, R.E. "Introduction to Rock Mechanics." Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1989.
Hirany, A. and Kulhawy, F.H., "Conduct and Interpretation of Load Tests on Drilled Shaft
Foundation: Detailed Guidelines", Report EL-5915 (1), Electric Power Research
Institute, Palo Alto, Jul. 1988, 374 p.
Prakoso, W.A. (2002). "Reliability-Based Design of Foundations on Rock Masses for
Transmission Line and Similar Structures." PhD. Dissertation, Cornell University.
23
A STUDY ON STREAM BANK EROSIN AND INSTABILITY

By
Jaron L. Borg, Paul Bierman, & Mandar Dewoolkar
University of Vermont
Burlington, VT
Today as we learn more about the nature of our streams and rivers and their vital role to
the ecosystem and our surface water quality, we have become less likely to straiten or
mechanically stabilize our often failing stream banks. The eroding banks are a non-point source
for phosphorous and nitrogen deposition in the
waterway.
This is especially true in Vermont
where the large amount of agriculture and use of
fertilizer has increased these levels in the soil
significantly. The agriculture use has also degraded
the stability of the stream banks allow them to
erode at an increased rate. This decrease in
stability is illustrated in figures 1 and 2. With the
difficulty of obtain a permit to alter streams
directly, more property owners and the State are in
a need to be able predict how the streams will
Figure 1. Example of a riverbank failure
change in the future.
The objective of this research is to gain a fundamental understanding of the soil mechanics
governing stream bank erosion in Vermonts rivers. Our quantitative evaluation is based on
comprehensive geotechnical analysis of bank stability in order to understand and thus be able to
predict what makes some banks stable and other banks fail over time, changing river, and
groundwater conditions. An attempt will be made to
incorporate the soils strengths and their erosion
potential, bank geometries, and ground and stream
water levels into slope stability models. The semiquantitative evaluation will be similar; however, soil
strength parameters will be empirically correlated to
index properties (such as grain size), which are
cheaper and less time consuming to determine than
soil cohesion and friction angle.
So far we have been working on the banks of
Lewis Creek and Winooski River, in northern
Vermont. We have selected about 8 sites along the
banks of these streams, approximately half that are on
the verge of failure and the rest that are marginally
stable. All site investigations are performed using
hand operated drilling and sampling equipment
because of restrictive access to the sites. In-situ shear
strengths have been measured using a borehole shear
Figure 2. Selected site locations along
tester (BST). At the same locations, relatively
Winooski
River and analysis of aerial photos
undisturbed Shelby tube samples were obtained.
24
Shear strength of these soil samples were determined through direct shear testing. From the
testing conducted thus far there is a trend indicating that shear strengths based on direct shear
tests are generally slightly larger but close to those measured using BST. The soil suction was
also measured however the coarse soils found along the reaches studied have provided values too
small to be read by our tensiometers.
Thus far, at one site along Winooski River with the lowest perceived stability,
piezometers and tilt switches equipped with data logging have been installed. Piezometers were
placed to monitor changes in the groundwater levels in the bank; an example readout can be seen
in figure 3. A pressure transducer was also placed in the channel to monitor the stream level. The
goal is to capture the bank failure event using the readout from the tilt switches and then
observing the water levels in the stream
and the bank at the same instant.
Depth to Water Table Below Top of Casing
During the summer of 2007

investigations were made into the shear
strength contributions from the grass root
systems present at the investigated
reaches. It is hoped that an empirical
equation may be derived to relate the root
density to the increase of shear strength in
the soil. The ability to measure the
erosion coefficients of the soils will be
made possible by the construction of a Jet
Erosion Test apparatus. The read out
from this device allows for reasonable
estimation of both the critical shear stress
for the soil; the shear stress at which the
Figure 3. ground water in bank during a 16hr storm event
soil particles begin to disassociate, as
well as the erosion coefficient that allows the speed of the incision to be determined.
-6
Depth to Water Table (ft)
-6.5
-7
well_1
Well_2
Well_3
Note: Numbers
increasing with
increasing
distance from
river edge
-7.5
-8
-8.5
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
Time (hrs)
This work will have an impact on our understanding of bank stability and sediment input
to streams in Vermont and elsewhere. Once we understand these processes quantitatively at
specific sites, the future work will include looking for ways for making more broad-ranging
predictions of stream and riverbank behavior hopefully under a variety of different conditions.
In particular, we hope to be able to use our models to predict bank stability response to channel
evolution over time and space as well as draw conclusions about erosion hazards.
25
Investigating Gas-generated Excess Pore Pressure as a Failure

Mechanism for the 1996 Finneidfjord Slide
Eugene Morgan
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 200 College Ave.,
Medford, MA, 02155, USA; eugene.morgan@tufts.edu
Abstract
On the 20th of June, 1996 approximately 1 million m3 of sediment failed near the Finneidfjord
village on the western coast of Norway. This slide involved quick clays, and occurred in stages,
starting under water and retrogressing on to land. Initial surveying of the slide site deduced the
sequence and timing of failure from all available evidence, including eye-witness accounts. Silty
clay comprised the bulk of the slide material, and seismic reflection surveying, sediment coring,
and piezometer logging indicate that initial failure of a 2-meter-thick slab occurred on a thin,
weak, coarser-grained layer. It has also been suggested that trapped gas in this weak layer may
have generated excess pore pressures, leading to failure.
The natural production of gas within submarine

sediments can reduce the shear strength of sediments
enough to cause failure. The volumetric expansion of
gas bubbles trapped in the pore space of sediment will
reduce the effective stress of the soil matrix by pushing
against the soil particles and by increasing pore water
pressure. Gas pressure must exceed static pore water
pressure in order for bubble expansion to occur, and so
this expansion can be quantified by evaluating excess
pore pressure.
26
This study determines the gas pressure

necessary to initiate the 1996 Finneidfjord
slide by performing a transient slope stability
analysis with variable excess pore pressure.
The slope and sub-seafloor conditions prior to
failure are modeled in the slope stability
analysis program SLOPE/W. The
Morgenstern and Price method calculated
factors of safety for a fully-defined failure
mass whose geometry was determined from
seismic profiling. Applying a piezometric
surface exclusively to the thin coarse-grained
layer simulates excess pore pressures in that
layer, and incrementally increasing the
elevation of this piezometric surface generates
the pressures for the transient analysis. The
excess pressure on this layer is adjusted until a
factor of safety of unity is achieved. I conclude that an excess gas pressure of 8.80 kPa is
required to initiate failure. Theoretical equations from previous studies calculate the
corresponding gas fraction of pore volume at failure to be 0.48. This fraction is homogenous
along the coarse-grained layer that lies in the failure plane; however the absolute gas pressure
varies directly with water depth. This indicates that shallower slopes are much more susceptible
to failure via excess gas pressure, given a constant rate of gas production within a layer at all
depths.
27
Full-Scale Pilot Study to Reduce Lateral Stresses in Retaining Structures Using GeoFoam
Matt Ciuffetti
Mciuffet@student.umass.edu
University of Massachusetts Amherst
Amherst, MA 01002
The use of alternative lightweight materials in the construction of earth retention

structures has several benefits, resulting in an increasing interest to identify potential new
materials and expansion of the range of applications for existing materials. One material that is
gaining popularity in construction applications is Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) in block form,
now referred to as GeoFoam. Originally used in highway construction for insulation and frost
damage mitigation, GeoFoam now has a wide range of applications including lightweight fill in
bridge approach embankments and as a backfill in conventional earth retention structures. The
very low unit weight (1-2 lb/ft3) and constitutive stress-strain relationship of GeoFoam reduces
settlement and pressures normally attributed to heavier fill materials. The ease of installation
also greatly reduces construction time.
A full-scale pilot study was conducted on the use of EPS GeoFoam for the construction
of the approach embankments for a bridge abutment in Leicester, Vermont. This was a joint
venture by the University of Massachusetts Amherst and the Vermont Agency of Transportation.
The design of the Leicester Junction bridge to be constructed over deep compressible deposits
utilized EPS GeoFoam to reduce lateral earth pressures on the abutment wall face and minimize
differential settlements between the approach and abutment.
Figure 1. Placement of EPS Geofoam Blocks
28
In-situ tests prior to construction and laboratory tests were performed on tube samples in
order characterize the soft clay deposits found at the site. Laboratory testing included soil
classification, consolidation, and undrained shear strength using a lab vane apparatus.
Instrumentation was installed during the construction of the abutments which included
earth pressure cells embedded vertically at the abutment/GeoFoam interface and horizontally
installed pressure cells at various depths within the GeoFoam fill. Vertical and lateral pressures
were monitored during the construction period and after completion of the bridge. Temperatures
were also recorded in order to determine the thermal effects on fill performance.
Figure 2. Earth Pressure Cell (2A1 2A6) Locations
29
Kinematics of Tsunamigenic Submarine Failures

Oliver-Denzil S. Taylor
University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, otaylor@mail.uri.edu
Abstract
The kinematics of tsunamigenic landslides is, in particular, poorly understood.
Unlike subaerial landslides, submarine landslides tend to propagate for very large
distances, sometimes as debris flows, suggesting that there must be a significant
reduction in the shear strength of the sediment. However current modeling, especially for
the occurrence of tsunamigenic submarine slides, does not accurately reflect realistic soil
behavior. Most submarine failures occur at gentle slopes (less than 5-degrees), once
failure occurs soil mechanics are often simplified or ignored, by assuming that the soils
shear strength instantly attains either remolded or residual state upon failure, when
modeling kinematics and runout distances of these events. This research combines
theoretical, laboratory, and numerical investigation to examine and model the role of soil
behavior on the kinematics and probability of submarine mass failures and the impact the
behavior has on tsunami generation.
According to current landslide tsunami generation models, the initial acceleration
time history of a submarine mass failure is an important factor influencing the source
characteristics of tsunami waves. Translational models developed thus far typically
simulate rigid or deforming bodies sliding down an inclined plane, assuming either
negligible basal resistance or an idealized basal resistance, with or without the inclusion
of hydrodynamic forces. However no known models incorporate realistic basal
resistance, hydrodynamic forces, and hydroplaning together to quantify their effects on
the initial kinematics of submarine failures. In all current models it is assumed that the
maximum initial acceleration occurs nearly instantaneously after the moment of failure.
A new rigid body model is proposed that incorporates hydrodynamic drag, with
realistic basal resistance and hydroplaning effects (Bradshaw et al. 2007; Taylor et al.
2008). Utilizing the post failure shear strength of the sediment, this new model
investigates the initial kinematics and time histories of the slide event in relation to
tsunami generation over varying slope angles and idealized hydroplaning conditions.
Current results (Fig. 1) indicate an increased importance for the inclusion of more
realistic soil behavior on the initial kinematics of tsunamigenic failures, as seen in the
refined acceleration and velocity time histories.
Validation and refinement the proposed model will be accomplished via a
laboratory-testing program. The experimental program will consist of a series of model
slope failure tests in a wave tank at 1-g conditions. These tests are designed to capture
the most significant aspects of tsunamigenic landslides, namely progressive failure of
intact blocks of cohesive soil along a weak layer. The tests will be performed at 1-g
conditions in existing wave tanks at the University of Rhode Island. The effective stress
conditions will be very low in these tests and the cohesion of the clays will dominate both
30
the shear strength and the mode of failure. However, it is important to perform tests at
this scale (as opposed to centrifuge testing), in order to effectively model the physics of
the problem and gather detailed measurements of the slide and wave kinematics.
The expected benefits of this experimental program will be the first measurements
of the kinematics of a submarine landslide in cohesive soils complete with the resulting
waves that are generated. This data coupled with the will both help further our physical
understanding of this complex phenomenon and be invaluable to the tsunami modeling
community for validating models and assessing tsunami hazards for coastal communities.
Figure 1: Influence of hydroplaning effects for the proposed basal resistance model, at various
degrees of hydroplaning Hy, on slide velocity and acceleration time histories as a function of
slope (2 and 5 deg). The solid line is the zero basal resistance solution neglecting soil behavior
(from Taylor et al. 2008).
References
Bradshaw, A.S., Baxter, C.D.P., Taylor, O-D.S. and Grilli, S.T. (2007). Role of Soil
Behavior on the Initial Kinematics of Tsunamigenic Slides. Proc. 3rd Intl. Symp. on
Submarine Mass Movements and their Consequences (Santorini, Greece, October 2007)
(in press).
Taylor,O-D.S., Bradshaw, A.S., Baxter, C.D.P., Grilli, S.T., (2008) The effects of basal
resistance and hydroplaning on the initial kinematics of seismically induced tsunamigenic
landslides. ASCE 2008 GeoCongress Symposium (accepted).
31
Session III: Soil Behavior
32
Bender Element Test Setup for Large Soil Specimens

Remzi O. Deniz1, Mishac K. Yegian2, Ece Eseller-Bayat3, Akram Alshawabkeh2
1
Masters Student, 2 Professor of Civil Engineering, 3 Ph.D. Candidate, Northeastern University, Boston, MA
e-mail: odeniz@coe.neu.edu
One of the most important soil parameters used in geotechnical earthquake

engineering analysis is shear wave velocity, Vs. Bender elements have been used
successfully in triaxial test setups to measure Vs. The use of bender elements in large soil
specimens, typically tested in shaking table tests, poses significant challenges. The wave
form generated by a bender element source is three dimensional and attenuates quickly as
the distance between the source and receiver bender elements get larger. The focus of
this research is to develop a bender element test setup which enables accurate
measurement of shear wave velocity in soil specimens much larger in size than the
typical specimens tested in triaxial cells.
Bender elements are very sensitive tiny plates made of piezoelectric ceramics. They
are designed to bend when electric energy is applied and to create a voltage difference
when mechanically stressed. Figure 1 shows typical bender elements that are used in this
research. Figure 2 shows a Plexiglas box, filled with sand, which is used for
measurement of shear waves as a function of distance between source and receiver
bender elements. Figure 3 shows the brass fitting that was designed and manufactured
for the installation of benders, through holes on the sides of the Plexiglas box, in a soil
specimen.
Oscilloscope
Function Generator
Power Amplifier
Oscilloscope Data
Acquisition
Sand Specimen in
Plexiglas Box
Fig.1 Unmounted bender elements.
Fig.3 Bender element mounted

in a brass fitting.
Fig.2 Bender element test setup for

large soil specimens.
33
Because of complex wave forms, wave travel paths, and boundary effects, it was
determined that high voltage was needed to excite the source bender in order to measure
the much smaller amplitudes of vibration arriving at the receiver bender. To achieve this
goal, a bender element test setup was developed that included a digital signal generator,
power amplifier that can transmit up to 200 DC volts, and a multi-channel digital
oscilloscope that can record accurately the zero time of the generated signal and the wave
arrival times of multiple receiver benders. The oscilloscope specific software provides
digital access to the data for analysis and presentation. Figure 2 shows the different
components of the developed bender element test setup.
Typical test results are shown in Figures 4 and 5. Figure 4 shows the test results
where the distance between the source bender and the receiver bender was 17.4 cm. The
figure shows the transmitted signal which has a frequency of 400 Hz and amplitude of
140 V. The received signal has amplitude of 7 mV. Based on the travel time and the
distance between the source and receiver benders, the shear wave velocity of the sand
was calculated to be Vs = 17.4 cm/3.8 ms = 45.8 meter/sec. Figure 5 shows the test
results on another sand specimen where the distance between the source bender and the
receiver bender was 43 cm. The amplitudes of the source and receiver benders are 130 V
and 2.5 mV, respectively. Based on a signal arrival time of 10.4 ms, the shear wave
velocity of the specimen, which was of the same sand and relative density as that of the
test shown in Figure 4, was Vs = 43 cm/10.4 ms = 41.4 meter/s
Transmitted Signal
Received Signal
Fig.4 Transmitted and received signals for

wave travel distance of 17.4 cm.
Transmitted Signal
Received Signal
Fig.5 Transmitted and received signals for

wave travel distance of 43 cm.
The bender element test setup developed in this research enables performance of tests
on large soil specimens, typically used in shaking table tests. This setup is now being
used to develop a relationship between required voltage for source benders as a function
of distance between source and receiver benders, soil density, overburden stress, and
frequency of excitation.
34
High Quality Deep Water Geotechnical Sampling and Shear Wave Velocity
Cody D. Jones
University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, cojones@ecs.umass.edu
Abstract
Accurate determination of offshore engineering soil parameters is of growing importance in
many modern engineering projects and of particular interest to the oil and gas industry.
Undisturbed soil sampling is just as imperative to meeting this goal on large scale marine
projects as it is to their terrestrial counterparts. Unfortunately, current industry practice for deep
water sampling often uses poor sampling equipment and techniques, leaving vital parameters
such as undrained shear strength and preconsolidation stress in question. The Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute (NGI) developed a Deep Water Sampler (DWS, Lunne and Long 2006)
with the intention of collecting high quality geotechnical samples from the ocean floor for
engineering projects and research use. This new sampler uses a seabed push frame, modified
tube geometry and special sample liners to enhance sample recovery and quality (Figure 1).
The DWS was used for the first time in 2006 by NGI to collect samples from the North Sea Troll
A site. The Troll A Clay is a slightly overconsolidated, highly plastic, very soft to firm,
homogeneous clay (Huslid, 2001). Subsequent onshore laboratory tests conducted on the
samples confirm that high quality samples were successfully collected. Follow-on research is
now being conducted by UMass Amherst in collaboration with NGI to develop a method for
nondestructively accessing sample quality of DWS samples offshore during drilling operations.
Figure 1. a) Deep Water Sampler frame ready for deployment to the seabed, and b) Deep Water
Sampler cutting tube (pictures courtesy of Statoil, Norway).
35
Shear wave velocity measurements are being used as a basis for nondestructively evaluating the
quality of DWS samples. Measurements are being made using a new portable test jig designed
and built by UMass Amherst to support soil samples from the DWS sampler (Figure 2). The jig
uses oriented bender elements to measure shear wave velocity and its construction is based on a
jig developed by UMass Amherst for evaluation of terrestrial tube samples and Sherbrooke
Block samples. A new electronic system is being developed using a compact set of National
Instrument components and LabView data acquisition and control software running on a laptop.
This will enhance the portability of the test equipment which is essential for successful
implementation in an offshore geotechnical testing laboratory.
Shear wave velocity tests are currently being
performed on the Troll DWS samples to check
repeatability of results on the same sample as
material is removed for additional laboratory
testing. Once the prototype is evaluated in the
laboratory, it will be deployed for offshore use.
The objective is to create an accurate and
reliable system to take shear wave velocity
measurements shipboard as the samples are
recovered and ideally to assess sample quality
in near real time.
In parallel to this work, DWS samples of the
Troll A clay are being tested in the laboratory at
UMass Amherst to measure its fundamental
stress-strain-strength behavior in Constant Rate
of Strain consolidation and Triaxial and Direct
Simple Shear testing. Results from this testing
will provide a valuable framework for behavior
of low OCR offshore sediments which can be
used as a guide for future site investigations.
Development
of an effective affordable system
Figure 2. New bender element jig for
measuring shear wave velocity of soil samples of high quality sample recovery and testing will
have a significant demand from developers of
collected using the Deep Water Sampler.
future ocean infrastructure and continental slope
stability researchers where zones of highly
unstable underconsolidated clays are theorized
to play a role.
References
Huslid, C. (2001) Full-Scale Monitoring of Troll A Concrete Platform: A Huge Gravity-Based
Structure on Soft Clay, Proceedings of the Eleventh International Offshore and Polar
Engineering Conference, June 17-22, Stavanger, Norway 2001, pp. 647-653
Lunne, T. and Long, M. (2006). Review of long seabed samplers and criteria for new sampler
design. Marine Geology. Vol. 226, Issues 1-2, pp. 145-165.
36
Lattice Discrete Particle Model (LDPM) for quasi brittle materials.

Andrea Mencarelli
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, mencaa@rpi.edu
Abstract
In this paper a numerical model called Lattice Particle Discrete Model (LDPM) is
presented. This model comes from the family of the microplane and lattice model and can
describe the behavior of quasi brittle materials like rock and concrete. Until now only
simulations about concrete were performed, but the plan for the future is to try to simulate, like
for the Microplane, also experimental test involving rocks.
The model can reproduce the composition of the material, considering, in the case of the
concrete the cement content c, the water cement ratio w/c, the aggregate cement ratio a/c and the
diameter distribution of the aggregates. These ones are disposed in the specimen with a randomly
procedure, starting from the biggest ones until the smallest ones. The type of connection between
the particles is defined by a three dimension Delaunay triangulation and by a dual domain
tessellation. In this way we have facets starting from the middle of every edge of the tetrahedron.
Considering these facets, the deformations can be defined in term of displacements and rotation
vectors referred to the center of the facets, respect to the centre of the nodes. The hypotheses to
define these deformations are: 1) the axial velocity is linearly distributed between the aggregates
centers; 2) the two transversal velocities, perpendicular between them, and on a plane
perpendicular to the axial velocity, are the effect of a rigid motion of the center of the aggregates.
After the deformations are described it is possible to define the constitutive relations, based on
the behavior at the facets in their center of gravity, from which normal and shear forces are
transmitted, representing friction and cohesion. The elastic behavior is expressed by the Hook
Law with a different Young Modulus for the normal direction and the transversal one. The
evolution of the stress and the strain follows the previous law until the stress does not reach a
certain limit, after the behavior becomes inelastic and follows an incremental law, where the
slope depends from the total strain and from a parameter , which says if the material is in a
softening, plastic or hardening phase.
After defining the model some numerical simulations are performed trying to simulate
experimental test in compression and in tension. In particular a uniaxial unconfined compression
from VanMier, 1996 in Fig. 1 and a three point bending test from Horvath and Persson, 1984 in
Fig. 2 are simulated. The numerical results fit very well the experimental ones, considering the
elastic part, the value of the peak and the slope of the post peak. The next step is to try to
simulate rocks.
37
Fig. 1: Unconfined Compression from VanMier with High Friction plates.
Fig. 2: Three Point Bending Test from Horvath and Persson, 1984.
38
Characterizing local heterogeneities in unsaturated soils using acoustic techniques

L. A. George & M. M. Dewoolkar
School of Engineering, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
Accurately predicting and modeling flow through unsaturated soils is difficult due to the complexities
that stem from the heterogeneities inherent in soil deposits. In simulating subsurface non-equilibrium
flow, it is possible to take into account the heterogeneous nature of the material by using a rate dependent,
dynamic capillary pressure saturation relationship. Generally unsaturated soil properties, e. g. the capillary pressure function and the hydraulic conductivity function, are measured at static or steady state conditions. These static properties are then used to analyze both steady-state and transient flow, which has
been shown to be an incorrect assumption [1, 2]. A new dynamic capillary pressure function has been developed [3] which includes the rate dependence, describes the hereditary effect of capillarity, and is based
on the characterization of local flow caused by heterogeneities. This dynamic capillary pressure function
is formulated with commonly known and relatively commonly measured soil properties, along with one
additional parameter, the capillary relaxation time, which can be determined using acoustic techniques
[4]. A device has been developed at the University of Vermont which will allow for simultaneous measurement of the acoustic velocity and attenuation as well as the hydraulic properties, including the static
capillary pressure and hydraulic conductivity functions (see Figs. 1 and 2).
Acoustic techniques provide powerful means to characterize the mesoscale heterogeneity in porous
media in a non-destructive manner. A procedure has been proposed which would explicitly evaluate the
dynamic capillary effects, and has been successfully used to infer the capillary relaxation times and the
sizes of local structures in porous media [4]. When a locally heterogeneous porous medium is subjected to
an external disturbance, fluids in different regions respond with different pressures, resulting in local fluid
flow [5]. The local flow induced by a stress wave dissipates wave energy, resulting in intrinsic wave attenuation and velocity dispersion (velocity depending upon frequency). Given the measured acoustical
data, specifically the velocity and attenuation of the compressional wave, the characteristic time of local
flow can be determined based on a viscoporoelastic model [6]. Since local flow is governed by the details
of local heterogeneities, the obtained characteristic times can in turn be used to infer the information on
local heterogeneities, and their effects on macroscopic fluid flow through the dynamic capillary pressure
function.
Figure 1. Schematic of the device
Figure 2. Photograph of entire set up
THE EXPERIMENTAL DEVICE

The laboratory device is capable of housing a cylindrical soil sample 100 mm in diameter and up to
125 mm in height. The sample is confined by cell pressure in a semi-flexible Viton rubber jacket
equipped with an acoustic transmitter and receiver (see Figs 1 and 2). The acoustic equipment developed
by New England Research, Inc. (NER) of White River Junction, Vermont, includes flat piezo-ceramic
transducers, a waveform function generator, an oscilloscope and the data acquisition system. The unsaturated hydraulic properties are found using the axis translation technique and a constant flow method.
39
Conically shaped water reservoirs are located on either end of the sample, separated from the sample by
the high air entry discs. The water reservoirs are conically shaped to aid in removal of diffused air bubbles which may pass through the high air entry disc and are modeled after the work of Lu et. al. [7].
Figure 3. Preliminary compressional wave speed versus Saturation of a sand sample collected at 7500 Hz.
Figure4. Example of collected compressional waveform
PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Figures 3 and 4 show preliminary measurements of the compressional wave velocity on partially saturated sand samples taken with the device described. The preliminary results indicate that the device is
measuring the acoustic properties of the sample, without adverse effects from the jacket or end caps. The
preliminary velocity measurements are within the range of expected values, and the trend of the velocity
decreasing as saturation increases for this range of saturations is similar to results obtained on partially
saturated sandstones by Cadoret et al. [8].
CONCLUSIONS
A new method and the laboratory equipment capable of non-destructively quantifying the effect heterogeneities have on non-equilibrium flow in unsaturated soils have been developed. Preliminary measurements using this equipment show promise for validation of the theoretical models. This work has the
potential of increasing our understanding of both the non-destructive characterization of heterogeneities,
and the effect that heterogeneities have on flow in porous media, which has applications in geotechnical
and environmental engineering, groundwater hydrogeology, soil science, and petroleum engineering.
REFERENCES
1. Topp, G.C., A. Klute, and D.B. Peters, Comparison of Water Content-Pressure Head Data Obtained by Equilibrium, Steady-State, and Unsteady-State Methods. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 1967. 31: p. 312314.
2. Wildenchild, D., J.W. Hopmans, and J. Simunek, Flow rate dependence of Soil Hydraulic Characteristics. Soil
Science of America Journal, 2001. 65: p. 35-48.
3. Wei, C. and M. Dewoolkar. A Continuum Theory of Nonequilibrium Two-Phase Flow through Porous Media
with Capillary Relaxation. in Advances in Unsaturated Soil, Seepage, and Environmental Geotechnics, Proceedings of Sessions of GeoShanghai. 2006. Shanghai: ASCE.
4. Wei, C. and K.K. Muraleetharan, Linear viscoelastic behavior of porous media with non-uniform saturation. International Journal of Engineering Science, 2007. 45: p. 698-715.
5. Pride, S.R., J.M. Harris, and e.a. D. L. Johnson, Permeability dependence of seismic amplitudes. The Leading
Edge, 2003. 22: p. 518-525.
6. Wei, C. and K.K. Muraleethanan, Acoustic characterization of fluid-saturated porous media with local heterogeneities: Theory and application. International Journal of Solids and Structures, 2006. 43: p. 982-1008.
7. Lu, N., et al., Constant Flow Method for Concurrently Measuring Soil-Water Characteristic Curve and Hydraulic Conductivity Function. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 2006. 29(3): p. 256-266.
8. Cadoret, T., D. Marion, and B. Zinszner, Influence of frequency and fluid distribution on elastic wave velocities
in partially saturated limestones. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1995. 100(B6): p. 9789-9803.
40
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF DISTURBANCE EFFECTS

AT PRECONSOLIDATION PRESSURE
NIKOLAOS KONTOPOULOS
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
Abstract
It has long been stated the significance of sample disturbance in order to define
with accuracy the stress history and obtain from lab tests the in situ soil properties. Yet,
as many researches have point out, among most factors; such as anisotropy, stress history,
rate effects and more, sample disturbance is by far the most difficult to deal with. Still
there is not a correct and general accepted method to quantify disturbance and a way to
connect the engineering properties from a lab test to the true, field characteristics of the
soil.
It should also be mentioned that the most significant clay properties and
behaviors, from consolidation to undrained shear stress, are dominated by stress history
as it is expressed by Preconsolidation Pressure (p) and over consolidation ratio (OCR).
Bearing these in mind and been motivated by previous work at MIT (Santagata
and Germaine, 2002), this research focuses on the effects of sampling disturbance at
preconsolidation pressure (p) in cohesive, normally consolidated soils. To be able to
investigate if a relationship can be defined between p and disturbance, single element,
K0-triaxial tests with multiple disturbance phases took place. Disturbance was simulated
following Ideal Sample Approach (Baligh et al., 1987) while preconsolidation pressure
was defined using strain energy method (Becker et al., 1987). Different strain amplitudes
of disturbance cycles have been imposed to different quality sample. The stress-strain
curves reproduced from a typical test can be summarized at figure 1. At these tests, every
recompression phase was then treated as an initial compression phase of a known,
imposed at the lab disturbance, which was then compared with the initial compression
curve.
41
TX693
0
vo
Vertical Strain (%)
eo
VCL
4
vo
eo
e
max
10
0.1
Vertical Effective Stress (ksc)
10
Figure 1: The stress strain curve of a typical test.

Analysis of the results gives us a good insight for further research at the openended topic of sample disturbance. Among others, the research will point out that with
increasing disturbance, there is an increasing uncertainty in the estimation of p. Yet, p
is not always reducing with disturbance as it was widely accepted so far (Ladd and
Lampe 1963) and an attempt to define a new trend between the two parameters will be
made. These results will be analyzed with some commonly used techniques about
defining disturbance (Terzaghi et al., 1996 and Lunne et al., 1997), and will be compared
with previous work that has been done at this topic at MIT. Finally it will be stated how
disturbance is always associated with a loss in effective stresses. This loss in converge as
we increase strain amplitude to a certain number max (the maximum reached effective
stress during consolidation). Recommendations for further investigation to the topic will
be offered.
References
Santagata M. C. and Germaine J. T., Sampling disturbance effects in normally
consolidated clays, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
2002, 128, No. 12, 997-1006.
Don J. DeGroot (2001), Laboratory Measurement and Interpretation of Soft Clay
Mechanical Behavior, Proceedings of the Symposium: Soil Behavior and Soft Ground
Construction.
42
Liquefaction Mitigation Using Entrapped Air

Ece Eseller-Bayat1, Mishac K. Yegian2, Akram Alshawabkeh2
NSF Award #: CMS-0509894
1
PhD Candidate, 2 Professor of Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA

e-mail: eeseller@coe.neu.edu
Liquefaction is the loss of shear strength in fully saturated loose sands due to excess pore
water pressure build-up during a repeated loading or dynamic excitation, such as an earthquake.
The ultimate goal of this research is to devise a new liquefaction mitigation measure which will
be a cost-effective and practical solution for new as well as existing structures. The liquefaction
mitigation measure that is being explored improves earthquake resistance of loose sands by
introducing some amount of air/gas in the voids of the sand (Fig. 1).
Fully Saturated
Air-Entrapped Sand
Fully Saturated Sand
Air-Entrapped
Building Response on Fully

Saturated Liquefied Sand
Building Response on AirEntrapped Sand
Fig.1 Concept of liquefaction mitigation using entrapped air.
In the first phase of the research, two different techniques were developed to introduce gas/air
in the sand; namely, electrolysis resulting in the generation of O2 and H2 gases, and draining and
reintroducing water in a sand sample. A preliminary special liquefaction box was designed and
manufactured, which allowed preparing large fully and partially saturated specimens (Fig. 2).
Uniform cyclic simple shear strain tests performed, using a shaking table, on air/gas entrapped
specimens demonstrated that air entrapment reduces the pore pressure build-up significantly,
thus preventing initial liquefaction (Fig. 3, partially saturated in red versus fully saturated in
blue).
50
upeak
Pressure Head, cm
40
30
Bottom T ransducers Partially Saturated Sand

20
T op Transducers
10
Partially Saturated Sand
0
0
Fig.2 Cyclic simple shear tests performed on

fully and partially saturated specimens.
2
3
Time, sec
Fig.3 Reduction in excess pore pressure build-up in partially

saturated specimens during shaking table tests.
43
Second phase of the research addressed the investigation of the long-term sustainability of air
in the voids under hydrostatic, and vertical and horizontal hydraulic gradient flow conditions. A
typical setup for a vertical flow test performed on large air entrapped sand specimen is shown in
Fig. 4. Results shown in Fig. 5 demonstrate that air bubbles stayed entrapped even during longterm high gradient flow tests (degree of saturation, S remained between 83 % and 84 %).
Constant Heads
100
2"
NPT
Water
Inflow water
80
100
60
7.62 cm
(3")
Plexiglass
Tube
Outflow
Water
40
20
120 cm
0
Partially -20 -10

Saturated
Ottawa -20
Sand
Column -40
Reinforced
Concrete
Column
10
20
Degree of Saturation, S (%)
Excess Water out
einitial= 0.72
efinal = 0.73
Sinitial = 82.6%
Sfinal = 83.6%
95
90
85
80
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Gradient, i
-60
-80
Drainage
Beaker
-100
Fig.4 Vertical hydraulic gradient flow test setup.
Fig.5 Vertical hydraulic gradient flow test results in

terms of degree of saturation.
In the current phase of the research, a new enhanced liquefaction box, CSSLB (Cyclic
Simple Shear Liquefaction Box), was designed and manufactured that allows performing
uniform cyclic shear tests on fully and partially saturated specimens (Fig. 6). The new box
permits also application of large overburden stresses with controlled water drainage conditions.
The CSSLB was designed to accommodate various types of transducers for measurement of pore
water pressures, shear moduli, and shear strains. A special bender/extender element measurement
test setup was established in order to generate and measure P and S waves in large sand
specimen prepared in the CSSLB (Fig. 7).
Double Bolt
Connection
I-Beam
Aluminum
Bar
Single Bolt
Connection
Fixed
Sidewall
Instrumentation
Holes
Vertical Sikaflex
Layer
Shaker
Sikaflex Table
Layer
under the
Sidewall
Fig. 6 CSSLB and uniform cyclic shear test setup with

shaking table.
Fig. 7 Bender element measurement test setup.
Final phase of the research will include further evaluation of liquefaction strength of partially
saturated sands and development of a methodology for predicting liquefaction strength of
partially saturated sands.
44
Experimental Measurements of Geophysical and Mechanical Properties of

Weakly Cemented Fine Sand
M.S.Ravi Sharma
Department of Ocean Engineering, University of Rhode Island. msravisharma@oce.uri.edu
Abstract
Sand production in oil wells is a very well known problem which costs the petroleum industry
billions of dollars every year. The typical process of sand production begins during drilling of the
well, when an annulus of failed material is created around the well face. The size of annulus is
dependent on the formation strength, and in the case of weak formations may exceed 0.3 m in
radius (Palmer and McLennan, 2004). Immediately after drilling, the well face material is under
a state of zero effective stress but generally no sanding occurs if cementation, capillarity, and
arching are sufficient enough to hold the material in place. During drawdown of the well, however, significant seepage pressures are developed that can mobilize the failed material and cause
tensile failure in the surrounding formation, leading to damage to the well and the production of
sand (Figure 1).
Figure 1 A schematic of sanding failure

There are several models used by the industry to quantify the rate and amount of sand
produced in a well. All these models require the material properties (i.e. strength) of the intact
material, which is either inferred from geophysical measurements (wireline logs) or assumed for
the transformed stages (plastic & tensile stages). The accuracy of these models relies on understanding the changes in the material strength during the transition from intact to tensile failure
stage. The residual cohesion or tensile strength is the key parameter which decides whether the
sand will start producing or not for the given stress and flow condition.
The current research is aimed at coupling the relationship between geophysical measurement and residual cohesion/tensile strength for artificially cemented sand. Samples of size 5 cm
x 10 cm are artificially cemented using ordinary portland cement and calcium carbonate with
varying cementation levels and densities. All Portland cemented samples are cured under ambient condition for a minimum period of 14 days before testing. A series of CIU triaxial tests (Figure 2) are being performed to determine the effective stress strength parameters along with shear
wave measurements using torsional shear transducers (Figure 3). Geophysical measurements
such as bulk density, compression wave velocity, and electrical resistivity are measured using a
Multi Sensor Core Logger (MSCL) on duplicate samples (Figure 4). Unconfined compression
tests are also being performed to relate the results to the industry standard of practice. It is also
planned to directly assess the tensile strength of the cemented sands using either direct pull tests
45
or brazilian tensile tests. The outcome of this research will provide a means to link the geophysical log measurements to strength and therefore facilitate to model the sanding in a better way.
6000
100 kPa
50 kPa
20 kPa
300 kPa
Deviator Stress (kPa)
5000
4000
3000
1% Cemented Sand
b = 2.3 g/cc
CIU triaxial tests
2000
1000
0
0
10
15
Shear Stress (kPa)
Excess Pore Pressure (kPa)
250
0
0
10
15
-250
-500
-750
-1000
Pore Pressure Parameter A
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
-0.1 0
10
3000
2750
2500
2250
2000
1750
1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
0
-250 0
-500
-750
-1000
-1250
-1500
-1750
-2000
-2250
-2500
-2750
-3000
100 kPa
50 kPa
20 kPa
300 kPa
1 % Cemented Sand
b = 2.3 g/cc
CIU triaxial tests
' = 42
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000 c' = 200 kPa
Normal Effective Stress (kPa)
15
-0.3
-0.5
Axial Strain (%)
Figure 2 Results of Triaxial tests on cemented samples

1.5
Normalised amplitude
0.5
Transmitted Pulse
Received Pulse
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-1.E-04
1.E-04
3.E-04
5.E-04
7.E-04
Time (sec)
Figure 3 Typical Shear wave signals
2.5
1900
2000
40
50
10
10
10
30
20
0 deg orientation
45 deg orientation
90 deg orientation
MEAN
10
Depth along the sample (cm)
2.4
2.3
1800
1700
0
2.2
Resistivity (ohm-m)
Pwave Velocity (m/s)
Bulk Density(g/cc)
0
Figure 4 Typical MSCL profile showing the variability within the sample
46
The Nano-Mechanical Morphology of Shale

Christopher P. Bobko
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, cbobko@mit.edu
Abstract
Shale, the sealing formation of most hydrocarbon reservoirs, is made of highly
compacted clay particles of sub-micrometer size, nanometric porosity and varying mineralogy.
Despite their importance to the petroleum industry, the complexity of these sedimentary rocks
has challenged researchers to understand the mechanical behavior of these materials. A
particular challenge has been to find a connection between the mineral composition of different
shales and their mechanical properties. Nanoindentation provides a tool for assessing the
mechanical morphology of shale as the link between composition and behavior. Remarkably,
the nano-mechanical morphology is significantly different from the visually observed
morphology of shale.
A massive nanoindentation campaign was conducted by performing hundreds of
indentations on a large range of shale materials. Careful attention was paid to the scale of the
indentation test; each test feels the response of the porous clay composite. As a result, the
averaged response of interparticle contacts is measured by indentation to depths in the hundreds
of nanometers. Comparing the size of a residual indentation imprint with the size of clay
particless, as measured by atomic force microscopy in Figure 1, confirms that the test senses the
composite behavior of porous clay.
[nm]
[m]
[m]
Figure 1 Atomic Force Microscope image of a residual indentation imprint. Each

indentation test senses the average response of mechanical contacts between
particles of sub-micron size.
47
The packing density of the porous clay phase provides a simplification of mineral
composition that is intimately related to mechanical properties. A statistical deconvolution of
indentation results provides access to average material phase properties for each shale. Scaling
these results with the average clay packing density of each sample gives two important results.
First, by scaling to an asymptotic packing density of one (no porosity), the porous clay
composite in shale is shown to be material invariant. Specifically, the porous clay is intrinsically
anisotropic in elasticity and isotropic in strength. Second, a mechanical percolation threshold at
a packing density of 0.5 shows evidence of a spherical, nanogranular morphology. This
morphology stands in contrast to the plate-like shape of clay particles that is visually observed in
scanning electron micrographs such as the one shown in Figure 2 (a). The discrepancy in
observations is resolved by understanding the mechanical morphology to be representative of
randomly oriented contacts between the clay particles.
(a)
(b)
2 m
Figure 2 (a) Scanning Electron Micrograph of plate-like clay particles in shale and (b) the
nanogranular, intrinsically anisotropic elementary building block of shale materials
The results are summarized in a model of the elementary building block of shale
materials. As depicted in a cartoon in Figure 2 (b), the porous clay is understood as a
nanogranular composite of material invariant spherical particles, which are intrinsically
anisotropic in elasticity. The overall mechanical response of the porous clay scales with the
packing density. The determination of mechanical microstructure and invariant material
properties are of great importance for the development of predictive microporomechanical
models of the stiffness and strength properties of shale.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the GeoGenome Industrial Consortium. The assistance of
Alan Schwartzman and the use of the facilities of the Nanomechanical Technology Laboratory in
the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at MIT is gratefully acknowledged.
48
Mobilized Undrained Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils by Constant Volume

Direct Simple Shear and Ring Shear Testing
Hoang Q. Nguyen
University of Massachusetts Amherst, hoangn@engin.umass.edu
Abstract
Rapid catastrophic submarine landslides can occur due to either a significant increase in
shear stress or a significant loss in undrained shear strength (both in magnitude and rate) along a
potential slip surface. Catastrophic submarine landslides can in turn cause tsunamis and debris
flows, which are major threats to the security of human life as well as the development of coastal
and offshore facilities, e.g., costal cities, offshore communication routes, oil and gas
development facilities, etc. (Figure 1). The dynamics of submarine landslides, i.e., their initiation
and motion mechanisms in a catastrophic event can be assessed. However critical to the
assessment is an understanding of the mobilized undrained shear strength of continental slope
sediments up to large shear strains. Significant post-peak loss of undrained shear strength is the
major cause of rapid submarine landslides. Thus, the mobilization process (i.e., the gain and rate
of degradation) of undrained shear strength from the peak (su) to a residual value (sur) are critical
in the assessment, prediction, and mitigation of potential catastrophic submarine landslides. In
addition, both su and sur of soils are critical engineering parameters for design and installation of
offshore foundation infrastructure. Numerical modeling of submarine landslide problems can
successfully be conducted provided the sur behavior of cohesive soils is accurately calibrated
within advanced soil models and can fully take into account softening behavior at large strains.
OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENTS
COASTAL DEVELOPMENTS
Suction Piles, Anchors

Burried Cables, Pipelines
Offshore storage tanks
Brakewater...
TRANSITION FROM SLIDE TO FLOW

Significant Strength Loss
Shear induced excess pore pressure
TSUNAMI
Retrogressive Sliding
Remolded soil/Residual State
DEBRIS FLOW
ation
Propag
Failure
Peak (Zone 3)
SHEAR STRENGTH
Translational & Rotational Sliding
MOBILIZED UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH

OF COHESIVE SOILS
Intermediate (Zone 2)
Residual (Zone 1)
STRAIN (%)
SUBMARINE SLIDE SURFACE

Progressive Failure Mechanism
SEABED SEDIMENTS
BEDROCK
SEISMIC TRIGGERS
Figure 1 Schematic of the problems (Figure modified from NGI)

The proposed research seeks to characterize su and sur of cohesive soils and explore the rate
of degradation and magnitude of sur at large strains. Laboratory testing will be conducted on soft
soils using constant volume shear Direct Simple Shear (DSS) and Ring Shear (RS) equipment.
An automated digital closed-loop feed back control and data acquisition system is being
developed for the Geonor DSS and the Bromhead RS apparatuses to allow for conducting the
state-of-the-art constant volume testing (Figure 2). Assessment of su degradation characteristics
and the relationship among the peak, residual, and remolded undrained shear strength of
49
cohesive soils will be examined through testing of marine cohesive soils (e.g., preliminary results
are shown in Figure 3). It is anticipated that the results from this research will allow for the
development of an accurate and reliable protocol for use of su and sur in the assessment and
prediction of submarine landslide dynamics and also to the design of offshore infrastructure.
Figure 2 - LabView real-time displace automatic close loop feedback control of

specimen constant height: front panel and block diagram of the PID algorithm
Normalized Stress Plot
0.25
(a)
0.20
0.15
0.10
DSS - Ring
DSS - WRM
0.05
0.00
0
10
15
20
25
30
Normalized Horizontal Stress, h/'vc
Normalized Shear Stress, h/'vc
Normalized Stress Strain Plot
Horizontal Strain (%)
1.2
Note:
Soil Samples: NC Boston Blue Clay
Sampling/Location: Block sample N1SBS 10A
Test Method: SHANSEP - CK0DSS ('vc = 300 kPa)
Objective: Comparing perfomance of stack ring vs.
wire reinforced membrane (WRM)
1.0
0.8
0.6
(b)
DSS- Ring
DSS - WRM
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
NormalizedShear
Vertical Stress,
'v/'vcPlot
Undrained
Modulus
Normalized Excess Pore Pressure
(c)
0.8
0.6
0.4
DSS - Ring
DSS -WRM
0.2
0.0
0
10
15
20
Horizontal Strain, (%)
25
104
Normalized Undrained
Shear Modulus, Eu/'vc (kPa)
Normalized Excess
Pore Pressure ue/'vc
1.0
30
DSS - Ring
DSS - WRM
103
(d)
102
101
100
10-1
0.01
0.1
10
Horizontal Strain (%)
Figure 3 - DSS test results: (a) Stress-strain plot; (b) Stress plot (c) Excess pore
pressure, and (d) Undrained shear modulus
Acknowledgement
This work is supported in part by the National Science Foundation under NSF award number
0552548.
50

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2007 NORTHEAST GEOTECHNICAL GRADUATE

H. Q. Nguyen and A.G. Boscardin, Editors

Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Friday, 26 October 2007

Registration and Check-In

Session IWelcome and Introductory Remarks

Session IIStudent Presentations: Case Studies

Session IIIStudent Presentations: Soil Behavior

Session IVGuest Lecture Landfill Development over Difficult Site

Session V Presentation of Abstract Awards and Symposium Closing

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

I.1. Vertical Variability of Hydraulic Conductivity of an Unconfined Aquifer

I.2. A New Approach to Liquefaction Potential Mapping Using Satellite Remote

I.3. Dynamics of Wind Turbine Soil-Structure Interaction

I.6. Effects of Fines on Cone Penetration Resistance and Liquefaction Resistance of

I.7. The Hydrogeologic Characterization of a Public Drinking Water Aquifer Site in

Session Presentation II: Case Studies

II.2. Development of a Resistance Factor for the Minnesota Department of

II.3. Expanding the College Classroom: Developing Engineering Skills through

II.4. Uncertainty Evaluation of Displacement and Capacity of Shallow Foundations

II.5. A Study on Stream Bank Erosion and Instability

II.6. Investigating Gas-generated Excess Pore Pressure as a Failure Mechanism for

II.8. Kinematics of Tsunamigenic Submarine Failures

Session Presentation III: Soil Behavior

III.1. Bender Element Test Setup for Large Soil Specimens

III.4. Characterizing Local Heterogeneities in Unsaturated Soils Using Acoustic

III.5. Laboratory Investigation of Disturbance Effects at Preconsolidation Pressure

III.6. Liquefaction Mitigation Using Entrapped Air

III.7. Experimental Measurements of Geophysical and Mechanical Properties of

III.8. The Nano-Mechanical Morphology of Shale

III.9. Mobilized Undrained Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils by Constant Volume

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Session I: Site Characterization and Instrumentation

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Vertical Variability of Hydraulic Conductivity of an Unconfined Aquifer

Figure 1: Pneumatic slug tester setup (Judge 2007)

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Research Contribution to Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Industry:

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Dynamics of Wind Turbine Soil-Structure Interaction

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Onsy Smooth Ball

Onsy Smooth Ball

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Static and Dynamic Analysis of Annulus Plugging of

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Effects of Fines on Cone Penetration Resistance and Liquefaction Resistance of Sands

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Fig(3)Cyclic Triaxial test setup

Fig(4) Bender elements

Fig (5) Cyclic triaxial test

Fig (6) Bender element: shear wave velocity arrival

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

The hydrogeologic characterization of a public drinking water aquifer

2007 Northeast Geotechnical Graduate Research Symposium

Figure 3. Split Spoon Sample

Figure 4. Typical Slug Test Equipment