Question:

HOWFARCAN
TERRITORIALDISPUTES
BECONSIDEREDTHEGREATESTCAUSE
OFINTERSTATETENSIONSININDEPENDENTSOUTHEASTASIA?

Thequestionrequiresevaluationofthecausesofthestrainedrelationshipsthatarosebetween
twoormorestatesinindependentSoutheastAsia.Whileterritorialdisputeswereoneofthe
greatestcausesofinterstatetensionsintermsofnumbersandthatthesedisputesalsoarose
overeconomicresources,therewereothercausesofinterstatetensionsaswell.These
includedhistoricalanimositiesandracialreligiousdisputes.However,territorialdisputescan
onlybeconsideredthegreatestcauseofinterstatetensionstoasmallextentasinterstate
tensionsaroseovertheissueofsovereignty,thethreeexamplesbeingbutdifferentfacetsof
thesameissue.

Territorialdisputeswerebyfarthemostcommoninstanceofinterstatetensiontoarise
betweenindependentSoutheastAsianstates.Thereasonforitwasthatindependentstates
startedtocontestdecisionsmadeonnationalbordersthatwerepreviouslyimposedbythe
colonialpower.Also,inthelightofthenationaliststruggleforindependence,stateswantedto
gainbackwhattheydeemedastheirterritoryinthenameofnationalism;thisatthesame
beingatoolforgovernmentstostrengthentheirnationalistcredentials.Themostprominent
caseofaterritorialdisputewasthatbetweenMalaysiaandthePhilippinesoverSabah.While
SabahhadpreviouslybeenpartoftheSuluSultanateinthePhilippines,itwashandedoverto
theBritishin1877andbecameacolonyin1888.However,thePhilippinesassertedthatthe
1877agreementdidnotmeanacessationofSabahandPresidentMacapagallodgedhisclaim
toSabahin1962.ThiswastoraisethePhilippinesinternationalprofileaswellastoappease
theSultanofSuluwhocededhisrightstothecentralgovernmentontheconditionthatSabah
wasreacquired.TheclaimledtoadiplomaticbreakwithMalayaandledtothefailureofthe
AssociationofSoutheastAsia(ASA),ofwhichMalayaandthePhilippinesweremembers.When
SabahjoinedtheFederationofMalaysiain1963,thePhilippinesrefusedtorecogniseMalaysia
until1966.In1968,atrainingcampsetupbythePhilippinearmyforanintendedSabah
separatistrebellionwasexposedinwhatwasknownastheCorrigedorIncident.Thisresultedin
afurtherdeteriorationoftiesandputaseverestrainontheworkingsofASEAN(1967).That
sameyear,thePhilippineCongresspassedalawaffirmingitsclaimtoSabah.Attemptsby
PhilippinePresidentstodroptheclaim(Marcosin1977andAquinoin1987)wereunsuccessful
duetostrongnationalistsentimentswithinCongressthatledtoopposition.Malaysiatoo
playedaroleinprolongingthedisputebynotactivelypreventingIslamicfundamentalist
groupsfromgivingsupporttotheMoroinsurgentsinMindanaoforfearsofapotentially

seriousdomesticpoliticalfalloutfromlocalMuslimcommunities.Thisisthemainreasonfor
whythePhilippineshasnotdroppeditsclaimtoSabah,usingitasalevertopressuriseMalaysia
tocurbtheactivitiesofMorosympathizers.Thusitcanbeseenthatterritorialdisputesarea
significantcauseofinterstatetensionsduetocoloniallegaciesacrosstheregionandstrong
nationalistreligioussentimentswithinnewlyindependentstatesthatsparkedoffclaims.

Moreover,territorialdisputesalsoincludedanotherissueapartfrommereland:theeconomic
resourcesthatlaywithit.Arableland,minerals,foodstuffsandtourismwerevaluable
economicresourcestothefledglingnations,addingfurtherimpetustotheirterritorialclaimsin
ordertoobtaintheseresourcesanddeveloptheireconomies.Onesuchexamplewasthe
competingExclusiveEconomicZone(EEZ)claimsbyMalaysiaandThailand.Bothstateshad
overlappingclaimsofEEZsofftheircoastswhichgavethemspecialrightstotheexplorationand
useofmarineresources.ThedisputeextendedtothatoffishingasMalaysianpatrolboats
stoppedThaitrawlersthatwerefishinginwatersclaimedbyMalaysia.Whilethedisputewas
eventuallysettledamicably,itstillshowsthatthemotivationsbehindtheterritorialclaimswere
economicinnature.Similarly,tensionsarosebetweenMalaysiaandIndonesiaovertheislands
ofSipadanandLigitan,eachclaimingcolonialcontroloverthem.Indonesiawasupsetwhen
Malaysiabuilttouristfacilitiesontheislandsfamedfortheirdivingspots,retaliatingwith
militarylandingsclosetotheareain1993asashowofforcetointimidateMalaysia,showingits
hardlinestancethattheislandsbelongedtoIndonesiaandnotMalaysia.LikewithMalaysiaand
Thailand,thedisputewasalsoresolvedandthatthemotivationsforbothstatesinstakingtheir
claimswereeconomicinnature.Thisshowsthatterritorialdisputesalsoencompassedthe
competitionforeconomicresources,furthershowingitssignificanceasamajorcauseof
interstatetensions.

However,casesofinterstatetensionswerenotalwayscausedbyterritorialnoreconomic
disputes.Anothercausewasthatofhistoricalanimositiesfromthepreindependenceperiod.
Significanteventsthathappenedbeforeindependencewereingrainedinthenational
consciousnessofthepeople,affectingrelationsbetweenthemandtheirstatesfortimeto
come.Decolonisationlegaciesespeciallyweremorerecentandthusmorefreshinthemindsof
thepeople,havingthegreatestimpactininfluencingperceptionsofotherstates.Oneexample
isSingaporesacrimonioussplitfromMalaysiain1965.Despitemergerin1963,therewere
fundamentaldifferencesbetweentheSingaporeanPeoplesActionParty(PAP)andthe
MalaysianAllianceParty.TheUnitedMalaysNationalOrganisation(UMNO)oftheAlliance
wishedtocontinueupliftingtheMalaybumiputrasandtheuseofcommunalbasedpolitics
whereasthethePAPstressedtheequalityofallraceswiththeideaofaMalaysianMalaysia.
ThedifferenceinideologywasfurthercompoundedbyMalayChineseanimosityaftertherace
riotsof1964inSingapore.Duetoclosegeographicalproximityandstrongkinshiptiesbetween
bothpeoples,therewerespillovereffectsofracialviolence.Tensionsweresointensethat

SingaporewasejectedfromtheFederationin1965,gainingherindependenceatthesame
time.Asaresultofthesplitonbadterms,negativeperceptionsofeachotherwereingrainedin
thepeopleandcontributedtolatercasesofinterstatetensionsbetweenthetwostates.These
includedtheracialreligiousChaimHerzogcrisis,theterritorialdisputeoverPedraBrancaisland
anddisputesoverwaterthatwascrucialtoSingapore.Thusitcanbeseenthathistorical
animositieswasalsoacauseofinterstatetensionsbyaffectingperceptionsbetweenstatesthat
triggeredotherfuturedisputes.

Also,racialreligiousdisputeswerealsoasignificantcauseofinterstatetensions,tensionsthat
oftenresultedinviolenceduetothesensitivitiesoftheissueathand.Owingtothediverse
ethnicitiesandfaithspracticedinSoutheastAsia,muchtensionarosefromthissituation.One
prominentexampleistheongoingtensioninSouthernThailand.TheissuestartedwhenSiam
hadtogiveupfoursouthernprovincestoBritishMalayaaspartofthetreatiessignedwith
Britaintoensurehersovereignty.Asaresult,someMalayMuslimsmovedtoSouthern
Thailand.However,afterthe1909BangkokTreatythatreturnedtheseprovincestoThailand,
BuddhistThailandnowhada7%Muslimminoritypopulationlivinginherdeepsouth.After
yearsofdiscriminativegovernmentpoliciesaimedatassimilatingtheMuslims,theMuslims
revoltedandformedthePattaniUnitedLiberationOrganisation(PULO)tosecedefrom
Thailand.ContentionwithMalaysiaarosewhenaccusationssurfacedaboutMalaysiasaidto
PULOandotherMuslimseparatistgroups.WhileMalaysiaclaimedthatshewouldneitheraid
norgoagainsttherebels,whilealsopreventedherlandfrombeingusedasabasetolaunch
attacksonThailand,itwaseventuallyrevealedthattheconservativePASgovernmentin
Kelantan(anorthernMalaystate)hadbeenaidingtherebelsbyofferingrefugeinitsterritory,
preventingtheThaimilitaryfrompursuingthemandunderminingtheMalaysiangovernments
officialstance.MalaysiafacedtheproblemoftheThaiMuslimshavingclosetieswiththeir
MalaysianrelativesandchoosingnottohelpfellowMuslimsinneedwouldlosethemvaluable
politicalsupportfromconservativeMuslims.ThusMalaysiawasdrawnintosupportingtheir
cause.ThailandrespondedbyallegingthatPULOoriginatedandoperatedfromMalaysia,and
thatMalaysiawasPULOsmainsponsor.Withbothsidesbeingunabletocometotermsover
thishighlychargedracialreligiousissuethathadpoliticalimplications,theconflicthasbeen
unresolvedtothisday.Thusthisshowsthatracialreligiousdisputescausedinterstatetensions
thatweresensitiveandviolentduetoitsnature,presentingacountertotheargumentthat
territorialdisputeswerethegreatestcauseofinterstatetensions.

Whileterritorialdisputescanconsideredtobeasignificantcauseofinterstatetensionsinterms
ofthenumberofcases,therealissuebehindalltheaforementionedexamplesisactuallythat
ofsovereignty.Sovereignty(ofastate)isdefinedasbeingfreefromexternalcontroland
holdingtherighttopursueitsownnationalinterests.Inthecontextofinterstatetensions,
sovereigntycanbeclassifiedintothreetypes:territorialsovereignty,economicsovereigntyand

politicalsovereignty.Territorialsovereigntyinvolvesemphasizingownershipoverapieceof
territory.Attemptsbyothernationstoclaimthatsamepieceoflandorintrudeonitisseenas
infringingterritorialsovereignty,thusprecipitatingtheexampleoftheSabahdispute
(competingclaimsandtheCorregidorIncidenttoretakeSabah).Economicsovereigntyinvolves
notpermittingotherstatestocontrolresourcesdeemedastheirown.Competingclaimsto
ownershipofeconomicresourcesaswellasseizingthembeforeresolutionareseenas
infringingeconomicsovereignty,sparkingofftheMalaysiaThailandEEZdispute(competing
claims)andmoresignificantlythecaseofislandsofSipadanandLigitan(competingclaimsand
MalaysiasdevelopmentoftouristfacilitieswithoutIndonesianawareness/consent).Political
sovereigntyinvolvesemphasizingfreedomfromexternalcontrolininternalaffairs.External
commentsorattemptstointerfereintheactionstakenbyastateareseenasinfringingpolitical
sovereignty,resultingindisputesliketheSouthernThailandinsurgency(Malaysianattemptsat
aidingtheMuslimseparatistsweredeemedbyThailandtobedisruptingtheirinternal
campaigntocrushtherebellions).Thuseventhoughinterstatetensionswereseeninvarious
forms,thefundamentalcauseforallofthemwastheupholdingofsovereigntybyastate,beit
intheformofpolitical,territorialoreconomicsovereignty.

Inconclusion,territorialdisputescanonlybeconsideredthegreatestcauseofinterstate
tensionsinindependentSoutheastAsiatoasmallextentasnotonlywerethereothercausesof
interstatetensions(somebeingmoreviolentinnature),butalsothatterritorialdisputeswere
butthemanifestationofattemptsbystatestoprotectandupholdtheirterritorialandinsome
cases,economicsovereignty.Territorialdisputes,andotherdisputesforthatmattermustbe
viewedwithinthecontextofstatesovereignty,anditwastheeffortsundertakenby
independentstatestoupholdtheirsovereigntythatwasthegreatestcauseofinterstate
tensions.