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Cavitation and the generation of tension in liquids

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1984 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 17 2139
(http://iopscience.iop.org/0022-3727/17/11/003)
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J. Phys. D : Appl. Phys., 17 (1984) 2139-2164. Printed in Great Britain

REVIEW ARTICLE

Cavitation and the generation

of tension in liquids
D H Trevena
Department of Physics, University Collegeof Wales, Penglais, Aberystwyth, DyfedSY23
3BZ, UK

Received 1 March 1984

Abstract. The phenomenonof cavitation occurs when a tension, applied

to a liquid. exceeds
a certain critical value known as the breaking tension or cavitation threshold. The present
review article considers various ways in which liquids have been subjected to tension and
how the accompanying cavitation has been studied. The importance of these matters in
medicine and botanyis also discussed.

1. Introduction
The word cavitation was used for the first time in 1895 as a result of some trials on
H.M.S. Daring, a new destroyer. It was found that the propellers were not developing
sufficient thrust because they created
voids and cloudsof bubbles in the water when the
pressure near the bladesfell to a negativevalue (tension) of about half an atmosphere.
The termcavitation to describe this effect
was suggested by R E Froude,distinguished
a
naval architect (Hutton 1972). Since then, in the Engineering literature, it is usually
stated that cavitation occurs when the pressure
in a liquid fallsto the vapour pressure
of
the liquid. This is misleading: it is more correct to say that cavitation occurs whentiny
bubbles are observed to form as a consequence
of pressure reduction,usually to negative
pressures. However, the fact that a liquid can sustain a tension before
it eventually
cavitates was known earlier to Donny
(1846) and to Berthelot(1850).
In the present paper
we shall be concernedwith the recentuse of Berthelots original
method together with other ways of subjecting a liquid to tension. Inextricably bound
up with this application of tension to a liquid is the occurrence of cavitation. In some
cases the inducingof cavitation at the breaking tension
of the liquid is the desired goal.
In other casesit is the suppressionof cavitation, asin gear pumps,which is the objective.
Broadly speaking, cavitation can start
in one of three ways at a suitable nucleus when
the pressure is reduced to a negative value. It is thought that there are three types of
such nuclei. First, in water, there is evidence for the existence of a large number of
minute sphericalgas bubbles someof which may be stabilised against gaseous diffusion
by a skinof organic impurity (Iyengar and Richardson 1958, Hayward 1970). Secondly,
there may be solid particles (motes) in the liquid with gas trapped in crevices in these
particles (Apfell970, Crum1979). In the third place,gas can be trappedin tiny crevices
in the walls of the vessel containing the liquid (Winterton 1977, Overton and Trevena
1980).
0022-3727/84/112139
Dll-C

+ 27 $02.25 @ 1984 The

Institute

of Physics

2139

2140

D H Trevena

The present paperwill be devoted to asurvey of the various ways in which a liquid
can be subjected to tension. In of
some
these casesthe tensionis not always largeenough
to cavitate theliquid whilst in other cases the breaking tension (or
cavitation threshold)
is reached. Bubble studies,involving the growth of a bubble and its subsequent timehistory, will also be described. The cavitation erosion produced on a solid is a wellknown phenomenon and itsoccurrenceandproductionarediscussed.Finally,the
relevance of theseeffects in other disciplines,such as botanyandmedicine,
is
summarised.
2. Static application of tension to a liquid
2.1. The Berthelot tube method
In his original experiments Berthelot used a sealed cylindrical glass tube which was
almost completely filled with water. On heating the tube the water expanded until it
completely filled the tube at a certain temperature Tf but, when it was subsequently
allowed to cool, the adhesion
of the liquid to the walls of the tube prevented the liquid
from contracting at a greater rate than the internal volume of the tube. In this way a
progressively increasing tension F was set upin the liquid as the temperaturefell below
Ti until it eventually broke at a lower temperatureTb.As the liquid broke there was a
sudden increase AVin the external volume
of the tube becauseof the releaseof tension
in the liquid at the same instant. In
his experiments Berthelot found that the fractional
increase AV/V in the volume of the waterwas 1/120 just before the break occurred and
he calculated that the tension in the water was 50 atm at the same instant (Trevena
1978).
Since Berthelot performed his original work, the Berthelot tube method has been
reported intermittently in the literature. Three important papers on the method by
Temperley and Chambers (1946) and by Temperley (1946, 1947) describe how the
original experimentsof Berthelot were repeated. Their
conclusion was that the strength
of water in the presenceof glass is between 30 and 50 atm. These tensions were calculated
from the measured value
of AV/V and various elastic data for the tube.
In the Berthelot tube work describedso far it was only possible to measure experimentally the actual breaking tension when the enclosed
liquid fractured. A considerable
step forward was made when a transducer method
of monitoring continuously the
growth of this tension was developed by Trevena and his co-workers (Chapman et a1
1975). This was done by attaching an unbonded strain gauge pressure transducer to a
steel Berthelo: tube in such a way that the pressure sensing diaphragm
of the transducer
formed one of the end walls of the tube. Using this technique, Richards and Trevena
(1976) were able to plot afamily
of (tension, temperature) curves for water;
it is believed
that this is the first time that such curves had been reported for liquid
a
in the negative
pressure range. These curves extended to negative pressures
of about -30 atm; it was
not possible to follow the curves for any lower values of these pressures because the
liquid in the tube broke at this value
of the negative pressure.
This work led naturally to the development
of a furthernew type of Berthelot tube,
designed so as to enable the tube to be evacuated thoroughly before the introduction of
the testliquid (Jones et a1 1981). By this meansit was hoped that muchof the air existing
in crevices inthe tubewall would be removed andso enable the testliquid to withstand
a larger tension before breaking. In the actual experiments
was this
found to be the case:
all-time highfor waterin steel) were obtained
tensions of up to 46 atm (at the time, an

Cavitation

2141

before cavitation occurred. Later, using the same design of tube, Overton et a1 (1982)
describe experiments in which water was degassed before introducing it into an evacuated tube. Withthis process of prior degassing, potential cavitation nuclei in the liquid
were removed and much larger breaking tensions
of up to68 atm were obtained.
A second electrical modification of the original Ber:helot tube method has been
reported by Sedgewick and Trevena (1978). In this work pressure changes in the liquid
were monitored by means of a semiconductor strain gauge attached to the outsideof a
While the method
steel tubeso that it measured the accompanying circumferential strain.
is perfectly reliable it has not been used to the same extent as the transducer method.
Mention must also be made
of the workof Evans (1979) who used glass
a
tube shaped
into a spiral; this method
was based on an idea introduced
by Meyer (1911j . A longglass
tube was formed into a spiral consisting of an odd number of half-circles with the two
ends of the tube parallel and pointing in the same direction. Internal pressure would
cause the coil to unwind slightly (as in a Bourdon pressure gauge) so that the two ends
separate; conversely, internal tension would bring the two ends closer together. By
monitoring changes in the separationof the tube endswith a distance meter a record
of
pressure (or tension)against temperature could be made. After
this technique had been
established it was used to study some factors which influence nucleation, in particular
the nucleation gas bubbles in the supersaturated diver (Evans 198lj. This is a good
example of the use of the Berthelot tube techniquein medical physics.

2.2. Theoretical aspects of the Berthelot tube method

In the previous section
we dealt with the development
of the experimental procedure
of
the Berthelot tube method. In recent years there has been a parallel development
in the
theory of this fascinating experiment. Some of these theoretical aspects will now be
considered.
The theoryof the method asused by Temperley (1947) and all previous workerswas
limited in that the various equationsused yielded only the actual breaking value of the
tension. A more comprehensive theory was derived by Williams and Trevena (1977)
which made it possibleto calculate the
values of both the pressure and the tensionanyat
stage during a Berthelot tube experiment and not merely that
of the breaking tension.
These calculated values agree closely withthe experimental values given by the experimental isochores obtainedby Richards and Trevena(1976).
At a later stage this theory was extended still further by Jones and Trevena (1980)
and afairly detailed summaryof their work will now be given. They
started by considering
by Richards
a typical (pressure, temperature) curve for water
in a steel tube as obtained
and Trevena. The general shape
of such a curveis shown in figure 1; in this figure, asis
usual in Berthelot tube work, the values
of the pressure plotted are those relative to the
external ambient pressure of one atmosphere. At A , where the temperature T = To,
both the tube and enclosed
liquid are in an unstressed state and the absolute pressure
in
value obtained for
the liquid is 1 atm atthis stage. Suppose that the largest experimental
the tension is at thepoint B corresponding to somelower temperature T = T I (<To)at
which stage cavitation sets in.The question then consideredby these workers was this:
in the absence of any cavitation, what is the maximum possible tension that can be
generated in the water as the portion AB
of the curve is extended into aregion of still
lower temperatures? This maximum value
of the tensionwill then give an upperlimit to
the inherent potentialof the method.

2142

D H Trevena

The authorsshow that the slopeof the curve in figure 1 is given by

dP/d 2- = (PL - PS)/(KL + Ks)

(1)

where pL, pS are the expansivities of the liquid and the steel and KL, Ks are their
isothermal compressibilities. Also from equation (1) we see that themaximum tension
which can be generated in the system occurs when dp/d T = 0, that is, when PL= PS.
This occurs atthe pointR in figure 1 at a temperatureof T = T, = 6 "C. So, as we follow
F will increase as the temperature falls to T = T, and will
the curve from A the tension
thereafter decrease. For this reason this temperature T, at the pressure minimum is
referred toas the 'reversal temperature.' We
shall return tothis point in a moment.

Figure. 1. General shapeof the (pressure, temperature) curve

for water in a steel Berthelot
tube.

The p ' s and K ' s in equation (1)will vary with temperature and this variation can be
obtained from tables;this enables one toplot the graph of dp/d T against T. The value
of the maximum tensionF,, at the pointR in figure 1 is given by

and, similarly, the tensionF a t a temperatureT ( T, < T < To)is

rT

p = -F = J (dp/dT)dT.
T@

Thus F,,, and F can readily beobtained from the appropriate areas under the (dp/d
T,
T ) curve. For example forTo = 30 "C, F,, = 73 atm.
In later experiments, two
of the isochores obtained for water
in a steel tube exhibited
the reversal effect at around5 "C (Jones et a1 1981). This was an exciting experimental
result.
2.3. The centrifugal method
We now consider another 'static' method in which a gradually increasing tension
applied to a liquid column untilit breaks.

is

Cavitation

2143

We first give the theoryof the methodby considering a Z-shaped

capillary tube, open
at both ends, and containing a liquid.
If such a tubeis mounted horizontally and spunin
its plane with angular
velocity w about vertical
a
axis through its centre, then a pressure
gradient of p d r is generated in the outward direction at a distance
r from the axis. The
pressure is always atmospheric at the
two ends of the tube and decreases we
asapproach
negative and when
the axis. As w is made to increase, the pressure eventually becomes
wis sufficiently large the liquid ruptures at the centreof the tube. From a knowledge
of
this critical valuew, the value of the breaking tensionis easily calculated.
Some experimentsusing distilled water in a Pyrex glass capillary were described by
Briggs (1950) in a much-quoted paper. Briggs (who, at the time, was head of the US
National Bureau of Standards) emphasises the need for scrupulouscleanliness in such
measurements. In the centrifugal field one half of the liquid column was pulling against
the other until, at W = W , , the column broke at its centre. Briggs found the breaking
tension of distilled water to be 277 atm at 10 "C, the highest experimental value ever
reported. He also studied the effect of temperature on breaking tension. This tension
decreased from a maximumof 277 atm at 10 "C to 217 atm at 50 "C. This decrease is to
be expectedbecauseatthe
critical temperaturethetension
mustbe zero. As the
temperature fell from 5 "C to 0 "C the breaking tension fell very rapidly and this represents another anomaly in the behaviour of water in this temperature range. Briggs
emphasises that it was not possible to say whether the rupture of the water column
occurred at thewall of the capillary (loss of adhesion) or in the body of the liquid (loss
of cohesion).
Strube and Lauterborn (1970) developed the method to study cavitation nuclei at
the interface between quartz glass and pure degassed water. The maximum breaking
tension observed was 175 atm and they found that the
gas content of the water doesnot
play a discernible part (thusimplying that 'loss of cohesion' is not the important factor
in the experiment). Their overall conclusions were that hydrophobic impurities
and
cavities at the wall played the major role in the formation of nuclei for triggering off
cavitation.
3. Dynamic stressing of a liquid

Broadly speaking, there are

two waysin which a liquid canbe subjected to tension under
dynamic stressing. In the first of these a compressional pulse is first produced in the
liquid and is later converted into a tension pulse by reflection at a suitable boundary.
The second methodis somewhat more directin that a tensionpulse is generated ab initio
in the liquid. Someof the work basedon these two methods will now be described.

3.l . Dynamic stressing based on the repection principle

The classic example of this type occurs in work using underwater explosions. The
resulting upward-going pressurewave is reflected as a tension wave at the free surface
of the water. Muchof this work was carried out during the Second World War (Trevena
1967). A small-scale experiment of this kind, in which an explosivecharge was detonated
a small distance below the surface
of a liquid, has been described
by Wilson et a1 (1975).
The basic idea was to obtain high-speed motion photographs
of the spray dome formed
above the original undisturbed free surface as a result of detonating the charge. The

2144

D H Trevena

authors show that the

initial spray dome velocity

V0 is given

by

where p is the maximum pressure of the explosion, F is the maximum tension in the
reflected pressure wave, pis the density
of the liquid and Uis the pressure
wave velocity.
In the actual experiments a small electrically actuated detonator containing 0.1 g of
explosive was placedat depths varying
R
between 2.5 and 12.7cm below the free surface.
A high-speed camerawas usedto photograph the
initial displacementof the spray dome
and from this sequence
of pictures V. was found. A graph of V. against Rwas then drawn
and extrapolation of this graph to V0 = 0 corresponded to F = 2p (see equation (2)).
This value R0 of R turned out to be 31 Acm.
graph was then drawn
of the peak pressure
p against the so-called 'similarityparameter' for explosives,
W1I3/R,where Wis the
mass
p was obtained from the particlevelocity by means of
of the charge. The peak pressure
tables of the Rankine-Hugoniot equations. From the extrapolated value
ofW"3/R
corresponding to V0 = 0 (that is, to R= Ro) a value of p , and thus of F. was obtained.
The valueof Ffor thecavitation thresholdof ordinary waterwas 8.0 atm.
The bullet-piston method, used over a number of years by Trevena and his colof a liquid
leagues, is also based on the reflection of a pressure pulse at the free surface
(Trevena 1975). In this method the
liquid is contained in a vertical cylindricaltube fitted
with a steel piston at itslower end. A pressure pulse is then generated in the liquid by
firing a lead bullet to strike the lower end
of the piston normally at its centre. The
(pressure, time) curve of this pulse rises rapidly in about 50 ,mto a maximum value p
and then decays more gradually overfew
a hundred microseconds. For apulse in water
p could be up to about
300 atm and the total
effective duration Tof the pulseis typically
500 , p . When this pulse reaches the upper free surface of the liquid it is reflected as a
tension pulse. At asufficiently large depth 1 below the free surface, such that21/c > 5,
the incident andreflected pulses will not overlap in time (c being thevelocity of propagation of the pulses in the liquid). Piezolectric transducers were used at a depth 1 to
measure the peak amplitudes,
p and F , of the incident and reflectedpulses respectively.
Many records are taken in which p is gradually increased by using different kinds of
bullets and pistons of varying masses. For each record thevalues of p and F are noted
and the ( F . p ) curve drawn, This curve
shows that the value
of Fdoes notincrease linearly
with p . as one might expect on a simple reflection principle, but levels off at a constant
limiting valueF , This limitingor 'plateau'value clearlyrepresents the maximum tension
the liquid can stand under these experimental conditions itand
represents the breaking
tension (Couzens and Trevena 1969,1974).
This 'plateau' methodwas later extendedby Sedgewick and Trevena(1976) to show
that the effect of boiling and deionisation increased the ability of water to withstand
tension before cavitation occurred. The various breaking tensions
which they observed
are summarisedin table 1.
Table 1. Breaking tensions for four types of water.

F (atrn)

Type of water
Breaking
tension
Ordinary tap-water
Deionised water
Boiled tap-water
Boiled deionised water

9.0
10.0

11.5
14.5

Cavitation

2145

They also studied the effect

of repeated stressing by subjecting a single specimenof
tap-water to stressing at regular 3 min intervals. (The limitations of the experimental
method dictated a minimum interval
of 3 min between successive shots.)The values of
A in figure
Pwere then plotted for each
successive shot and the results, shown as curve
2, show thatP increased with repeated failure of the test liquid. The conclusion is that
some of the air nuclei (dissolved gas,
or, more likely, microscopic air bubbles) are
'cleaned up' by each successive shot until eventuallyfi itself tends to some upperlimit
this conclusion was obtained by leaving the test
of about 11.0 atm. Further support for
specimen to stand for24 h before subjecting it to further repeated stressing (see curve
B of figure 2).

Figure 2. Graph showing the variation

Sedgewick and Trevena1976).

of breaking tension with successive shots (after

Sedgewick and Trevena also studied the way in which F for tap-water varied with
temperature. Their graph ofpagainst temperature showed asharp peak at a temperature
of 4 "C corresponding to the maximum density
of water.
Recently, Overton and Trevena(1982) have used thebullet-piston method to show
that the dynamic breaking tension of a liquid depends on the stressing rate: a higher
stressing rate leads to a higher breaking tension vice
andversa.
Carlson and Henry (1973) also used the reflection principle to convert a pressure
pulse into a tension pulse. In their work
this was achieved by allowing the pressurepulse
to be reflected, not at the free surface
of the liquid, but at a suitable
liquid-solid interface.
Furthermore, their tensions were applied at stress rates which were about 10' times
higher than thosein the workof Wilson et a1 and Trevenaet al. The essential partof their
apparatus is shown in figure 3. The test liquid L was confined to a cell between a solid
plate S and a stretched aluminised
Mylar film M. A pulsed electron beam generator
was
used to produce a stress
pulse in the solid plate. This compressional stress wave generated
in the solid travelled into the liquidand, since the acoustic impedances ( p c ) of the solid
and liquid were chosen to be virtually equal, this stress wave was only very slightly
affected in crossing the solid-liquid boundary. This compressional wave, after
travelling
through the liquid?was reflected as a tension wave at the interface M. Inthis work the
solid plate was made of a composite organic material (Astrel360) and
its thickness was
2 mm. The test liquid was glycerol and the sample had a thickness of 3 mm, while the
stretched Mylar film was only 6 pm in thickness. The free-surface motion of the Mylar
film, caused by the reflection on it of the incident stress wave from the liquid, was
monitored by means of a velocity interferometer using light from a He-Ne laser. From

2146

D H Trevena

an observationof fringe shift data the

(velocity, time) recordsof the Mylar film could be
obtained and hence a value
of the negative stress that
was generated in the liquid. From
a seriesof experiments Carlson and Henry found the breaking tension
of glycerol to be
of the experiments
600 atm. They also make the point that
glycerol
the did break in each
and that this failure occurred at a distance
of about 0.2 mmaway from the Mylar film,
that is,within the body of the liquid itself.

Pulsed
beam

Figure 3. The apparatus of Carlson and Henry (1973).

Carlson and Levine (1974) extended the cell method to study the variation in the
q. They did thisby measuring$ over the
breaking tensionPof glycerol with its viscosity,
temperature range 220 to 350 K ; over this temperature rangeq varies widely between
and lo5Pa S . A log-log plot of E against q showed that the experimental results
could be divided into two distinct regions. For viscosities up to 19 Pa S , F could be
described by the empirical relation of Couzens and Trevena(1974)

E= k q x
with x = 0.30. For values of q from 19 to lo5 Pa s , F was virtually constant at 2500 atm.
This experimentis one of the few in which
the breaking tension has been correlated
with
viscosity. In a third use of the method Carlson (1975) found the breaking tension of
mercury to be19 000 atm.

3.2. Ab initio methods of generating a tension pulse

Lackme (1978) used a very direct and novel
way of applying a tension pulseto a liquid.
A test specimen
of water was containedin asealedcylindricalthick-walled tube, mounted
with its axis vertical. The axial length of the enclosed liquid column was 4 cm and its
radius 1cm. At its lower end theliquid column was supported by a vertical cylindrical
aluminium bar and a similar bar rested flush on top of the liquid. A tension pulse was
applied to theliquid at its lower
end. This was done by fixing a circularmetal plate to the
bottom end of the lower bar and then causing a ring-shaped weight to fall on to this
plate. The impact of the weight caused a stress wave to travel up the lower bar and
produce a tension pulse at the base
of the liquid column. This pulse, aftertravelling up
the liquid,was transmitted into the upper bar. A strain gauge mounted on the lower bar
recorded the incident pulse entering the
lower end of the liquid and a similar gauge on
the upper bar recorded the transmitted pulse. The duration
of the incident pulse was
about 100 ps and its amplitude could be varied by changing the height of fall of the
ring-shaped weight. With the experimental set-up, tensions of up to 5 atm could be
transmitted through the water column. Lackme emphasises this
that valuewas not that
of the breaking tension but rather that
of the maximum tension that could be generated
in his apparatus. The method, however, seems to very
be a promisingone.
A second method is the tube-arrest method used
by Overton and Trevena(1981).
They used a cylindrical Perspex tube, of length 100 cm and internal diameter 2.5 cm,
which was half filled with water and mounted
vertically. The tubecould be pulled down

Cavitation

2147

so that it rose through a

against rubber-tensioned supports and then released suddenly
vertical distance z (of 5 cm) before being arrested by a Tufnol buffer. After the impact
the water tended to continueits upward motion thuscausing a tension pulse, together
with cavitation, to occur near the base of the liquid column. The resulting pressure
changes in the liquid were monitored by means of a piezoelectric transducer mounted
axially into the bottom of the tube and photographic records of the accompanying
oscilloscope traces were made. By varying the distance z , it was possible to vary the
velocity U of the tube just before the arrest and hence the amplitude F of the initial
tension pulse at the bottom
of the liquid column.
The cavitation occurring took the form
of a small cluster of tiny cavities, within the
main body of the liquid, at a heightof 1 or 2cm above the base of the liquid column. A
typical oscillogram showedthe following features. Aninitial tension pulseof amplitude
15 atm was followed, after an interval
of 12 ms, by a pressure pulseof amplitude 9 atm;
thereafter the record was of an oscillatory nature showing tension and pressure pulses
of progressively decreasing amplitudes. Such pressure-tension cycles had been reported
by earlier workers and are accompanied
by collapse-growth in the cavitation.
This tube-arrest techniquewas later developed into reliable
a
method for measuring
the cavitation thresholds of various liquids (Williams et a1 1982). This work involved a
repeated stressingof the testliquid at regular time intervals (e.g.
every 15 S ) , the impact
velocity Ubeing increased after each stressing (by
increasing z ) . The amplitudeFof the
initial tension pulse was recorded each time and the ( F , U ) graph plotted. This graph
followed a fairly steep linear rise at first up to a certain velocity U = Uc: at this stage
there was an abrupt changeof slope with the curve
following a more gradual linear rise.
For velocities U < U, no cavitation occurredin the tube after impact whereas Lfor
> Uc
cavitation was always present. Thus the
tension corresponding toU = V , represents the
cavitation threshold. This value of U , was found to be very repeatable and this makes
the method avery reliable one for measuring the breaking tension.

3.3. The use of a water shock tube

Water shock tube methods have been used
in cavitation studies in recent years. In such
work a tension wave is produced in a liquid either directly or by converting a positive
pulse by a suitablereflection method.
Some experiments of the former kind have been described by Fujikawa and Akamatsu (1978). They used a sealed vertical tube, most of which contained degassed tap
water whilst the space above the water contained a mixture of air and helium under
pressure, the upper end of the tube being sealed by means of a diaphragm. Hydrogen
and oxygen bubbles were generated in the bottom of the tube by electrolysis and the
diaphragm was then broken. This caused a rarefaction wave to propagate down the
helium-air chamber and down through the water column. This down-going rarefaction
wave in the water was reflected as a rarefaction at the closed lower end of the tube.
Transducers were used to measure the tension generated
in the liquid. It was also
possible to study photographically the growth, collapse and rebound of bubbles near
the base of the water column;this work will be considered furtherin D 4.4. It should be
emphasised, however, that these were not true cavitation bubbles (in the sense that
they were actually produced by the tension pulse) but ready-made ones producedby
electrolysis.
A water shock tube method, but based on
reflection
a
principle, has been described
by Richards er a1 (1980). The test liquid (deionised water) was contained in the lower
part of a vertically mounted combustion-driven shock tube. When an oxyacetylene
DI1-D

2148

D H Treuena

mixture, contained in the top part of the tube, was ignited with a suitable source, a
detonation wave travelled down the tube and
was normallyreflected at the water
interface; this caused a strong compression
wave to be generatedin the liquid column.
When this compressional wave reached the bottom
of the column,which was supported
by a thin Mylar diaphragm,it was reflected and travelled upwards as wave
a of tension.
The pressure changes occurring in the column were followed by transducers mounted
in portholes in the walls of the tube. A window section was incorporated in the lower
half of the tube so as to enable streak schlieren photography to be used to record both
the incident compressional and reflected tension waves. Such records provided information on the rateof growth and the behaviourof the bubble cloudwhich was formed
when the amplitudeof the tensionwave reached a critical value, which,
in this case, was
12 atm. The most interesting feature of the streak photographwas the presence of the
strong acousticfield radiated at thecollapse of the bubbles.
4. Bubble studies

4. l . Introductory remarks
A vast literature exists on the topicof bubble studies. In the present section an attempt
will be made to summarise the main results and the various experimental methods, Most
of the experimental work has
involved either ( a ) the growth, under an applied tension,
of bubbles from microbubbles alreadyinitially present in the liquid or ( b )the creation
of bubbles by a concentrated injectionof energy at a pointin the liquid, as in laser and
spark work (see 4.3). Sometimes a bubble after growing to a certain maximum size
will collapse violently; such a transient cavity was first studied by Lord Rayleigh as
long ago as 1917. There is also the pulsating bubble which grows and contracts in
decreasing cycles over a relatively long period before finally disappearing. Of course,
cavitation usually occursas a large burstof bubbles but, in the main,it has proved more
profitable to study the growth and collapse
of a single cavity.
Differential equations describing the dynamics of a single cavity have been widely
used and these
will be discussedmorefully in 4.5. Essentially they tellus how the radius
R of the cavity varies with time. The basic physics of the problem is however a very
complex matter. In the first place there is the question of the composition of the gasvapour mixture inside the cavity; that is, how much of it is gas (air) and how much is
liquid vapour? The answer tothis question is not known and various assumptions have
been made in order to deal mathematically with the model bubble. In one case it is
assumed that the relative amounts
of gas and vapourstay constant asR varies. In another
it is assumed that, as R changes, either evaporation or condensation occurs so as to
maintain the vapour pressure at its equilibrium value, determinedby the temperature
of the surrounding liquid. There are
also anumber of other factors to be considered. In
the main these are: energy losses (involved in damped oscillations of a cavity), heat
conduction, viscosity, compressibility and surface tension. Also there is mass transfer
by diffusion (although its effectis not very marked in cavity dynamics) and finally there
is temperature discontinuity at the phase interface.
Two comprehensive accounts of these topics have been given by Oldenziel (1979)
and by Godefroy and Oldenziel(l981).
4.2. Ultrasonic work

This section will be kept brief for two reasons. The

first is the fact that a great deal has
already been written about ultrasonics
(in both papers and books) (e.g. Flynn
1964) and

Cavitation

2149

it would therefore be superfluous to write at length here. The second

is that various
applications of ultrasonics will be described in 5 of the present article.
The processes occurring in ultrasonic stressing are briefly as follows. When a highfrequency soundwave is passed through aliquid the latteris subjected to a compression
and a tension during the
positive and negative half-periods, respectively,
of the pressure
cycle. One would therefore expect cavitation to occur during the negative
half-cycle and
this is found to be the case provided the wave amplitude is sufficiently high (that is, a
tension of sufficient magnitude is generated). During thenext compressional half-cycle
the cavities collapse (partially)and re-growin the next rarefaction half-cycle. This steady
growth and collapseof cavities gives rise to a continuous hissing sound called cavitation
noise. We now summarise some recent papers.
Lauterborn and his colleagues have described their recent work on the spectra of
cavitation noise (Lauterborn and Cramer 1981a, b, 1982). Their spectra consisted of
by a cloud
sharp lines on a noisebackground. Bothlines and background were produced
of oscillating bubblesgenerated and sustained
by the drivingsound field.
The mechanism
needing explanation was the one by which the energy in the driving sound wave of
frequencyfo is transformed into the different frequency components
of the spectrum. It
was found that the frequenciesof the lines in the spectrum were related arithmetically
to fo in that they consisted of its harmonics nfo ( n = 2.3, , . .) and its subharmonics
fo/m ( m = 2,3, . . .) and their harmonics. The harmonics nfo were explained in terms
of forced nonlintar bubble oscillations and the noise background was attributed to
the shock waves emitted by collapsingbubbles.Asatisfactoryexplanation
for the
presence of the subharmonics was, however, not known.
The method usedby Lauterborn and his colleagues to set up their cavitation bubble
field was to generate a high-intensity acoustic field in water. Instead of using a sound
beam focused into a point, inaslaser work (see 4.3), they used asound field produced
by a hollow cylinder of piezoelectric material (PZT-4) which was totally submerged in
the water. Thecylinder had a resonance frequencyof 23.56 kHz and when drivenin its
first radial mode the maximum sound pressure
was generated alongits axis.At sufficient
intensity,streamers of tiny bubblesmovingtowardsthe
axis appearedandthese
coalesced on the axis to form a smaller number of much larger bubbles. The sound
emitted by the bubblefield was recorded by a microphone immersed in the water. Both
the generation of the bubble field and the recording of the cavitation noise were controlled by a minicomputer. The test
liquid was ordinary tap-water left standing for a few
hours so as toallow the removalof large bubbles. The transducercylinder was driven at
resonance Cfo = 23.56 kHz) and the
voltage drivingit was increased at a steady rate from
In one case this voltage was increased steadily from0 to
zero to some maximum value.
60 V over 120 ms and thereafter kept constant for the rest of the experiment. It was
found that there were only two thresholds for the onset of broad-band noise (20 and
55 V). As the voltage increased from zero the spectrum
first exhibited five definite lines
(nfo, n = 1 to 5 ) and there was no noise continuum. Just before thevoltage reached the
first threshold (20 V) a noise spectrum appearedin a small frequency range between70
and 130 kHz. Above this first threshold the spectrum reverted to being definite lines
again, their frequencies now beingfo/2, fo, 3fd2, 2f0, 5fd2 etc. Later, just below the
second threshold at 55 V the harmonics nfo ( n = 2 , 3 , . . .) became relatively stronger.
Finally, at the fully developed noise cavitation, noise again occurredin addition to the
distinct lines; this noise occurred mainly between the frequencies100 and 200 kHz and
near the line
3fd2. In fact the line 3fd2 was always the strongestline in the fully developed
cavitation noise spectrum.

2150

D H Trevena

In this typeof spectrum the sharplines and the broad-bandnoise are clearly related
to the dynamical behaviourof the cloudof cavitation bubbles. But tofind a satisfactory
model in terms of such a large number of bubbles is clearly a formidable task. As
discussed elsewhere in the present paper, work has been done on a single spherical
bubble subjected to sinusoidal
a
driving pressure of increasing amplitude. Such amathematical modelis a highly nonlinear differential equationof second order for the bubble
radius as a function of time; it includes the effects of surface tension, viscosity and the
compressibility of the liquid (Cramer 1980). A still more comprehensive model needs
to be developed which will include the interaction of the bubbles, that is, the fact that
they all couple via their sound radiation. This theory
must also explain why the amplitudes of the lines in the spectrum change as the
driving pressure changes: some decrease
while others increaseso that energy flows back and forwards between the lines. Lauterborn and Cramer(1982) end their paper thus:A complete theory
of acoustic cavitation
noise spectra demands a self-consistent of
setequations where thenoise output also acts
as input to drive the bubbles. We are far from
achieving this goal.

4.3. Laser work

When a test liquid is irradiated by a focused high-power laser thereis a large injection
of energy into theliquid at thefocal point. This intense concentrationof energy at this
point usually produces one large cavity which grows and later collapses. There are, in
addition. small solid impurities (motes) andalso dissolved gasesin the focal region and
these absorb some of the injected energy. So liquid breakdown, that is, the production
of cavities in the liquid, can occur as a resultof ( a ) the laser energy entering the focal
point and (6) the energy absorbed by the impurities which then become hot spots on
which these cavities can form. Thereis considerable evidence that these hot spotsplay
a big rolein the initial liquid breakdown. Acavity is formed around each spot as centre
and this cavity then grows rapidly at first; later its radial growth is slowed down and
during this deceleration a rarefaction wave travels out of the centre. This results in a
tension field in the focal region, which,
in turn, will cause furthercavities toform. These
tension-induced bubbles are the more
familiar or true type of cavitation bubble.
Filtered and unfiltered tap-waterhas been usedin laser experiments andit is found that
the filtered water has considerably
fewer hot spots.
Lauterborn (1972, 1974) initiallyusedhigh-speed
photographytostudylaserinduced breakdown in liquids. In this work intense light from a ruby laser was brought
to a focus at some interior point
in the testliquid (both water and
silicone oils were used).
The laser energywas injected intothis point as a pulse
of duration 3C-50 ns. High-speed
photography, using frame rates of up to 850 000 s-l, was used to study the formation,
growth, collapse and rebound of cavities. Although this work yielded a good deal of
information about cavitation bubble dynamics, a major step forward was made when
high-speed holography, rather thanphotography,
was employed (Lauterborn and Ebeling 1977). Two ruby lasers were used, one for producing the breakdown and one for
holography. The laser for breakdown emittedpulses of 30-50 ns duration and energy
0.1 J . The advantageof holography over photographyis this. A great dealof white light
is emitted during the breakdown process andthis makes for difficulties with ordinary
photography. However, when holography is used to record the breakdown, this light
constitutes an incoherent background on the holographic plate and does not appear on
the reconstruction of the events in the liquid. This makes it far easier
to observe
simultaneously the bubble formation and the accompanying
wave emission.
Lauterborn andhis colleagues have since investigated laser breakdown in great detail

Cavitation

2151

and are probably the best-known research

school in this field. Lauterborn (1979) introduced the term 'optic cavitation' for the formation
of cavities in a liquid
by light.
Haussmann and Lauterborn(1980) describe a method fordigital 3-D image processing
from hologram reconstructions; in this way they analysed automatically fast moving
bubble fields.
Hentschel and Lauterborn (1982) report on studies on the dynamics of laser-produced single bubbles and the sound and pressure waves radiated by them. For this
purpose they used a microphone to monitor the (pressure, time) curves. This microphone
was placed at a distanceof 10-20 mm from the pointof breakdown so that it picked up
the sound emitted by the cavity. A typical (pressure, time) curve showed that a strong
pressure wave was radiated on breakdown; there were pressure
waves of progressively
lower strengths radiated at each
successive cavity minimum. From their data they were
able to calculate the energy lost during one cycle of a cavity oscillation (which is the
difference in potential energy between two successive maxima) and they showed that
the acoustically radiated energywas only a small
part of this energy loss. They concluded
that other significant factors must be present. They state that: 'Itis conjectured that in
addition to theknown damping mechanismsof heat conduction anddiffusion, damping
mayalso be provided by thenonsphericity of thecollapse'.This is an important
observation.
4 . 4 . Water shock tube experiments
Japanese workers have produced some very elegant work in this field (Fujikawa and
Akamatsu 1978, 1980a, b). Their experimental method,
in which they injected a tension
pulse directly into the top
of a columnof water, has already been described
in Q 3.3. This
down-going tension wavewas reflected as a tension wave at theclosed lower end of the
tube. This up-going tensionwave was subsequently reflected at thewater-gas interface
as a compressional wave, andso on.
Studies were made
using bubbles produced
by electrolysis. For this purpose platinum
electrodes situated at the bottom of the tube were used to produce a single hydrogen
bubble, of radius 0.15 mm, andthis bubble then rose through the water
with a velocity
of about 15 mm S - ' . When the bubble reached a suitable height an electromagnetic
plunger broke the diaphragm and the tension
wave entered the top
of the water column.
The bubble grew underthis tension wave to some maximum radius and then
collapsed
under thefollowing compressional wave. This growth, collapse and rebound
of bubbles
at various horizontal distances from the
wall of the tubewas studied by means of highspeed photography andin-line Fraunhofer holographyusing a pulsed dyelaser.
The growthof a single bubble situated relatively far from the tube wall is shown in
grew
figure 4, which is the normalised (radius, time) curve for the bubble. The bubble
to its maximum radius under the tension wave and then collapsed rapidly under the
succeeding compressional wave. A second situationwhich they considered was that of
a bubble relatively near to the tubewall. They found that the nearer the bubble
was to
the wall, it grew and collapsed in increasingly asymmetric forms. During growth, the
bubble became elongated in a direction parallel to the solid boundary, but
on later
collapse it became elongated in adirectionnormaltotheboundary.Also,
as this
growth-collapse behaviour proceeded the bubble moved nearer to the boundary and
formed a water-jet. Thirdly, they studied the behaviour
of twin bubbles during collapse
and rebound. They found that the density
of water in between the bubbles changed due
to thecollision of the spherical shock waves radiated from the two bubbles. Sometimes
the twin bubbles formed water-jets directed towards each other.

2152

D H Trevena
JCompress!onalwave

J
l

10-

4p
Q

05-

Tension
wave

0(

Time
3 Imsl

Figure4. Normalised (radius, time) curve for a bubble (after Fujikawa

and
1978).
Akamatsu

Perhaps the most important result reported

in these three papers
is the light shed on
how cavitation damage on a surface occurs. Previously,
two explanations for such
damage had been put forward. One
is that small liquidjets, formed on bubbles,
impinge
on the surface. The second explanationis that a shock wave is radiated into the liquid
when the inward, collapsing motion of a bubble is arrested and that this impulsive
pressure is the one responsible for cavitation damage. The workin these three papers
suggests that it is the second explanationwhich is the valid one.
Another similar water shock tube arrangement has been described by Matsumoto
and Shirakura(1980) in which a heatedwire was usedto produce ready made bubbles.
This wire was a thick platinum wire
near the bottom of the water column; it was
electrically heated and its temperature
could be varied. This heating caused weak spots
to form in the water around the wire. When the diaphragm was ruptured as before a
tension wave was generated and was propagated down the water column. Under the
influence of this tension wave cavitation bubbles which formed at these weak spots grew
and their subsequent dynamic behaviour
was studied using high-speed photography. In
this work the gas content of the water was varied between1.4 PPM and 15.0 PPM and the
initial temperature of the wire varied from30 to 100 C. An interesting result observed
was this: if no bubble had been formed around the wire when the tension wave first
arrived, the wateractually sustained a transitory tension
of about 0.1 MPa (1 atm). This
tensile strength occurred when both the
gas content of the water and thewire temperature were low; did
it not occur when either
this gas content or the
wire temperature was
high.
The photographic results were also quite spectacular. With low gas content the
bubbles appeared in the growth phase as a string of pearls on the wire. When thegas
content was highthe bubbles coalesced andgrew to become one long
cylindrical bubble
whose axis was the wire itself. The corresponding collapse phases also showed differences. The importance and roleof the gas content of the water areclearly brought out
in this work.
4.5. Mathematical theoryof bubble dynamics

In the search for a mathematical model

of a cavitation bubble itis usually assumed that
such abubble starts as avapourgasornucleus already
present in the liquid. Subsequently,
will grow to somemaximum radius and
if the liquidis subjected to a tension, the bubble
collapse rapidly; it may then rebound and repeatcycle
the a numberof times. If, instead,
the liquid is stressed ultrasonically the nucleus may pulsate linearly
about its equilibrium
radius or itmay oscillate in a nonlinearmotion.
We first consider the so-called Rayleigh cavity-the simplest model of all, but one
which is still used a great deal. Once the spherical cavity has been created it starts to

Cavitation

2153

collapse. Rayleigh obtained the differential equation governing the radius R(t)of this
cavity for given valuesof the pressurePo at
infinity andthe pressurepi inside the cavity.
In this casep0 is the ambient pressure for thecavity and is equal to the pressurein the
liquid (assumed to be incompressible) at the position
of the cavity and in the absenceof
the cavity.pi is taken as the vapour pressurep,allatstages of the collapse (except when
cavity collapsesfrom some maximum
R is very small).In Rayleighs model the spherical
initial radius R, from rest with ( p o - p,) remaining constant. Rayleigh obtained the

for the speedof the interface at a smaller radius R;

p is the density of the liquid. From
this equation the time taken for cavity
the to collapse completely turns out to be

the Rayleigh collapsetime.

The non-dimensional relationship between t/tandR/R, has been found to agree
well
with experimental observationsof a collapsing cavity.
Let us, however, repeat that the Rayleigh model assumes that thecavity contains
vapour only and that the vapour pressure remains constant during
all stages of the
collapse. We now look further into these two assumptions which represent a grossly
oversimplified picture of the true state
of affairs.
In most cases the contentsof the bubblewill be a mixtureof gas and vapour and. as
the bubble collapses rapidly the constant internal pressure assumption
is hardly valid.
To make progress, let us first assume that we have a single bubble, containing vapour
only, at its maximum radius. As the bubble subsequently collapses, the condensation
process setsin and, ata later stage, the vapour
fails to condenserapidly enough and thus
becomes compressed as the bubble continues to contract. In other words, the vapour
will behave like anon-condensable gas (a non-equilibrium effect). The
elastic properties
of both this non-condensable gas and water, together with the inertia of the water,
provide the necessary conditions for oscillatory
an
system. The compressionof this gas
causes a bounce or a cushioning
effect until the internalgas pressure reverses thesign
of dR/dt at theminimum bubble radius. Thereafter the bubblegrows or rebounds and
at the same time a pressure is
pulse
radiated into the liquid.
If we further assume that the
bubble contains gas (air) as well as vapour then at the minimum bubble radius, the
presence of such gaswill enhance thecushioning effect just described.
So, clearly, Rayleighs original model must be modified to take account
of ali sorts of
extra factors.Such modifications havebeen undertakenby various workers, each adding
various new factors into the simple
Rayleigh model. Itis impossible to mentionall these
modified attempts at describingbubbledynamics,but
the paper by Fujikawaand
Akamatsu (1980b) contains a good exampleof the modified approach to the problem.
Their model takes into account the
effects of compressibility of the liquid, non-equilibrium condensationof the vapour, heat conduction
inside the bubble and
in the surrounding liquid and the temperaturediscontinuity at the phase interface.
They formulate the problem
by taking a spherical bubble
of initial radiusR. containing
both vapour and non-condensable gas in a viscous, compressible liquid. At time t = 0
they consider the ambient pressure to be raised to some value p l f ;subsequently the
bubble begins to collapse and this is accompanied by phase change (condensation) and
heat conduction through the bubble
wall. Before they writedown their basic equations

2154

D H Trevena

the following assumptions are made:

(1) The bubblealways remains spherical.
(2) Liquid compressibility and viscosity do notaffect each other.
(3) Gravity anddiffusion effects are negligible.
(4) The pressureis uniform throughout theinside of the bubble.
(5) The vapour andgas in the bubble areinviscid and obey the perfectgas law.
(6) The temperaturesof this vapour andgas are equal.
(7) The thermal boundary layers bothinside and outside the bubble are thin compared with the bubble radius.
(8) There is a thin but finite non-equilibrium region at the phase interface because
of the continual change
of phase there.
(9) The physical properties of the liquid and gases are constant.
All this is a far cry from Rayleigh's
simple model!
On the basis of these assumptions the authors derive three sets
of equations for: ( a )
the external region occupiedby the liquid; (6) the inside of the bubble occupied by the
mixture of vapour and gas; and (c) the phase interface. The solution
of these equations
is a rather formidable and lengthy procedure and details
may be found in the original
paper. The main results obtained may be summarised as follows. It was found that a
pressure wave was radiated into the liquid at the instant of rebound of the collapsing
bubble; the resultsshow that such a pressure wave would also occur at the reboundof
a bubblewhich includes vapour only.wasItalso possibleto obtain histories
of the bubble
radius. the bubble wall velocity, the temperatures of the bubble contents and the
surrounding liquid, and the vapour pressure and gas pressure inside the bubble. The
radial pressure distributionsin the liquid outside the bubble at various times were
also
calculated.
It is also necessary for us to consider briefly the motion of a single spherical cavity
under theinfluence of a soundfield. The cavity usually pulsates and various differential
equations have beenused to describe the motionof such a cavity.The wavelength of the
sound is always assumed tobe large comparedwith the cavity radius. In the differential
equations the effects
of various factorsare taken into account: these are heat conduction.
viscosity, sound radiation,compressibility and surfacetension. When theeffects of heat
conduction, sound radiation andviscosity are included the solutions describeso-called
of energy and
dissipative motion. These three factors cause irreversible transformations
these lead to damped motions
of the bubble. Itis found that thermal conduction
is byfar
the largestof these threedissipative effects.For a further
discussion the readeris referred
to an articleby Flynn (1964).
The dynamics of cavity clusters (as distinct from that of a single cavity) has been
considered by Hansson er a1 (1982). They discuss the case of water containingair in the
form of microbubbles,their initialradiiranging fromto
lo-' m andthevolume
concentration of free gas from loT6to
Inotherwordsthey
useda two-phase
mathematical model-a bubbly liquid-rather than use a one-phase model (that is. the
liquid only). They were able to calculate the pressure and cavitation development in
such a 'real' liquid in two experimental situations, namely, when the liquid was ( a )
between a vibrating horn and a stationary
solid surface placed at a small distance from
the horn and (6)in a tube which was accelerated by axial impact on the tube. Bothof
these experimental situations are essentially one-dimensional systems. The results of
the analysis show that the two-phase model explains satisfactorily the formation and
collapse of cavity clusters in real liquids.

Cavitation

2155

5. Cavitation erosion

5.1. Cavitation damage and cavitation erosion

When cavitation bubbles collapse near the surface
of a solid in contact with the liquid,
the surface is damaged. This process is referred to as cavitation damage or cavitation
erosion. Itis useful, however, to make a distinction betweentwo
theterms, althoughwe
shall probably not always be consistent in this respect. For example, consider the
collapse would
tube-arrest method describedin 9 3.2. It was often found that the bubble
actually crack the tube containing theliquid and this somewhat catastrophic event is
clearly cavitation damage. On the other hand in both cavitation tunnel and vibratory
cavitation teststhe test surfacei s gradually eatenaway or pitted as time proceeds. This
is what we shall meanby cavitation erosion.
5.2. Water tunnel work
Some interestingwork on the cavitation erosionwhich occurs in various hydrodynamic
flow situations has been reportedby Selim and Hutton (1981). The water tunnel used
was of the small, variable pressure, closed circuit type. The rectangular cross-section
of the parallel-sided test section was 20 X 40 mm and the water was circulated by a
19 kW centrifugal pump and
bypasscontrolto give velocitiesvarying between 15
and 45 m S - . The pressure could be varied independently by a pneumatic controller
of the waterwas measured with a van
over a rangeof 0 to 10 bar and the total air content
Slyke apparatus (Williams 1954).
Experiments were performed
with three shapesof body spanning the
20 mm direction
(see figure 5 ) . In figure 5 ( a ) a two-dimensional Venturi-lineris shown; in figure 5(b) we
have a circular cylinder and in figure 5(c) a 60 wedge with its apex upstream. The
dimensions of these three bodies weresuch that there was the same throat areain each
of the three cases. Hence, for the same flow-rate, the three throat
velocities were also
the same. The authors
define a local cavitation number, U. for theflow at the throat as

-P.
tpU2
where p , U are respectively the static pressure and meanvelocity at the throat, p v the
vapour pressure corresponding to bulk
the water temperature and
p the density of water.
In this work it was difficult to measure U directly and so it was calculated from the
upstream cavitation numbera0 which was directly measurable. Thiswas defined as
U=- P

wherepo, U0 are respectively the pressure and meanvelocity upstream of the body.
The specimen tested for erosion consisted of a rectangular plate mounted on the
side-wall downstream of the throat. In most cases the specimen was made from 99%
pure aluminium; in one case cast ironwas used. The aim of the work was to study the
cavitation erosion caused on a specimen by various flow situations. The erosion was
assessed by measuring the progressive loss in weight of the specimen plate. This plate
was weighed initially and thereafter after every hour or so of exposure to cavitation.
The weight loss rate (WLR) was then A W / ( T - TO),where AW is the weight lost by a
time T after beginning the tests (the exposure time) and TOis the so-called incubation
time during which there is no measurable weight loss. This incubation time has been
previously discussed by Trevena (1982).

2156

D H Trevena

IC I

S Idem1 I
speclrnen

Figure 5 . The three shapes of bodyusedinthewatertunnel:

( a ) atwo-dimensional
Venturi-liner: ( b ) circular cylinder; (c) 60" wedge with apex upstream (after Selim and
Hutton 1981).

In the actual experiments, weight loss measurements were carried out not only on
the side-wall plates but
also on the three geometrical bodies shown
in figure 5 . Two main
types of measurement were made, namely, the variation
of the WLR ( a ) with velocity at
constant a and ( b ) with a at constant velocity. In case ( a ) the general trendwas for the
side-wall erosion to be greater for the same upstream cavitation conditions, Furthermore
the variation of WLR with velocity followed a power law,
that is
WLR

U".

The value of n , for aluminium, varied between 3.07

(for the Venturi-liner) and 7.13 (for
the cylinder). In case( b )the situation was quite different and there were no clear trends
such as power law relations. The WLR rose as a decreased and reached a maximum
somewhere between a = 0.025 and U = 0.055; thereafter it decreased as adecreased.
It is also interesting to compare theof break-up
type
for the pure aluminium specimen
with that for the grey cast iron specimen. In the case of aluminium a pit or crater of
roughly hemispherical shape with a raised lip would be formed, showing clearly the
plastic deformation caused by a collapsing bubble. Once twoof these lips overlapped,
the material common to both tended to be extruded
in a thinsliver which stood out from
the plate's surface. These slivers then broke off, probably due toflow forces, and thus
produced weight loss in the specimen. Prior to that there had been considerable
plastic
deformation and changesin the surface butwith no measurable weight loss. For thecast
iron the method
of break-up was quite different. Electron
microscopy revealed an initial
removal of graphite flakes and lumps, thusleaving holes inthe surface. At a later stage,
grains were removed by cracking around the grain boundaries. The surface was not
raised as in the case
of the aluminium.
Lush(1979)alsostudied
the surface deformation produced on aluminium
by a
cavitating flow. For this purpose a series
of aluminium plates was placed in the side-wall
of a cavitation tunnel and subjected to the cavitating flow produced in a convergentdivergent section similar to that in figure 5 ( a ) . The resulting surface deformation was
analysed using a Talysurf surfacefinish measuring system. The results were compared
with those predicted by a theoretical model for the formation
of a single cavitation pit
by the microjet produced by a collapsing bubble. This model predicted a threshold
velocity below whichno pitting can occur and this predicted velocity agreed
closely with
et a1 (1979) investigated
experiment. In other experiments
using a cavitation tunnel Lush
the relation between cavitationnoise and erosion.

Cavitation

2157

5.3. Vibratory cavitation erosiontechniques

In 1963 a standard technique for vibratory cavitation testing was produced at the UK
National Engineering Laboratory (NEL) and subsequent methods have,very largely,
been a developmentof this technique. At that time,this technique involved theuse of
a 20 kHz water-cooled, magnetostrictive transducer drivenby a 500 W ultrasonic generator. Thevibrating unit had a peak-to-peak amplitude
of 50 pm andwas situated above
a disc-shaped test specimen. The tip of the vibrating unit and the test-piece specimen
were immersed in distilled water and the acoustic pressure field generated resulted in
the formation of a cavitation bubble
field in the film separating the vibrating tip from the
specimen. In some arrangements the specimen itself was caused to vibrate as well; in
liquid was contained in an open
others it was stationary. Again,in the earlier work, the
beaker but, more recently, a closed container has been used. The advantage of this
closed container, as compared with the open beaker, is that it enables the effects of
elevated temperatures and pressures, and also those of dissolved gas content, to be
studied. Anexcellent summary of the development and standardisation of this type of
erosion testing has been given by Hobbs (1976) of the NEL. Theultrasonic vibrator is
now an established toolof cavitation erosion research and has the great advantage that
a large amount of data can be obtained relatively quickly for a wide range of liquids,
materials and test conditions.
Some interesting erosion tests using this technique have been described by Singer
and Harvey(1979a). The essential partof the apparatusis shown in figure 6. The vibrator
used was a 150 W ultrasonic drill unit with a stellite tip attached to the free endof the
horn driven at20 kHz with a peak-to-peak amplitudeof 50 pm. The upper 'test' surface
of the specimen was at a separation distance of about 1 mm away from the tip. Both
specimen and the end of the horn were immersed in an open bath containing about 3
litres of distilled water whose temperature was controlled by a heat exchanger; a stirrer
(not shown) was used to maintain a uniform bulk temperature within the bath. The
cavitation cloud was generated in the film of liquid separating the stellite tip and the
specimen. Thegas content was measured with a van Slykeapparatus.
The authors examined the erosion produced on stationary specimens of annealed
high conductivity copper. Theweight losses were measuredusing an analytical balance.
Various types of test were carried out. Firstly, tests were performed at varying gas
content levels and it was found that the maximum rate for the copper increased from
0.73 to 4.35mil h" as thegas content rose from 7.5 to 18.4
m1 litre" (1mil = 25.4 pm).
Photographic studies and surface measurements showed
also that the form
of the erosion
pattern changed with gas content. Secondly, tests were made to ascertain the effect of
17 and 75 "C.
the mean bulk temperature on the erosion rate for temperatures between
For temperatures up to50 "C this rate was not very sensitive to temperature while for
temperatures above50 "C it decreased quite markedlywith temperature. Furthermore.
as the temperature increased, a central portion of the eroded area of the specimen
became less damaged;
this effect becamemore pronouncedwith increasing temperature
and it was also confirmed by the surface measurements. Figure 7 of the
original paper
is reproduced in figure 7 (plate).
Singer and Harvey (1979b) also reported some erosion testsusing stationary Plasticine specimens and it was found that this resulted in several deep pitsbeing formed on
the surface. Furthermore, where therewas a scratch mark on the smoothed Plasticine
surface this would, after exposure to cavitation, result
in a string of pits within the
scratch. A similar effect had been previously described by Brunton (1970). In a later

2158

D H Trevena

Stelllte
tlP

Ccvltatlar
c!oud

Test specimen

Distilled water

Figure 6 . Apparatus for vibratory erosion tests (after Singer and Harvey 1979a).

paper Singer and Harvey (1981) describe furtherwork on the occurrence of this string
of pits which occur on these surface scratches
in Plasticine. The apparatus
was the same
as that shown in figure 7 except that the liquid was tap-water whose gas content was
about 18.5m1 litre-. To obtain Plasticine
a
specimen a piece
of brass was bored out and
filled with Plasticine. The excess was removed with a straight edge so that it was flush
with the surface of the brass and then, where appropriate, lightly smoothed with the
finger. In one of
setexperiments Plasticine specimens,
in which only half the surface had
been smoothed, were used. After
being subjected to cavitation for
30 S it was found that
the smoothed area was virtually undamaged while the unsmoothed one was severely
damaged. Acloser examinationof the unsmoothed surface, prior to cavitation, showed
that this surface had a sponge-like matrix appearance. The authors suggest that this
porous matrix had been an air-trap from which bubbles became detached from the
surface in the accoustic pressure field with the subsequent formation of microjets and
their resulting damage to the surface. This explanation was further supported by the
fact that whenspecimens were prepared,
as before, with bothsmoothed andunsmoothed
regions and then placed in boiling water for some 3 min so that the surface voids had
been degassed, it was found that, after exposure to cavitation, the unsmoothed area
did not show a large number of pits. This work is, in many ways, not unlike that of
Overton and Trevena(1980) on therole of surface nucleation sites onthe innerwall of
a Berthelot tube.
Research carried out by the UK National Coal Board (NCB) has been concerned
with the cavitation erosion produced
by fire-resistant hydraulic fluids.The two typesof
fluid most commonly used are water-containing emulsions. Oneis atype
dilute emulsion
of about 5 % oil in water and the other an invertemulsion of about 40% water in oil.
Work on cavitation erosion
in the underground equipmentused by the NCB has shown
that this erosion occurs more in equipment using dilute emulsions than in that using
invert emulsions. Talks (1983) has reported onwork in which a comparison was made
between the cavitation erosion properties
of the two typesof emulsion and thoseof the
two constituents (mineral oil and water) which made up these emulsions. The test
material chosenwas the typeof brass usedin some of the underground equipment. The
method employedwas the open beaker vibratory
test method using a 20 kHz vibratory
cavitation apparatus. Itwas found that the additionof up to 10% of emulsifying oil to
distilled water had no effect on erosion rates while similar additions to hard water

Figure7. Photographsand surface measurementsof the erosion patterns obtained for copper
stationary specimens at different bulk temperatures (after Singer andHarvey 1979a) After
1 h exposure: ( a ) 25 "C;( b )45 "C;(c) 75 "C.

[facingpage 2158)

Cavitation

2159

reduced ratesby up to one-third. Furthermore, the erosion rates for the dilute emulsion
varied with temperature in a manner similar to that of water while the invert emulsion
behaved like a mineral oil.
5.4. Erosion testing with a cavitating jet
The pioneering workusing this technique has been carried outby Lichtarowicz (1972)
and his colleages. The method, which is now an established one for the erosion testing
of minerals, is briefly as follows. A cavitating jet is supplied from a constant pressure
source (pressure= p u )through along orifice type nozzle which discharges into a testcell
where the ambient pressure is kept at some value Pd (the downstream pressure). A
circular cylindrical specimen (the target) is mounted coaxially with the jet and the
separation l between thenozzle entry edge and the target
can be setto any desired value.
The cavitation can be observed and photographed through windows on two opposite
sides of the test chamber.
p u and
Under these conditions theflow rate depends only on the upstream pressure
Lichtarowicz (1979) uses a cavitation number a = pd/pu which. so defined, is the ratio
of the forces suppressing cavitation to those producing it. The target specimen erodes
as a result of the collapseof the cavitation bubblesin the incident jet andthis erosion is
quantified by measuring the weight lost in a given time. The results can
be presented as
a graph of the cumulative erosion rate (CER) versus time: CER is defined as the total
weightlossdivided by total elapsed time (Lichtarowicz1981). Tests carried out at
constant cavitation number at thevalue of I at which CER is a maximum show that this
peak CER p [ . where the index n 4 for hydraulic oil as test liquid. As aincreases. n
decreases. For water there
is a similarrelationbetweenpeak
CER and pu. with n
decreasing from5 to 3 as awas increased (Lichtarowicz and Kay 1983).
Using high-speed flash photographs, Lichtarowicz (1981) found that the cavitation
occurs in bursts which appearlike separate clouds travelling withthe jet. Furthermore.
a vortex filament. looking like a corkscrew, can be seen around the jet. This spiralling
vortex coreis present both near thenozzle and near the target specimen.
This jet method has many advantages over some
of the other methods used for
erosion testing. The apparatus is small and uses flow effects to produce cavitation; it
thus offers all the advantages of venturi-type and tunnel methods without their main
drawbacks of size and long testing times. In the jet method testing
the times can readily
be adjustedby choosing a suitable upstream pressure and the results
can then bescaled
up or downeasily provided the cavitation number
is kept constant.

5.5. Experiments with spark-induced bubbles

Lush et a1 (1983) have studied the effect of a single bubble collapse on the surfaceof a
test specimenof 99% pure aluminium.
Such a single bubble was produced by discharging
15 kV between two tungsten electrodeswhich were
a 0.01 ,uF capacitor at a potential of
submerged in a tank of deionised water. The spark gap between the tips of the two
electrodes was 1 mm and the energy in the spark was about 1 J. The bubble produced
was not a true cavitation bubble, that
is, a bubble producedby tensionin the liquid, but
a ready made one createdby the discharge of the spark. (Other examples of readymade bubbles were described in 4.4 of the present paper). When a true cavitation
bubble subsequently collapses near the surface of the solid a microjet is formed and a
shock waveis later produced when the
cavity rebounds. However,in the case of a cavity
produced by a spark, an additional shock
wave (also produced by the spark)is radiated

2160

D H Trevena

into the surroundingliquid ahead of the expandingcavity. The effect of this extra initial
shock wave is to cause extra cavitation damage to the surface.
The aluminium material was chosen as the test specimen because it has suitable
plastic flow stress properties andis fairly softand should thereforeshow a large amount
of damage. Infact the damagein this caseappeared as a pit or pits and these wereof two
types. One type consisted of a relatively shallow pit and the other was considerably
deeper. The profiles of these pits were obtained by photographing them under an
interference microscope, which utilised the green line of mercury? and the maximum
depth of each pit was found by counting the fringes. The authors
also give a theoretical
prediction of the type of damage to be expected on a surfaceby ( a ) a microjet and ( b )
the shockwave from the collapse centre. As a result
of this theory it was concluded that
the deeper type of pit was caused by the microjet formed when the bubble collapses
while the shallow type was due to the shock
wave radiated from the spark.
Earlier spark gap workby Jones and Edwards(1960) had been concerned with the
effect of the collapse of a single cavity in water on a duralumin surface. The changes
in
thedimensions of the cavity were also studied by schlierenandsparkshadow
photography.

5.6. Cavitation damage inlarge concrete structures

We now turn from laboratory conditions to consider cavitation damage to concrete
elements in large hydraulic structuressuch as hydroelectric power stations and similar
installations. Two papers, one
by Kenn and Garrod(1981) and the other
by Kenn (1983)
contain an accountof the Tarbela Tunnelcollapse of 1974.
The cavitation damage in these situations is attributed to the presence of severelysheared water flows within the hydraulic structures andits seems that the onsetof this
damage starts when thevelocity differential across the sheared flow reaches
30 m S - or
so (the threshold velocity). Above this threshold value the intensity of the damage
increases very severely. Such sheared
flows are produced when submerged
high-velocity
water streams, generated by high pressure heads, separate from solid boundariesparticularly discontinuities in these boundaries such as buttress walls, partly-opened
gates, construction joints and any hollows and protuberances. Strong eddies are generated along the planes
of shear, and pressures insidethese eddies can fall to the
cavitation threshold value with the production of clouds of tiny vapour cavities. The
eddies and cavities are then swept downstream into regions of higher local pressure
where the cavities collapse and disappear. If they collapse near a solid boundary the
cavitation damage to the
solid as a resultof a large numberof such bubble collapses can
be very severe indeed.
Cavitation damage from sheared
flows occurred in tunnels at Tarbelain 1974. Inone
tunnel the centre intake gate
was fully opened while both side gates were shut, the
flow
being under high head and very high water velocities. Vorticity-induced cavitation was
generated in the two planes
of sheared waterflows leaving the innerwalls of the adjacent
piers. Many of these cavities later collapsed in the regions of higher pressure further
downstream, thus causingerosion
of the concrete tunnel
walls. As this damage continued
a hole was eventually formed ir the tunnel lining; later this hole became enlarged and
this ledto a collapseof the tunnel. For full
a account of these events reference should be
made to thetwo papers referred to above.
These field-situation patterns
of sheared-flow cavitation have also been reproduced
and studiedusing small-scale models
in the laboratory (Kenn
1983). All such small-scale

Cauitation

2161

models are subject to errors(scale effects) since factors suchas viscous forces, surface
tension, elastic forces and air-contentwill, of necessity, be incorrectly scaled. Evenso,
a small-scale model, if tested in a water tunnel at full-scale heads and velocities, can
in the fullpredict the patterns of cavitation and the cavitation erosion to be expected
scale structure. Kennused a model of the Tarbela intake tunnel, tested under
full-scale
pressures and velocities and with the centre gate open and both
side gates shut.He was
able to reproduce thecavitating eddies generatedin the highly-sheared zones between
the central water
flow and the adjacent,relatively still water on either side. Furthermore
the pattern of the cavitation damage in the model bore a strong resemblance to thatin
the actual Tarbela tunnel.

6. Other related work

We now consider some related work
in the field of cavitation.
Firstly, let us take tribonucleation (nucleation by rubbing). This is the process of
initiating cavitationby rubbing together twosolid surfaces inside a liquid under tension.
Some experiments on the tribonucleationof bubbles in liquids have been described by
Hayward (1967). In this work
a previously denucleated liquid (that is, one free
of gaseous
cavitation nuclei) was contained under a tension
of 0.15 atm in a glass test chamber. A
small magnet was held against the upper wall of this chamber by a second magnet
clamped to the outside. The tension in the liquid was maintained as long as the first
magnet was held immobile but as soon itaswas moved by the smallest possible distance
(< 1 mm) a bubble was nucleated. Another example of the nucleation of bubbles by
gentle rubbingwas obtained by rolling a very small steelball slowly over the horizontal
glass base of the same test chamber. Thisvery slow rolling did not produce nucleation
but. assoon as the speedof rolling was increased, a bubblewas nucleated because some
sliding then occurred aswell as rolling.
The occurrence of tribonucleation is one factor responsible for cavitationin hydromachinery. Theliquid in such a machine will cavitate wherever one working part rubs
on another; for example, where a shaft
passes through a seal.
Secondly, we consider the occurrence of cavitation in lubricating films in bearings.
This matter has been studied extensively by Dowson and his colleagues and a comprehensive account has beengiven by Dowson and Taylor (1979). In such lubricating
films
both gaseous and vaporous cavitation can occur but the former
is the type
more common.
The authors make the point that many machine elements present to the lubricating
film
a clearance space which has a convergent-divergent section. Such machine
elements
include journal bearings, gears and rolling-element bearings. Osborne Reynolds showed
that, under conditionsof slow viscous flow, a wedge-shaped lubricant film with a slight
convergence in the direction of motion was essential if load-supporting pressures were
to be generated in the lubricant. Thenecessary convergent part of the clearance space
is. as already stated, presentin most machine elements. In the accompanying divergent
part of the clearance space subambient pressures are developed and these pressures
give
rise to cavitation. The authors describe and illustrate the appearance
of cavities in four
different forms of sliding bearing. In some cases the
gas present split up into a number
of discrete finger-shaped bubbles separated by narrow continuous streams of oil. A
photograph is also given of a beautiful flower-like gas-filled cavity surrounded by oil
between a separating steel sphere and plane. For further details reference should be
made to the original paper.

2162

D H Trevena

A finger-joint is a biological bearing and this topic has been discussedby Dowson
er a1 (1971). In their work, load-separation curves were obtained for the metacarpophalangeal joint of the middle finger (a ball and socket joint containingsynovial fluid).
A special machine, describedin the paper.was designed and constructed to obtain these
curves. The load was increased in steps and an x-ray exposure taken at each separate
load value. Itwas found that, as the
load increased, the bone separationfirst
at increased
gradually and fairly linearly until, at a certain load, a sudden jump in the separation
took place at the instant of cracking of the joint. Furthermore, at the same instant a
dark bubblein the synovial fluid appeared on thex-ray plate. The joint separation then
gradually returned to its pre-cracking value in about 20 min. If the load was next
increased in steps as before another crack would then be produced, but not beforethis
20 min period had elapsed. The authors conclude that joints therefore
crack because of
cavitation in the synovial fluid,while the failure of some joints to crackis due to either
lax ligaments or non-conforming joint surfaces.
Thirdly. in botany, we know that columns of sap transport water from the rootsof
a tree to the uppermost leaves. The atmosphere
will support a columnof water of only
10.4 m in height and, since some trees arefar taller than this, the only
way in which sap
can be drawn up to these greater
heights is by the existenceof a negative pressurein the
sap column. Some recent work has shown that negative pressures of -50 atm exist in
mangrove trees; even higher pressures of up to -80 atm have been measuredin desert
plants in their efforts tosuck up every drop
of water from their dry environment. all
Not
the vessels which carry these columns are filled with water. When under tension some
of the columnsof water tend to break and cavitation,
in the formof air and water vapour,
occurs. A sensitive microphonic probe can detect this cavitation acoustically. When a
column of water breaks, thewalls of the vessels, which have been pulled inwards
by the
tension, relax and tend to vibrate. These vibrations, when amplified, can be heard as
clicks (Sutcliffe 1981).
Finally. we consider the generationof noise in cavitating flows (Franklin andMcMillan 1980). This is a matter of interest in many situations because the sound radiating
away from the cavitating flow can serve as a means for studying cavitation inception.
Franklin and McMillan used a submerged jet in their experiments. The liquid used to
produce the jetwill contain cavitation nucleiin the form of tiny free air bubbleswhich,
on passing through the jet nozzle,will expand rapidly and then execute a damped free
oscillation resulting in sound radiation. They also describe
how a bubble. asit is accelerated down the nozzle. may split into smaller bubbles, then oscillate and produce
sound. Other mechanisms of noise generation are also mentioned and further details
are in the original paper.
7. Discussion

In this article an account has been

given of the main methods used to create tensionin
a liquid and to study the accompanying phenomenon
of cavitation.
It is amazing how Berthelots original method
(first described in 1850when Berthelot
was still a young research student) has been rediscovered in recent years and is still
being used to stretchliquids under static conditions.To a lesser extent the sameis true
of the centrifugal methodfirst reported by Osborne Reynolds.
In dynamic stressing, the most fruitful results have been on theeffect of dissolved
gases on the breaking tension and also,
in the case of the tube-arrest method, the
possibility of being able to compare cavitation thresholds reliably.

Cavitation

2163

Bubble studies have been made

using ultrasonic, water shock tube, laser and spark
of a cavity is concerned, it is amazing to
methods. As far as the mathematical treatment
realize how much Rayleighs model of 1917 is still being used. It is a very good first
approximation. However, whenwe come to more sophisticated models the problem
is
9 4.5). It
a very complexone in that so many factors have to be taken into account (see
is even more complicated whencavity
a cluster, rather than single
a
cavity,is considered.
Of all the various effects produced by cavitation, erosion is probably the onewhich
has been, and is being, most widely studied. The methods used to study erosion are the
large scaleevents, the havoc caused
water tunnel, vibratory tests and cavitating In
jets.
by cavitation erosion in large concrete structures has been described and studied
by
Kenn in a comprehensive way.
In related fields, the importance of cavitation in medicine and botany has been
described.
As far as future developments are concerned
it would appear thay theywill occur in
all the aspects described in this article.
The advance envisaged will, almost certainly,be
along a broad front rather than a development
in a new area.
Acknowledgements

I wish to express my thanks to Dr G D N Overton and Dr P R Williams for reading

through this paper and for their
helpful comments. I am also grateful toDr Overton for
his help with the diagrams.
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