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Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Signal and System

Fundamentals of
Signal and System

Objectives of this chapter

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:

Explain the different types of signals

State the characteristics of digital and analog signals
Explain the concept of signal processing
State the definition of Fourier transform
Explain the concept of time domain and frequency domain representations
Calculate and sketch frequency spectrums
Find frequency response from unit impulse response
Find the frequency spectrum of the output signal of a system

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2.1 What a signal is and different types of signals

Signals may be considered as a variable value, representing any type of information, as
a function of one or more variables such as time, frequency, etc. we may view signals
as:
1. The potential produced by heart, called electrocardiogram
2. The potential produced by neurons inside the brain, called electroencephalogram
3. A X-ray radiograph as a two-dimensional function of spatial coordinates
Signals may be classified as continuous-time signals and discrete-time signals. A
continuous-time signal (Figure 2.1) is one that has values or information at every
instance in time e.g. electrical voltage between two points in a circuit.
Voltage

Time

Figure 2.1 A continuous time signal

On the other hand, a discrete-time signal (Figure 2.2) is one that has values or
information only at certain discrete time instance.

Voltage

Time

Figure 2.2 A discrete time signal

Signals can also be classified as continuous-amplitude signals and discrete-amplitude
signals. A continuous-amplitude signal is one whose amplitude can be of any value
whereas for a discrete-amplitude signal (Figure 2.3), its amplitude can only be of a finite
set of discrete values. This is the case when we try to represent the signal amplitude
using a finite number of bits. In the example below, the signal samples are being
represented by 3-bit binary words. In so doing, the values of the samples have to be
rounded off to one of the eight discrete levels called quantization levels.

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011
010
001
000
111
110
101

Time

Figure 2.3 A discrete amplitude signal

2.2 Analog and Digital Signals

In general, an analog signal is a continuous-time, continuous-amplitude signal while a
digital signal is a discrete-time, discrete-amplitude signal. In the above example, if the
discrete-amplitude values are encoded into a string of binary code words, this binary
stream is also considered as a digital signal.

2.3 Analog and Digital Signal Processing

Signal processing may be defined as the manipulation or modification of a signal for a
certain purpose. For example, a speech signal contaminated with some high frequency
noise can be passed through a low pass filter to remove the effect of noise (Figure 2.4).
The low pass filtering may be considered as a form of signal processing.

Low pass filter

Figure 2.4 Signal processing

In the past, signal processing was done using analog components like resistors,
capacitors, inductors, and op. amps. With the availability of low-cost high speed
microprocessors, the trend is to process signals by a digital system hence the
terminology Digital Signal Processing (DSP).

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Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Signal and System

Advantages and disadvantages of digital signal processing over analog signal

processing
Advantages of digital signal processing:
1. Guaranteed accuracy output is the result of some mathematical computation.
2. Perfect reproducibility any computer running the same program will produce the
same result.
3. Programmability different signal processing algorithms can be implemented on the
same hardware.
4. Stability to component aging, thermal variation and component replacement.
5. Time sharing capability several signal processing algorithms can be implemented
on the same computer.
6. Ease in performing non-linear and adaptive signal processing.
Disadvantages of digital signal processing:
1. Speed limitation of the CPU and ADC.

2.4 Some Important Functions

There are few important functions that you may have already learned in other modules.
They are sinusoidal function, impulse function, step function, rectangular function and
sinc function. Let us revise these functions in terms of mathematical expressions and
graphical drawings.
Sinusoidal Function

xt A cos t
A cos2 f t
Unit Impulse Function

The impulse function can be loosely thought of as a function on the real line which is
zero everywhere except at the origin, where it is infinite. The impulse function is a
theoretical function, not existing in the real world. The value 1 in Figure 2.5 indicates
the strength of the impulse being one. It means that the integral of the function from
to is equal to one. If the strength of an impulse function is not equal to one,
say 2, we cannot call the function a unit impulse. Remember that unit means one.
For an impulse having the strength of two, we should write down number 2 beside the
impulse figure.
unit impulse

t
and

t0
t0

1
x-axis

t dt 1

0
Figure 2.5 Unit impulse

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Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Signal and System

Unit Step Function

y-axis

0
u t
1

t0
t0

x-axis
0

Figure 2.6 Unit Step Function

Rectangular Function

t
xt A rect

where (tau) is the pulse width

0 2

Figure 2.7 Rectangular Function

Sinc Function

A sinc t
A sin t

t 0

t0
2 1 0

Figure 2.8 Sinc Function

Note: The few important functions above are introduced as functions of time: t ,
t
u t , rect and sinct . But their definitions will not be changed even

though they are functions of other parameters, e.g.

f 0
f 0

f
and

f df

0
u f
1

f 0
f 0

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Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Signal and System

2.5 Fourier Transform

The Fourier transform of signal xt is defined as

X f xt e j t dt

Example 2.1
Given that signal xt e t u t , where u t is the unit step function defined as,
0 for t 0
u t
1 for t 0
Calculate the Fourier transform of xt .
Solution

Xf

xt e dt
e u t e dt
e e dt
e dt

j t

j t

j t

1 j

1
e 1 j t
1 j
1

0 1
1 j
1

1 j 2 f

Formula :

e k t dt

1 kt
e
k

b
a

1 kb
e e ka

The calculation of the Fourier transform is often tedious. However, the Fourier
transforms of the important signals are always given in the text, such as Table 2.1. The
use of this table is demonstrated in Examples 2.2 to 2.5. For tests and examinations, you
may need to solve questions similar to Example 2.2 to 2.5, but you will not need to
manually calculate the Fourier transform as in Example 2.1. A Fourier transform
table will be provided if using the table is the best way to solve a test question or an
examination question.

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Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Signal and System

t
xt Arect

X f A sinc f

2 1 0 1 2

B sinc 2 f

A sinc t

A
2

f
X f Arect

Table 2.1 Fourier Transform Pairs

Example 2.2
Find the Fourier transform of the rectangular pulse below.
xt
3

-0.05

0.05

Solution
Using the Fourier transform Table 2.1 (1), we obtain that A = 3 and 0.1

The Fourier transform of the rectangular pulse is

X f A sinc f 0.3sinc0.1 f

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Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Signal and System

Fourier Transform Notations

The operation of the Fourier transform is often denoted as

X f F xt
where F is the Fourier transform operator.

e.g. F e a t u t

1
a j 2 f

The relation of xt and X f being a Fourier transform pair is often denoted by

xt X f . For examples,
1
a j 2 f
t t0 exp j 2 f t0
e a t u t

2.6 Time Domain and Frequency Domain Representations of Signals

A plot of xt against t gives the waveform of the signal. A plot of X f against f gives
the frequency spectrum of the signal. Either xt or the waveform is called the time
domain representation of the signal. It is because xt is a function of time and the
waveform is a plot of signal magnitude against time. On the other hand, the Fourier
transform X f or the frequency spectrum is the frequency domain representation of
the signal.
Example 2.3
Sketch the waveform and frequency spectrum of the impulse signal t .
Solution
The waveform of the impulse signal is by definition as below

impulse
x-axis
0

From Table 2.1, we know that the Fourier transform t is exp j 2 f 0 1

y-axis
1

x-axis
0

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The impulse signal t is a theoretical signal. It does not exist in the real world. The
frequency spectrum of the impulse signal is a straight line (a constant) across all
frequencies. It means that the impulse signal contains all frequencies which have the
same power.
Example 2.4
Sketch the waveform and frequency spectrum of signal xt 3 cos 2000 t . Indicate
which is the time domain representation and the frequency domain representation of the
signal.
Solution
Comparing 3 cos 2000 t with the general express of a cosine wave, A cos 2 f 0t , we
have:

The amplitude, A 3 , and

2 f 0 t 2000 t
2000 t
2 t
1 kHz

f0
xt

3
0

t (ms)

-3

Waveform a time domain representation

1
1
Table 2.1 (7) shows that cos2 f 0 t f f 0 exp j f f 0 exp j
2
2
Therefore, the Fourier transform of A cos 2 f 0 t is
A
A
f f0 f f0
2
2

Therefore, the Fourier transform of 3 cos 2000 t is

1.5 f 1000 1.5 f 1000

1.5

1.5

-1

f (kHz)

Frequency spectrum a frequency domain representation

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Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Signal and System

Example 2.5
(a) Write an equation to represent the rectangular pulse below.
(b) Write a frequency-domain equation to represent the signal below.
xt
3

-0.05

0.05

t (s)

Solution

t
(a) From Section 2.4.4, we have A 3 , 0.1 and xt 3 rect
3 rect10 t
0.1
xt 3 rect10t is the time domain representation of the signal.
(b) From Fourier transform table 2.1 (1), X f A sinc f 0.3sinc0.1 f
X f 0.3sinc0.1 f is the frequency domain representation of the signal.

Frequency Spectrum, Amplitude Spectrum and Phase Spectrum of a Signal

A plot of X f against f gives the frequency spectrum. A plot of X f against f gives

the amplitude spectrum and a plot of X f against f gives the phase spectrum.
Example 2.6
Sketch the frequency spectrum and the amplitude spectrum of the signal
xt 0.15rect 50t
Solution

t
Table 2.1 shows that A rect A sinc f

xt 0.15 rect 50t
t

0.15 rect
1 50
t
0.15 rect

0.02
X f 0.15 0.02 sinc 0.02 f
0.003 sinc 0.02 f
So we have, A 0.003 , 1 1 0.02 50 , 2 100 , 3 150 and etc.

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Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Signal and System

The frequency spectrum is shown below:

Xf
0.003

150 100 50 0

50

100 150

f (Hz)

The amplitude spectrum is shown below:

Xf
0.003

150 100 50 0

50 100 150

f (Hz)

Note: Both the x-axes of the frequency spectrum and the amplitude spectrum are
frequency axes. But these two spectrums have different y-axes.

2.7 Linear Time Invariant (LTI) System

A system here refers to a collection of hardware and software which work together for
some specific purposes, for instances, filter, amplifier, rectifier and etc.
A linear time invariant system is one which is both linear and time invariant. The
definitions of linear and time invariant will be given below. You will not be tested or
examined on these definitions. But you need to know that LTI stands for linear time
invariant. You have to know the term LTI because many theories and studies of signal
processing are developed for LTI systems. In this module, all systems are assumed to be
LTI. You will see the term LTI appears in test and examination questions. These
questions will test you some theories or knowledge developed for LTI systems but not
testing the definition of LTI. You will see some examples in Section 2.8.
Linear System (non-examinable)
Let us say that when signal x1 t is applied to a system, the signal at the output of the
system is denoted as y1 t ; and when signal x 2 t is applied to the same system, the
output signal is y 2 t .

The system is linear if and only if for any arbitrary signals x1 t and x 2 t and for any
arbitrary constants a and b, when the input of the system is ax1 t bx 2 t , the output of
the system is ay1 t by 2 t .

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Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Signal and System

Time Invariant (non-examinable)

Let xt be any arbitrary input signal applied to a system and let y t be the
corresponding output signal. The system is time invariant if and only if for any arbitrary
time duration t 0 , the output of the system is y t t 0 when the input of the system is
xt t 0 .

2.8 Unit Impulse Response and Frequency Response

When a unit impulse t is applied to a system, the output of the system is called the
unit impulse response which is often denoted as ht . To put this in another way,
unit impulse response means the response (output) of the system when the input
signal is a unit impulse.

(t)

System

Unit Impulse

h(t)
Unit Impulse Response

Figure 2.9 Unit Impulse Response

The frequency response of an LTI system is often denoted as H f which is equal to
the Fourier transform of the unit impulse response of the system, i.e.
Frequency Response of an LTI System F Unit Impulse Response of the System
H f F ht

Example 2.7
Given that the unit impulse response of an LTI system is sinc2000t , sketch and write
the equation for the frequency response of the system.
Solution

f
Table 2.1 (6) gives that A sinc t A rect

It is give that ht sinc2000t
Therefore 2000 and A 1 2000

H f

1
f
rect

2000
2000

The frequency response of the system is shown below

Hf

5 10 4

-1000

1000

f (Hz)

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Frequency Response, Magnitude Response and Phase Response of a System

A plot of H f against f gives the frequency response of a system. A plot of H f

against f gives the magnitude response and a plot of H f against f gives the phase
response.

Frequency Response and Fourier Transforms of Input-Output Signals

The frequency response of a system is very important and useful. It tells the
characteristics of a system. We can calculate the response of an LTI system from the
frequency response of the system and a given input signal.
Y f H f X f

where X f is the Fourier transform (frequency spectrum) of the input signal

Y f is the Fourier transform (frequency spectrum) of the output signal
H f is the frequency response of the LTI system
This equation can be rephrased as
Frequency spectrum of the output signal of an LTI system
= Frequency response of the system Frequency spectrum of the input signal
Example 2.8
Signal xt cos1000 t is applied to an LPF. The frequency response of the filter is
given below. Sketch the frequency spectrums of the input signal and the output signal.
Hf

-1000

1000

f (Hz)

Solution
Comparing xt cos1000 t with the general express of a cosine wave, A cos 2 f 0t ,
we have:

The amplitude, A 1 , and

2 f 0 1000
1000
2
500 Hz

f0

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1
1
Table 2.1 (7) shows that cos2 f 0 t f f 0 exp j f f 0 exp j
2
2
Therefore, the Fourier transform of xt cos1000 t is
1
1
X f f 500 f 500
2
2
The frequency spectrum of the input signal (answer) is shown below.
Xf

0.5

0.5

-500 0 500

f (Hz)

See the work out of Y f H f X f graphically.

3
0.5

0.5

-1000 -500 0 500 1000 f (Hz)

The frequency spectrum of the output signal (answer) is shown below.
Y f

1.5

1.5

-500 0 500

f (Hz)

~~~~~ End ~~~~~