FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT

EXCHANGER DESIGN

Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Design. Ramesh K. Shah and Duan P. Sekulic

Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

FUNDAMENTALS OF
HEAT EXCHANGER
DESIGN

Ramesh K. Shah
Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York
Formerly at Delphi Harrison Thermal Systems, Lockport, New York

Dusan P. Sekulic
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

1
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Shah, R. K.
Fundamentals of heat exchanger design / Ramesh K. Shah, Dus an P. Sekulic.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-471-32171-0
1. Heat exchangersDesign and construction. I. Sekulic, Dus an P. II. Title.
TJ263 .S42 2003
621.402 0 5dc21
2002010161
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents
Preface

xv

Nomenclature

xix

Classication of Heat Exchangers

1.1 Introduction

1
1

1.2

Classication According to Transfer Processes

1.2.1 Indirect-Contact Heat Exchangers
1.2.2 Direct-Contact Heat Exchangers

3
3
7

1.3

Classication According to Number of Fluids

1.4

Classication According to Surface Compactness

1.4.1
1.4.2

1.5

1.6

1.7

Gas-to-Fluid Exchangers
Liquid-to-Liquid and Phase-Change Exchangers

Classication According to Construction Features

12

1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.5.4

13
22
36
47

Tubular Heat Exchangers

Plate-Type Heat Exchangers
Extended Surface Heat Exchangers
Regenerators

Classication According to Flow Arrangements

56

1.6.1
1.6.2

57
64

Single-Pass Exchangers
Multipass Exchangers

Classication According to Heat Transfer Mechanisms

73

Summary
References
Review Questions

73
73
74

Overview of Heat Exchanger Design Methodology

2.1

8
11
12

78

Heat Exchanger Design Methodology

78

2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7

79
83
87
90
92
93
93

Process and Design Specications

Thermal and Hydraulic Design
Mechanical Design
Manufacturing Considerations and Cost Estimates
Trade-o Factors
Optimum Design
Other Considerations

vi

CONTENTS

2.2

Interactions Among Design Considerations

Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems

Basic Thermal Design Theory for Recuperators

3.1
3.2

3.3

3.5

3.6

98
100

3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4

100
102
104
107

3.9

Heat Exchanger Eectiveness "

Heat Capacity Rate Ratio C*
Number of Transfer Units NTU

114
114
118
119

Eectiveness Number of Transfer Unit Relationships

121

3.4.1

122

Single-Pass Exchangers

The P-NTU Method

139

3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4

140
140
141
141

Temperature Eectiveness P
Number of Transfer Units, NTU
Heat Capacity Rate Ratio R
General PNTU Functional Relationship

PNTU Relationships

3.6.2

3.8

Assumptions for Heat Transfer Analysis

Problem Formulation
Basic Denitions
Thermal Circuit and UA

The "-NTU Method

3.6.1

3.7

97

Formal Analogy between Thermal and Electrical Entities

Heat Exchanger Variables and Thermal Circuit

3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.4

93
94
94
95
95

Parallel Counterow Exchanger, Shell Fluid Mixed, 12

TEMA E Shell
Multipass Exchangers

142
142
164

The Mean Temperature Dierence Method

186

3.7.1
3.7.2

186
187

Log-Mean Temperature Dierence, LMTD

Log-Mean Temperature Dierence Correction Factor F

F Factors for Various Flow Arrangements

190

3.8.1
3.8.2
3.8.3
3.8.4

Counterow Exchanger
Parallelow Exchanger
Other Basic Flow Arrangements
Heat Exchanger Arrays and Multipassing

190
191
192
201

Comparison of the "-NTU, PNTU, and MTD Methods

207

3.9.1
3.9.2
3.9.3
3.9.4

207
208
209
209

Solutions to the Sizing and Rating Problems

The "-NTU Method
The P-NTU Method
The MTD Method

3.10 The -P and P1
P2 Methods

3.10.1 The -P Method
3.10.2 The P1
P2 Method

210
210
211

CONTENTS

3.11 Solution Methods for Determining Exchanger Eectiveness

3.11.1
3.11.2
3.11.3
3.11.4
3.11.5
3.11.6
3.11.7

Exact Analytical Methods

Approximate Methods
Numerical Methods
Matrix Formalism
Chain Rule Methodology
Flow-Reversal Symmetry
Rules for the Determination of Exchanger Eectiveness
with One Fluid Mixed

3.12 Heat Exchanger Design Problems

Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems
4

212
213
213
213
214
214
215
216
216
219
219
220
227

Additional Considerations for Thermal Design of Recuperators

232

4.1

Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction Eects

4.1.1 Exchangers with C* 0
4.1.2 Single-Pass Counterow Exchanger
4.1.3 Single-Pass Parallelow Exchanger
4.1.4 Single-Pass UnmixedUnmixed Crossow Exchanger
4.1.5 Other Single-Pass Exchangers
4.1.6 Multipass Exchangers

232

Nonuniform Overall Heat Transfer Coecients

244

4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3

248
249
251

4.2

4.3

4.4

vii

Temperature Eect
Length Eect
Combined Eect

236
236
239
239
239
239

Additional Considerations for Extended Surface Exchangers

258

4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4

259
272
288
289

Thin Fin Analysis

Fin Eciency
Fin Eectiveness
Extended Surface Eciency

Additional Considerations for Shell-and-Tube Exchangers

291

4.4.1 Shell Fluid Bypassing and Leakage

4.4.2 Unequal Heat Transfer Area in Individual Exchanger Passes
4.4.3 Finite Number of Baes
Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems

291
296
297
298
298
299
302

Thermal Design Theory for Regenerators

308

5.1

Heat Transfer Analysis

308

5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3

308
310
312

Assumptions for Regenerator Heat Transfer Analysis

Denitions and Description of Important Parameters
Governing Equations

viii

CONTENTS

5.2

5.3

The "-NTUo Method

5.2.1 Dimensionless Groups
5.2.2 Inuence of Core Rotation and Valve Switching Frequency
5.2.3 Convection Conductance Ratio (hA)*
5.2.4 "-NTUo Results for a Counterow Regenerator
5.2.5 "-NTUo Results for a Parallelow Regenerator

316
316
320
320
321
326

The
 Method

337

5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3

341
344
345

5.4

Inuence of Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction

348

5.5

Inuence of Transverse Wall Heat Conduction

355

5.5.1

355

5.6

5.7

Simplied Theory

Inuence of Pressure and Carryover Leakages

5.6.1

Comparison of the "-NTUo and
 Methods

Solutions for a Counterow Regenerator
Solution for a Parallelow Regenerator

Modeling of Pressure and Carryover Leakages for a Rotary

Regenerator

Inuence of Matrix Material, Size, and Arrangement

Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems

360
360
366
371
372
373
376

Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop Analysis

378

6.1

Introduction

378

6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4

378
380
380
381

6.2

6.3
6.4

6.5
6.6

6.7

Importance of Pressure Drop

Fluid Pumping Devices
Major Contributions to the Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop
Assumptions for Pressure Drop Analysis

Extended Surface Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop

381

6.2.1
6.2.2

382
391

Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers

Tube-Fin Heat Exchangers

Regenerator Pressure Drop

Tubular Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop

392
393

6.4.1
6.4.2

393
393

Tube Banks
Shell-and-Tube Exchangers

Plate Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop

Pressure Drop Associated with Fluid Distribution Elements

397
399

6.6.1
6.6.2
6.6.3

399
399
403

Pipe Losses
Sudden Expansion and Contraction Losses
Bend Losses

Pressure Drop Presentation

412

6.7.1
6.7.2

413
414

Nondimensional Presentation of Pressure Drop Data

Dimensional Presentation of Pressure Drop Data

CONTENTS

6.8

ix

Pressure Drop Dependence on Geometry and Fluid Properties

418

Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems

419
420
420
422

Surface Basic Heat Transfer and Flow Friction Characteristics

425

7.1

Basic Concepts

426

7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4

426
429
438
439

7.2

7.3

7.4

7.5

7.6

Dimensionless Groups

441

7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3

443
446

7.8

Fluid Flow
Heat Transfer
Dimensionless Surface Characteristics as a Function of the
Reynolds Number

449

Experimental Techniques for Determining Surface Characteristics

450

7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4

451
460
467
471

Steady-State Kays and London Technique

Wilson Plot Technique
Transient Test Techniques
Friction Factor Determination

Analytical and Semiempirical Heat Transfer and Friction Factor

Correlations for Simple Geometries

473

7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.4
7.4.5
7.4.6

475
499
502
507
508
510

Fully Developed Flows

Hydrodynamically Developing Flows
Thermally Developing Flows
Simultaneously Developing Flows
Extended Reynolds Analogy
Limitations of j vs. Re Plot

Experimental Heat Transfer and Friction Factor Correlations for

Complex Geometries

511

7.5.1
7.5.2
7.5.3
7.5.4
7.5.5

512
514
515
519
523

Tube Bundles
Plate Heat Exchanger Surfaces
Plate-Fin Extended Surfaces
Tube-Fin Extended Surfaces
Regenerator Surfaces

Inuence of Temperature-Dependent Fluid Properties

7.6.1

7.7

Boundary Layers
Types of Flows
Free and Forced Convection
Basic Denitions

Correction Schemes for Temperature-Dependent Fluid

Properties

529
530

Inuence of Superimposed Free Convection

532

7.7.1
7.7.2

533
535

Horizontal Circular Tubes

Vertical Circular Tubes

Inuence of Superimposed Radiation

537

7.8.1

538

Liquids as Participating Media

CONTENTS

7.8.2 Gases as Participating Media

Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems
8

Heat Exchanger Surface Geometrical Characteristics

563

8.1

Tubular Heat Exchangers

563

8.1.1
8.1.2

563
566

8.2

8.3

Inline Arrangement
Staggered Arrangement

Tube-Fin Heat Exchangers

569

8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3

569
572
574

Circular Fins on Circular Tubes

Plain Flat Fins on Circular Tubes
General Geometric Relationships for Tube-Fin Exchangers

Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers

574

8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3

574
580
584

Oset Strip Fin Exchanger

Corrugated Louver Fin Exchanger
General Geometric Relationships for Plate-Fin Surfaces

8.4

Regenerators with Continuous Cylindrical Passages

585

8.4.1

585

8.5

Shell-and-Tube Exchangers with Segmental Baes

587

8.5.1
8.5.2
8.5.3

587
589
592

8.6

538
542
544
548
553

Triangular Passage Regenerator

Tube Count
Window and Crossow Section Geometry
Bypass and Leakage Flow Areas

Gasketed Plate Heat Exchangers

Summary
References
Review Questions

597
598
598
599

Heat Exchanger Design Procedures

601

9.1

601

Fluid Mean Temperatures

9.1.1
9.1.2
9.1.3

9.2

9.3

9.4

Heat Exchangers with C *  0

Counterow and Crossow Heat Exchangers
Multipass Heat Exchangers

603
604
604

Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers

605

9.2.1
9.2.2

605
617

Rating Problem
Sizing Problem

Tube-Fin Heat Exchangers

631

9.3.1
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.3.4

631
631
632
632

Surface Geometries
Heat Transfer Calculations
Pressure Drop Calculations
Core Mass Velocity Equation

Plate Heat Exchangers

632

9.4.1
9.4.2

633
635

Limiting Cases for the Design

Uniqueness of a PHE for Rating and Sizing

CONTENTS

9.4.3
9.4.4
9.5

9.6

Rating a PHE
Sizing a PHE

xi

637
645

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

646

9.5.1
9.5.2
9.5.3
9.5.4

646
650
658
663

Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Calculations

Rating Procedure
Approximate Design Method
More Rigorous Thermal Design Method

Heat Exchanger Optimization

664

Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems

667
667
668
669

10 Selection of Heat Exchangers and Their Components

10.1 Selection Criteria Based on Operating Parameters
10.1.1
10.1.2
10.1.3
10.1.4
10.1.5
10.1.6

Operating Pressures and Temperatures

Cost
Fouling and Cleanability
Fluid Leakage and Contamination
Fluids and Material Compatibility
Fluid Type

10.2 General Selection Guidelines for Major Exchanger Types

10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3
10.2.4

Shell-and-Tube Exchangers
Plate Heat Exchangers
Extended-Surface Exchangers
Regenerator Surfaces

10.3 Some Quantitative Considerations

10.3.1 Screening Methods
10.3.2 Performance Evaluation Criteria
10.3.3 Evaluation Criteria Based on the Second Law of
Thermodynamics
10.3.4 Selection Criterion Based on Cost Evaluation
Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems
11 Thermodynamic Modeling and Analysis
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Heat Exchanger as a Part of a System
11.1.2 Heat Exchanger as a Component
11.2 Modeling a Heat Exchanger Based on the First Law of
Thermodynamics
11.2.1 Temperature Distributions in Counterow and Parallelow
Exchangers
11.2.2 True Meaning of the Heat Exchanger Eectiveness

673
674
674
675
675
678
678
678
680
680
693
694
699
699
700
713
723
724
726
726
727
732
735
735
737
738
738
739
745

xii

CONTENTS

11.2.3 Temperature Dierence Distributions for Parallelow and

Counterow Exchangers
11.2.4 Temperature Distributions in Crossow Exchangers
11.3 Irreversibilities in Heat Exchangers
11.3.1 Entropy Generation Caused by Finite Temperature Dierences
11.3.2 Entropy Generation Associated with Fluid Mixing
11.3.3 Entropy Generation Caused by Fluid Friction
11.4 Thermodynamic Irreversibility and Temperature Cross Phenomena
11.4.1 Maximum Entropy Generation
11.4.2 External Temperature Cross and Fluid Mixing Analogy
11.4.3 Thermodynamic Analysis for 12 TEMA J Shell-and-Tube
Heat Exchanger

748
749
755
756
759
762
763
763
765
766

11.5 A Heuristic Approach to an Assessment of Heat Exchanger

Eectiveness

771

11.6 Energy, Exergy, and Cost Balances in the Analysis and Optimization
of Heat Exchangers

775

11.6.1
11.6.2
11.6.3
11.6.4
11.6.5

TemperatureEnthalpy Rate Change Diagram

Analysis Based on an Energy Rate Balance
Analysis Based on Energy/Enthalpy and Cost Rate Balancing
Analysis Based on an Exergy Rate Balance
Thermodynamic Figure of Merit for Assessing Heat
Exchanger Performance
11.6.6 Accounting for the Costs of Exergy Losses in a Heat
Exchanger
11.7 Performance Evaluation Criteria Based on the Second Law of
Thermodynamics
Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems
12 Flow Maldistribution and Header Design
12.1 Geometry-Induced Flow Maldistribution
12.1.1 Gross Flow Maldistribution
12.1.2 Passage-to-Passage Flow Maldistribution
12.1.3 Manifold-Induced Flow Maldistribution

776
779
783
786
787
791
796
800
801
802
804
809
809
810
821
834

12.2 Operating ConditionInduced Flow Maldistribution

837

12.2.1 Viscosity-Induced Flow Maldistribution

837

12.3 Mitigation of Flow Maldistribution

844

12.4 Header and Manifold Design

845

12.4.1 Oblique-Flow Headers

12.4.2 Normal-Flow Headers
12.4.3 Manifolds
Summary
References

848
852
852
853
853

CONTENTS

xiii

Review Questions
Problems

855
859

13 Fouling and Corrosion

863

13.1 Fouling and its Eect on Exchanger Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop
13.2 Phenomenological Considerations of Fouling
13.2.1
13.2.2
13.2.3
13.2.4
13.2.5
13.2.6

Fouling Mechanisms
Single-Phase Liquid-Side Fouling
Single-Phase Gas-Side Fouling
Fouling in Compact Exchangers
Sequential Events in Fouling
Modeling of a Fouling Process

13.3 Fouling Resistance Design Approach

13.3.1 Fouling Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coecient
Calculation
13.3.2 Impact of Fouling on Exchanger Heat Transfer Performance
13.3.3 Empirical Data for Fouling Resistances
13.4 Prevention and Mitigation of Fouling
13.4.1 Prevention and Control of Liquid-Side Fouling
13.4.2 Prevention and Reduction of Gas-Side Fouling
13.4.3 Cleaning Strategies
13.5 Corrosion in Heat Exchangers
13.5.1 Corrosion Types
13.5.2 Corrosion Locations in Heat Exchangers
13.5.3 Corrosion Control
Summary
References
Review Questions
Problems
Appendix A: Thermophysical Properties

863
866
867
870
871
871
872
875
881
881
882
886
890
890
891
892
893
895
895
897
898
898
899
903
906

Appendix B: "-NTU Relationships for Liquid-Coupled Exchangers

911

Appendix C: Two-Phase Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Correlations

913

C.1
C.2
C.3

Two-Phase Pressure Drop Correlations

Heat Transfer Correlations for Condensation
Heat Transfer Correlations for Boiling

913
916
917

Appendix D: U and CUA Values for Various Heat Exchangers

920

General References on or Related to Heat Exchangers

926

Index

931

Preface
Over the past quarter century, the importance of heat exchangers has increased immensely from the viewpoint of energy conservation, conversion, recovery, and successful
implementation of new energy sources. Its importance is also increasing from the standpoint of environmental concerns such as thermal pollution, air pollution, water pollution, and waste disposal. Heat exchangers are used in the process, power, transportation,
air-conditioning and refrigeration, cryogenic, heat recovery, alternate fuels, and
manufacturing industries, as well as being key components of many industrial products
available in the marketplace. From an educational point of view, heat exchangers
illustrate in one way or another most of the fundamental principles of the thermal
sciences, thus serving as an excellent vehicle for review and application, meeting the
guidelines for university studies in the United States and oversees. Signicant advances
have taken place in the development of heat exchanger manufacturing technology as well
as design theory. Many books have been published on the subject, as summarized in
the General References at the end of the book. However, our assessment is that none of
the books available seems to provide an in-depth coverage of the intricacies of heat
exchanger design and theory so as to fully support both a student and a practicing
engineer in the quest for creative mastering of both theory and design. Our book was
motivated by this consideration. Coverage includes the theory and design of exchangers
for many industries (not restricted to, say, the process industry) for a broader, in-depth
foundation.
The objective of this book is to provide in-depth thermal and hydraulic design theory
of two-uid single-phase heat exchangers for steady-state operation. Three important
goals were borne in mind during the preparation of this book:
1. To introduce and apply concepts learned in rst courses in heat transfer, uid
mechanics, thermodynamics, and calculus, to develop heat exchanger design
theory. Thus, the book will serve as a link between fundamental subjects mentioned and thermal engineering design practice in industry.
2. To introduce and apply basic heat exchanger design concepts to the solution of
industrial heat exchanger problems. Primary emphasis is placed on fundamental
concepts and applications. Also, more emphasis is placed on analysis and less on
empiricism.
3. The book is also intended for practicing engineers in addition to students.
Hence, at a number of places in the text, some redundancy is added to make the
concepts clearer, early theory is developed using constant and mean overall heat
transfer coefcients, and more data are added in the text and tables for industrial
use.

xvi

PREFACE

To provide comprehensive information for heat exchanger design and analysis in a

book of reasonable length, we have opted not to include detailed theoretical derivations
of many results, as they can be found in advanced convection heat transfer textbooks.
Instead, we have presented some basic derivations and then presented comprehensive
information through text and concise tables.
An industrial heat exchanger design problem consists of coupling component and
system design considerations to ensure proper functioning. Accordingly, a good design
engineer must be familiar with both system and component design aspects. Based on
industrial experience of over three decades in designing compact heat exchangers for
automobiles and other industrial applications and more than twenty years of teaching,
we have endeavored to demonstrate interrelationships between the component and system design aspects, as well as between the needs of industrial and learning environments.
Some of the details of component design presented are also based on our own system
design experience.
Considering the fact that heat exchangers constitute a multibillion-dollar industry in
the United States alone, and there are over 300 companies engaged in the manufacture
of a wide array of heat exchangers, it is dicult to select appropriate material for an
introductory course. We have included more material than is necessary for a onesemester course, placing equal emphasis on four basic heat exchanger types: shell-andtube, plate, extended surface, and regenerator. The choice of the teaching material to
cover in one semester is up to the instructor, depending on his or her desire to focus on
specic exchanger types and specic topics in each chapter. The prerequisites for this
course are rst undergraduate courses in uid mechanics, thermodynamics, and heat
transfer. It is expected that the student is familiar with the basics of forced convection
and the basic concepts of the heat transfer coecient, heat exchanger eectiveness, and
mean temperature dierence.
Starting with a detailed classication of a variety of heat exchangers in Chapter 1, an
overview of heat exchanger design methodology is provided in Chapter 2. The basic
thermal design theory for recuperators is presented in Chapter 3, advanced design theory
for recuperators in Chapter 4, and thermal design theory for regenerators in Chapter 5.
Pressure drop analysis is presented in Chapter 6. The methods and sources for obtaining
heat transfer and ow friction characteristics of exchanger surfaces are presented in
Chapter 7. Surface geometrical properties needed for heat exchanger design are covered
in Chapter 8. The thermal and hydraulic designs of extended-surface (compact
and noncompact plate-n and tube-n), plate, and shell-and-tube exchangers are outlined in Chapter 9. Guidelines for selecting the exchanger core construction and surface
geometry are presented in Chapter 10. Chapter 11 is devoted to thermodynamic analysis
for heat exchanger design and includes basic studies of temperature distributions in heat
exchangers, a heuristic approach to an assessment of heat exchanger eectiveness, and
advanced topics important for modeling, analysis, and optimization of heat exchangers
as components. All topics covered up to this point are related to thermalhydraulic
design of heat exchangers in steady-state or periodic-ow operation. Operational
problems for compact and other heat exchangers are covered in Chapters 12 and 13.
They include the problems caused by ow maldistribution and by fouling and corrosion.
Solved examples from industrial experience and classroom practice are presented
throughout the book to illustrate important concepts and applications. Numerous review
questions and problems are also provided at the end of each chapter. If students can
answer the review questions and solve the problems correctly, they can be sure of their
grasp of the basic concepts and material presented in the text. It is hoped that readers will

PREFACE

xvii

develop good understanding of the intricacies of heat exchanger design after going
through this material and prior to embarking on specialized work in their areas of
greatest interest.
For the thermal design of a heat exchanger for an application, considerable intellectual eort is needed in selecting heat exchanger type and determining the appropriate
value of the heat transfer coecients and friction factors; a relatively small eort is
needed for executing sizing and optimizing the exchanger because of the computerbased calculations. Thus, Chapters 7, 9, and 10 are very important, in addition to
Chapter 3, for basic understanding of theory, design, analysis, and selection of heat
exchangers.
Material presented in Chapters 11 through 13 is signicantly more interdisciplinary
than the rest of the book and is presented here in a modied methodological approach. In
Chapter 11 in particular, analytical modeling is used extensively. Readers will participate
actively through a set of examples and problems that extend the breadth and depth of the
material given in the main body of the text. A number of examples and problems in
Chapter 11 require analytical derivations and more elaborate analysis, instead of illustrating the topics with examples that favor only utilization of the formulas and computing numerical values for a problem. The complexity of topics requires a more diverse
approach to terminology, less routine treatment of established conventions, and a more
creative approach to some unresolved dilemmas.
Because of the breadth of the subject, the coverage includes various design aspects and
problems for indirect-contact two-uid heat exchangers with primarily single-phase
uids on each side. Heat exchangers with condensing and evaporating uids on one
side can also be analyzed using the design methods presented as long as the thermal
resistance on the condensing or evaporating side is small or the heat transfer coecient
on that side can be treated as a constant. Design theory for the following exchangers
is not covered in this book, due to their complexity and space limitations: two-phase
and multiphase heat exchangers (such as condensers and vaporizers), direct-contact
heat exchangers (such as humidiers, dehumidiers, cooling towers), and multiuid
and multistream heat exchangers. Coverage of mechanical design, exchanger fabrication
methods, and manufacturing techniques is also deemed beyond the scope of the
book.
Books by M. Jakob, D. Q. Kern, and W. M. Kays and A. L. London were considered
to be the best and most comprehensive texts on heat exchanger design and analysis
following World War II. In the last thirty or so years, a signicant number of books
have been published on heat exchangers. These are summarized in the General
References at the end of the book.
This text is an outgrowth of lecture notes prepared by the authors in teaching courses
on heat exchanger design, heat transfer, and design and optimization of thermal systems
to senior and graduate students. These courses were taught at the State University of
New York at Bualo and the University of Novi Sad, Yugoslavia. Over the past fteen
years or more, the notes of the rst author have been used for teaching purposes at a
number of institutions, including the University of Miami by Professor S. Kakac,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute by Professors A. E. Bergles and R. N. Smith,
Rochester Institute of Technology by Professor S. G. Kandlikar, Rice University by
Professor Y. Bayazitoglu, University of Tennessee Space Center by Dr. R. Schultz,
University of Texas at Arlington by Professor A. Haji-Sheikh, University of
Cincinnati by Professor R. M. Manglik, Northeastern University by Professor Yaman
Yener, North Carolina A&T State University by Professor Lonnie Sharpe, Auburn

xviii

PREFACE

University by Dr. Peter Jones, Southern Methodist University by Dr. Donald Price,
University of Tennessee by Professor Edward Keshock, and Gonzaga University by
Professor A. Aziz. In addition, these course notes have been used occasionally at a
number of other U.S. and foreign institutions. The notes of the second author have
also been used for a number of undergraduate and graduate courses at Marquette
University and the University of Kentucky.
The rst author would like to express his sincere appreciation to the management
of Harrison Thermal Systems, Delphi Corporation (formerly General Motors
Corporation), for their varied support activities over an extended period of time. The
second author acknowledges with appreciation many years of support by his colleagues
and friends on the faculty of the School of Engineering, University of Novi Sad, and
more recently at Marquette University and the University of Kentucky. We are also
thankful for the support provided by the College of Engineering, University of
Kentucky, for preparation of the rst ve and nal three chapters of the book. A special
word of appreciation is in order for the diligence and care exercised by Messrs. Dale Hall
and Mack Mosley in preparing the manuscript and drawings through Chapter 5.
The rst author is grateful to Professor A. L. London of Stanford University for
teaching him the ABCs of heat exchangers and for providing constant inspiration and
encouragement throughout his professional career and particularly during the course of
preparation of this book. The rst author would also like to thank Professors Sadik
Kakac of the University of Miami and Ralph Webb of the Pennsylvania State University
for their support, encouragement, and involvement in many professional activities
related to heat exchangers. The second author is grateful to his colleague and friend
Professor B. S. Baclic, University of Novi Sad, for many years of joint work and teaching
in the elds of heat exchanger design theory. Numerous discussions the second author
have had with Dr. R. Gregory of the University of Kentucky regarding not only what
one has to say about a technical topic, but in particular how to formulate it for a reader,
were of a great help in resolving some dilemmas. Also, the continuous support and
encouragement of Dr. Frederick Edeskuty of Los Alamos National Laboratory, and
Professor Richard Gaggioli of Marquette University were immensely important to the
second author in an eort to exercise his academic experience on both sides of the
Atlantic Ocean. We appreciate Professor P. V. Kadaba of the Georgia Institute of
Technology and James Seebald of ABB Alstom Air Preheater for reviewing the complete
manuscript and providing constructive suggestions, and Dr. M. S. Bhatti of Delphi
Harrison Thermal Systems for reviewing Chapters 1 through 6 and Dr. T. Skiepko of
Bialystok Technical University for reviewing Chapter 5 and providing constructive
suggestions. The constructive feedback over a period of time provided by many students
(too numerous to mention by name) merits a special word of appreciation.
Finally, we must acknowledge the roles played by our wives, Rekha and Gorana, and
our children, Nilay and Nirav Shah and Vis nja and Aleksandar Sekulic, during the
course of preparation of this book. Their loving care, emotional support, assistance,
and understanding provided continuing motivation to compete the book.
We welcome suggestions and comments from readers.
Ramesh K. Shah
Dus an P. Sekulic

NOMENCLATURE

xix

NOMENCLATURE
The dimensions for each symbol are represented in both the SI and English systems of
units, where applicable. Note that both the hour and second are commonly used as units
for time in the English system of units; hence a conversion factor of 3600 should be
employed at appropriate places in dimensionless groups.
A

Ac
Aeff
Af
Afr
Afr;t
Afr;w
Ah
Ak
Ak

A*k
Ao

Ao;bp
Ao;cr
Ao;sb
Ao;tb
Ao;w
Ap
Aw

a
a
{

total heat transfer surface area (both primary and secondary, if any) on one
side of a direct transfer type exchanger (recuperator), total heat transfer
surface area of all matrices of a regenerator,{ m2 , ft2
total heat transfer area (both primary and secondary, if any) on the cold side
of an exchanger, m2 , ft2
eective surface area on one side of an extended surface exchanger [dened by
Eq. (4.167)], m2 , ft2
n or extended surface area on one side of the exchanger, m2 , ft2
frontal or face area on one side of an exchanger, m2 , ft2
window area occupied by tubes, m2 , ft2
gross (total) window area, m2 , ft2
total heat transfer surface area (both primary and secondary, if any) on the
hot uid side of an exchanger, m2 , ft2
n cross-sectional area for heat conduction in Section 4.3 (Ak;o is Ak at the
n base), m2 , ft2
total wall cross-sectional area for longitudinal conduction [additional
subscripts c, h, and t, if present, denote cold side, hot side, and total (hot
cold) for a regenerator] in Section 5.4, m2 , ft2
ratio of Ak on the Cmin side to that on the Cmax side [see Eq. (5.117)],
dimensionless
minimum free-ow (or open) area on one uid side of an exchanger, heat
transfer surface area on tube outside in a tubular exchanger in Chapter 13
only, m2 , ft2
ow bypass area of one bae, m2 , ft2
ow area at or near the shell centerline for one crossow section in a shell-andtube exchanger, m2 , ft2
shell-to-bae leakage ow area, m2 , ft2
tube-to-bae leakage ow area, m2 , ft2
ow area through window zone, m2 , ft2
primary surface area on one side of an exchanger, m2 , ft2
total wall area for heat conduction from the hot uid to the cold uid, or total
wall area for transverse heat conduction (in the matrix wall thickness direction), m2 , ft2
short side (unless specied) of a rectangular cross section, m, ft
amplitude of chevron plate corrugation (see Fig. 7.28), m, ft

Unless clearly specied, a regenerator in the nomenclature means either a rotary or a xed-matrix regenerator.

xx

B
Bi
b
b
c
C
C
C
C
C*
C
CD
Cmax
Cmin
Cms
Cr
C*r
Cr
C*r
CUA
Cus
Cw
Cw
Cw*
CF
c
c
cp
cw
d
Dbaffle
Dctl
Dh
{

NOMENCLATURE

parameter for a thin n with end leakage allowed, he =mkf , dimensionless

Biot number, Bi h
=2=kf for the n analysis; Bi h
=2=kw for the
regenerator analysis, dimensionless
distance between two plates in a plate-n heat exchanger [see Fig. 8.7 for b1
or b2 (b on uid 1 or 2 side)], m, ft
long side (unless specied) of a rectangular cross section, m, ft
some arbitrary monetary unit (instead of $, , etc.), money
ow stream heat capacity rate with a subscript c or h, m_ cp , W=K, Btu/hr-8F
correction factor when used with a subscript dierent from c, h, min, or max,
dimensionless
unit cost, c/J(c/Btu), c/kg (c/lbm), c/kW [c/(Btu/hr)], c/kW  yr(c/Btu on
yearly basis), c/m2 (c/ft2 )
annual cost, c/yr
heat capacity rate ratio, Cmin =Cmax , dimensionless
ow stream heat capacitance, Mcp , Cd , W  s=K, Btu/8F
drag coecient, p=u21 =2gc , dimensionless
maximum of Cc and Ch , W=K, Btu/hr-8F
minimum of Cc and Ch , W/K, Btu/hr-8F
heat capacity rate of the maldistributed stream, W/K, Btu/hr-8F
heat capacity rate of a regenerator, Mw cw N or Mw cw =Pt [see Eq. (5.7) for the
hot- and cold-side matrix heat capacity rates Cr;h and Cr;c ], W/K, Btu/hr-8F
total matrix heat capacity rate ratio, Cr =Cmin , C*r;h Cr;h =Ch , C *r;c Cr;c =Cc ,
dimensionless
total matrix wall heat capacitance, Mw cw or Cr Pt [see Eq. (5.6) for hot- and
cold-side matrix heat capacitances Cr;h and Cr;c ], W  s=K, Btu/8F
ratio of Cr to Cmin , dimensionless
cost per unit thermal size (see Fig. 10.13 and Appendix D), c/W/K
heat capacity rate of the uniform stream, W/K, Btu/hr-8F
matrix heat capacity rate; same as Cr , W/K, Btu/hr-8F
total wall heat capacitance for a recuperator, Mw cw , W  s=K, Btu/8F
ratio of Cw to Cmin , dimensionless
cleanliness factor, Uf =Uc , dimensionless
specic heat of solid, J=kg  K,{ Btu/lbm-8F
annual cost of operation percentile, dimensionless
specic heat of uid at constant pressure, J=kg  K, Btu/lbm-8F
specic heat of wall material, J=kg  K, Btu/lbm-8F
exergy destruction rate, W, Btu/hr
bae diameter, m, ft
diameter of the circle through the centers of the outermost tubes, Dotl
do ,
m, ft
hydraulic diameter of ow passages, 4rh , 4Ao =P, 4Ao L=A, or 4=, m, ft

J joule newton  meter watt  second; newton N kg  m=s2 :

NOMENCLATURE

Dh;w
Dotl
Dp
Ds
d
dc
de
di
do
dw
d1
e_
E
E
E
Eu
e
e
F
f
fD
ftb
G

Gr
Gz
Gzx
g
gc
H
H
_
H
Hg
H
*

xxi

hydraulic diameter of the window section, m, ft

diameter of the outer tube limit (see Fig. 8.9), m, ft
port or manifold diameter in a plate heat exchanger, m, ft
shell inside diameter, m, ft
dierential operator
collar diameter in a round tube and n exchanger, do 2
, m, ft
n tip diameter of a disk (radial) n, m, ft
tube inside diameter, m, ft
tube (or pin) outside diameter, tube outside diameter at the n root for a
nned tube after tube expansion, if any, m, ft
wire diameter, m, ft
tube hole diameter in a bae, m, ft
exergy rate, W, Btu/hr
energy, J, Btu
activation energy in Chapter 13 [see Eq. (13.12)], J=kg  mol, Btu/lbm-mole
uid pumping power per unit surface area, m_ p=A, W=m2 , hp/ft2
row average Euler number per tube row, p=u2m Nr =2gc or
p=G2 Nr =2gc , dimensionless
surface roughness size, m, ft
roughness Reynolds number, eu*=, dimensionless
log-mean temperature dierence correction factor [dened by Eq. (3.183)],
dimensionless
Fanning friction factor, w =u2m =2gc , p gc Dh =2LG2 , dimensionless
Darcy friction factor, 4f, dimensionless
row average Fanning friction factor per tube for crossow to tubes, used in
Chapter 7, p=4G2 Nr =2gc , Eu/4, dimensionless
uid mass velocity based on the minimum free area, m_ =Ao (replace Ao by Ao;c
for the crossow section of a tube bundle in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger), kg=m2  s, lbm/hr-ft2
Grashof number [dened by Eq. (7.159)], dimensionless
Graetz number, m_ cp =kL [see Eqs. (7.39) and (12.53)], dimensionless
local Graetz number, m_ cp =kx, dimensionless
gravitational acceleration, m/s2, ft/sec2
proportionality constant in Newtons second law of motion, gc 1 and
dimensionless in SI units, gc 32:174 lbm-ft/lbf-sec2
head or velocity head, m, ft
uid enthalpy, J, Btu
enthalpy rate, used in Chapter 11, W, Btu/hr
Hagen number, dened by Eq. (7.23), dimensionless
thermal boundary condition referring to constant axial as well as peripheral
wall heat ux; also constant peripheral wall temperature; boundary
condition valid only for the circular tube, parallel plates, and concentric
annular ducts when symmetrically heated

xxii
H1
*
H2
*

NOMENCLATURE

thermal boundary condition referring to constant axial wall heat ux with

constant peripheral wall temperature
thermal boundary condition referring to constant axial wall heat ux with
constant peripheral wall heat ux

heat transfer coecient [dened by Eqs. (7.11) and (7.12)], W=m2  K, Btu/
hr-ft2-8F

specic enthalpy, J/kg, Btu/lbm

he

heat transfer coecient at the n tip, W=m2  K, Btu/hr-ft2-8F

hg
I_irr

specic enthalpy of phase change, J/kg, Btu/lbm

irreversibility rate (dened in Table 11.3), W, Btu/hr

In 

modied Bessel function of the rst kind and nth order

ij

ow direction indicator, ij 1 or
1, uid j 1 or 2, dimensionless

mechanical to thermal energy conversion factor, J 1 and dimensionless in SI

units, J 778:163 lbf-ft/Btu

Ji

correction factors for the shell-side heat transfer coecient for the Bell
Delaware method [see Eq. (9.50)]; i c for bae cut and spacing; i for
bae leakage eects, including both shell-to-bae and tube-to-bae leakage; i b for the bundle bypass ow (C and F streams); i s for variable
bae spacing in the inlet and outlet sections; i r for adverse temperature
gradient buildup in laminar ow, dimensionless

Colburn factor, St Pr2/3, h=Gcp Pr2=3 , dimensionless

pressure loss coecient, p=u2m =2gc ; subscripts: b for a circular bend, s for
a miter bend, and v for a screwed valve in Chapter 6, and br for branches in
Chapter 12, dimensionless

K1

incremental pressure drop number for fully developed ow (see Table 7.2 for
the denition), dimensionless

Kc

contraction loss coecient for ow at heat exchanger entrance, dimensionless

Ke

expansion loss coecient for ow at heat exchanger exit, dimensionless

Kn 

modied Bessel function of the second kind and nth order

uid thermal conductivity for uid if no subscript, W=m  K, Btu/hr-ft-8F

kf

thermal conductivity of the n material in Chapter 4 and of the foulant

material in Chapter 13, W=m  K, Btu/hr-ft-8F

kw

thermal conductivity of the matrix (wall) material, W=m  K, Btu/hr-ft-8F

uid ow (core) length on one side of an exchanger, m, ft

Lf

n ow length on one side of a heat exchanger, Lf  L, m, ft

Lh

plate length in a PHE for heat transfer (dened in Fig. 7.28), m, ft

Lp

plate length in a PHE for pressure drop (dened in Fig. 7.28), m, ft

L1

ow (core) length for uid 1 of a two-uid heat exchanger, m, ft

L2

ow (core) length for uid 2 of a two-uid heat exchanger, m, ft

L3

noow height (stack height) of a two-uid heat exchanger, m, ft

Lq

Leveque number, dened by Eq. (7.41), dimensionless

NOMENCLATURE

c
ef
s
*
c*
m
MA
Mw
m
m
m_
m_ n
N

N
Nb
Nc
Nf
Np
Np
Np0
Nr
Nr;c
Nr;cc
Nr;cw
Nt
Nt;b

xxiii

n height or n length for heat conduction from primary surface to either n

tip or midpoint between plates for symmetric heating, de
do =2 for
individually nned tubes, with this meaning used only in the n analysis
and in the denition of f , m, ft
bae cut, distance from the bae tip to the shell inside diameter (see Fig. 8.9),
m, ft
eective ow length between major boundary layer disturbances, distance
between interruptions, m, ft
strip length of an oset strip n, m, ft
ow length between interruptions, ef =Dh  Re  Pr, dimensionless
bae cut, c =Ds , dimensionless
molecular weight (molar mass) of a gas, kg/kmol, lbm/lb mole
foulant material mass per unit heat transfer surface area in Chapter 13, m/A,
kg/m2, lbm/ft2
mass of a heat exchanger core or the total mass of all matrices of a regenerator,
kg, lbm
n parameter [dened by Eqs. (4.62) and (4.65); see also Table 4.5 for other
denitions], 1/m, 1/ft
mass of a body or uid in a control volume, kg, lbm
uid mass ow rate, um Ao , kg/s, 1bm/hr
uid mass ow rate for nominal ow passages in Chapter 12, kg/s, 1bm/hr
number of subexchangers in gross ow maldistributed exchanger or a number
of dierently sized/shaped passages in passage-to-passage nonuniformity,
used in Chapter 12
rotational speed for a rotary regenerator, rev/s, rpm
number of baes in a plate-baed shell-and-tube exchanger
number of uid channels in a plate heat exchanger
number of ns per unit length in the n pitch direction, l/m, l/ft
number of uid 1 passages in a two-uid heat exchanger
number of pass divider lanes through the tube eld that are parallel to the
crossow stream in a shell-and-tube exchanger
number of separating plates in a plate-n exchanger, number of pass divider
lanes in a shell-and-tube exchanger
number of tube rows in the ow direction
number of eective tube rows crossed during ow through one bae section,
Nr;cc Nr;cw
number of eective tube rows crossed during ow through one crossow
section (between bae tips)
number of eective tube rows crossed during ow through one window zone in
a segmental baed shell-and-tube heat exchanger
total number of tubes in an exchanger, total number of holes in a tubesheet, or
total number of plates in a plate heat exchanger
total number of tubes associated with one segmental bae

xxiv

Nt;c
Nt; p
Nt;w
Nt0
NTU

NTU1
NTUc
NTUh
NTUo
NTU*
Nu
n, np
nc
nf
nt
ntuc
ntu*cost
ntuh
P
P
P
}
Pc
Ph
Pr
Pt
Pe
Pr
p
{

NOMENCLATURE

number of tubes at the tube bundle centerline cross section

number of tubes per pass
number of tubes in the window zone
number of tubes in a specied row
number of exchanger heat transfer units, UA=Cmin [dened by Eqs. (3.59)
through (3.64)], it represents the total number of transfer units in a multipass
unit, dimensionless
number of exchanger heat transfer units based on uid 1 heat capacity rate,
UA=C1 ; similarly, NTU2 UA=C2 , dimensionless
number of exchanger heat transfer units based on Cc , UA=Cc , dimensionless
number of exchanger heat transfer units based on Ch , UA=Ch , dimensionless
modied number of heat transfer units for a regenerator [dened by Eq.
(5.48)], dimensionless
number of heat transfer units at maximum entropy generation, dimensionless
Nusselt number [dened by Eqs. (7.26) and (7.27)], dimensionless
number of passes in an exchanger
number of cells of a regenerator matrix per unit of frontal area, 1/m2, 1/ft2
total number of ns on one uid side of an extended-surface exchanger
number of tubes in each pass
number of heat transfer units based on the cold uid side, o hAc =Cc ,
dimensionless
reduction in ntu [dened by Eq. (12.44)], dimensionless
number of heat transfer units based on the hot uid side, o hAh =Ch ,
dimensionless
uid pumping power, m_ p=, W, hp
temperature eectiveness for one uid stream [dened by Eqs. (3.96) and
(3.97)], dimensionless
wetted perimeter of exchanger passages on one uid side, P A=L
Afr , m, ft
deposition probability function, dimensionless
cold-gas ow period, duration of the cold-gas stream in the matrix or duration
of matrix in the cold-gas stream, used in Chapter 5, s, sec
hot-gas ow period, duration of the hot-gas stream in the matrix or duration
of matrix in the hot-gas stream, used in Chapter 5, s, sec
reversal period for switching from hot- to cold-gas stream, or vice versa, in a
xed-matrix regenerator, used in Chapter 5, s, sec
total period between the start of two successive heating (or cooling) periods in
a regenerator, used in Chapter 5, Pt Ph Pc Pr  Ph Pc , s, sec
Peclet number, Re  Pr, dimensionless
Prandtl number, cp =k, um Dh =, dimensionless
uid static pressure, Pa, lbf/ft2 (psf ) or lbf/in2 (psi){

Pa Pascal N=m2 kg=m  s2 ; N newton kg  m=s2 ; psf lbf=ft3 ; psi lbf=in3 :

NOMENCLATURE

xxv

porosity of a matrix, a ratio of void volume to total volume of a matrix, rh ,

dimensionless

p*

ratio of cold-uid inlet pressure to hot-uid inlet pressure, pc;i =ph;i , dimensionless

pd

n pattern depth, peak-to-valley distance, excluding n thickness (see Fig.

7.30), m, ft

pf

n pitch, 1=Nf , m, ft

pt

tube pitch, center-to-center distance between tubes, m, ft

p

uid static pressure drop on one uid side of a heat exchanger core [see
Eq. (6.28)], Pa, psf (psi)

p*

p=u2m =2gc , dimensionless

pb

uid static pressure drop associated with a pipe bend, Pa, psf (psi)

pb;i

uid static pressure drop associated with an ideal crossow section between
two baes, Pa, psf (psi)

pc

uid static pressure drop associated with the tube bundle central section
(crossow zone) between bae tips, Pa, psf (psi)

pgain

pressure drop reduction due to passage-to-passage nonuniformity [dened by

Eq. (12.36)], Pa, psf (psi)

ps

shell-side pressure drop, Pa, psf (psi)

pw;i

uid static pressure drop associated with an ideal window section, Pa, psf (psi)

heat transfer in a specied period or time, J, Btu

q
q*

total or local (whatever appropriate) heat transfer rate in an exchanger, or

heat duty, W, Btu/hr
normalized heat transfer rate, q=m_ cp T2;i
T1;i , dimensionless

q0

heat transfer rate per unit length, q=L, W/m, Btu/hr-ft

q 00

heat ux, heat transfer rate per unit surface area, q=A, W/m2, Btu/hr-ft2

qe

heat transfer rate through the n tip, W, Btu/hr

q0

heat transfer rate at the n base, W, Btu/hr

qmax

thermodynamically maximum possible heat transfer rate in a counterow heat

exchanger as expressed by Eq. (3.42), and also that through the n base as
expressed by Eq. (4.130), W, Btu/hr

universal gas constant, 8.3143 kJ=kmol  K, 1545.33 1bf-ft/1b mole-8R

heat capacity rate ratio [dened by Eqs. (3.105) and (3.106)], dimensionless

thermal resistance based on the surface area A; R 1=UA overall thermal

resistance in a two-uid exchanger, Rh 1=hAh hot-side lm resistance
(between the uid and the wall), Rc cold-side lm resistance, Rf fouling
resistance, and Rw wall thermal resistance [denitions found after Eq.
(3.24)], K/W, hr-8F/Btu
^ RA 1=U, R
^ h 1=o hh , R
^ w 1=o hc ,
unit thermal resistance, R
^ w
w =Aw , m2  K=W, hr-ft2 8F/Btu
R

^
R
R*

ratio of thermal resistances on the Cmin to Cmax side, 1=o hA*; it is also the
same as the ratio of hot to cold reduced periods, h =c , Chapter 5, dimensionless

xxvi

R*

R~
^f
R
Ri

Ra
Re
Red
Redc
Reo
r
rc
rf
rh
ri
S
S*
S_irr
St
s
s
s
T

T
*

Tc;o
Th;o
T
Tm

NOMENCLATURE

total thermal resistance (wall, fouling, and convective) on the enhanced (or
plain with subscript p) outside surface side normalized with respect to the
thermal resistance 1=hAi; p  of inside plain tube/surface (see Table 10.5
for explicit formulas), dimensionless
gas constant for a particular gas, R/m, J=kg  K, 1bf-ft=1bm-8R
fouling factor or unit thermal resistance (fouling resistance), 1=hf ,
m2  K=W, hr-ft2-8F/Btu
pressure drop correction factor for the BellDelaware method, where i b for
bundle bypass ow eects (C stream), i for bae leakage eects (A and
E streams), i s for unequal inlet/outlet bae spacing eects, dimensionless
Rayleigh number [dened by Eq. (7.160)], dimensionless
Reynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter, GDh = , dimensionless
Reynolds number based on the tube outside diameter and mean velocity,
um do = , dimensionless
Reynolds number based on the collar diameter and mean velocity, um dc = ,
dimensionless
Reynolds number based on the tube outside diameter and free stream
(approach or core upstream) velocity, u1 do = , dimensionless
radial coordinate in the cylindrical coordinate system, m, ft
radius of curvature of a tube bend (see Fig. 6.5), m, ft
^ f 1=hf
f =kf , m2  K=W, hr-ft2fouling factor or fouling resistance rf R
8F/Btu
hydraulic radius, Ao L=A or Dh =4, m, ft
tube inside radius, m, ft
entropy, J/K, Btu/8R
normalized entropy generation rate, S_ irr =C2 or S_irr =Cmax , dimensionless
entropy generation rate, W/K, Btu/hr-8R
Stanton number, h=Gcp , Sto U=Gcp , dimensionless
specic entropy in Chapter 11, J=kg  K, Btu/lbm-8R
complex Laplace independent variable with Laplace transforms only in
Chapter 11, dimensionless
spacing between adjacent ns, pf

, m, ft
uid static temperature to a specied arbitrary datum, except for Eqs. (7.157)
and (7.158) and in Chapter 11 where it is dened on an absolute temperature
scale, 8C, 8F
thermal boundary condition referring to constant wall temperature, both
axially and peripherally
ow area average cold-uid outlet temperature unless otherwise specied, 8C,
8F
ow area average hot-uid outlet temperature unless otherwise specied, 8C,
8F
temperature of the n tip, 8C, 8F
uid bulk mean temperature, 8C, 8F

NOMENCLATURE

Ts
Tw
T1
T*
Tc*
Th*
Tw*
T0
T
Tc
Th
Tlm
Tm
Tmax
U, Um

u, um
uc

ucr
uz , uw
u1
u*
V
V*
V_
Vm
Vp
Vv
v
W
wp
X*

xxvii

steam temperature, 8C, 8F

wall temperature, 8C, 8F
ambient uid temperature, free stream temperature beyond the extent of the
boundary layer on the wall, 8C, 8F
ratio of hot-uid inlet temperature to cold-uid inlet temperature, Th;i =Tc;i ,
dimensionless
Tc
Tc;i =Th;i
Tc:i , dimensionless
Th
Tc;i =Th;i
Tc:i , dimensionless
Tw
Tc;i =Th;i
Tc;i , dimensionless
temperature of the n base, 8C, 8F
local temperature dierence between two uids, Th
Tc , 8C, 8F
temperature rise of the cold uid in the exchanger, Tc;o
Tc;i , 8C, 8F
temperature drop of the hot uid in the exchanger, Th;i
Th;o , 8C, 8F
log-mean temperature dierence [dened by Eq. (3.172)], 8C, 8F
true (eective) mean temperature dierence [dened by Eqs. (3.9) and (3.13)],
8C, 8F
inlet temperature dierence (ITD) of the two uids, Th;i
Tc;i , Tw;i
Ta;i
in Section 7.3.1, 8C, 8F
overall heat transfer coecient [dened by Eq. (3.20) or (3.24)], subscript
m represents mean value when local U is variable (see Table 4.2 for the
denitions of other U s), W=m2  K, Btu/hr-ft2-8F
uid mean axial velocity, um occurs at the minimum free ow area in the
exchanger unless specied, m/s, ft/sec
uid mean velocity for ow normal to a tube bank based on the ow area of
the gap Xt
do ; evaluated at or near the shell centerline for a plate-baed
shell-and-tube exchanger, m/s, ft/sec
critical gap velocity for uidelastic excitation or critical axial velocity for
turbulent bueting, m/s, ft/sec
eective and ideal mean velocities in the window zone of a plate-baed shelland-tube exchanger [see Eq. (6.41)], m/s, ft/sec
free stream (approach) velocity, m/s, ft/sec
friction velocity, w gc =1=2 , m/s, ft/sec
heat exchanger total volume, Vh volume occupied by the hot-uid-side heat
transfer surface area, Vc dened similarly for the cold uid side, m3, ft3
ratio of the header volume to the matrix total volume, dimensionless
volumetric ow rate, V_ m_ = um Ao , m3/s, ft3/sec
matrix or core volume, m3, ft3
heat exchanger volume between plates on one uid side, m3, ft3
void volume of a regenerator, m3, ft3
specic volume, 1=, m3 =kg, ft3/1bm
plate width between gaskets (see Fig. 7.28), m, ft
width of the bypass lane (see Fig. 8.9), m, ft
axial distance or coordinate, x=L, dimensionless

xxviii

Xd
Xd*
X
X*
Xt
Xt*
x
x
x*
xf
y
Z
z


w
*
f*



*


@,




b

bb

c

f

h

NOMENCLATURE

diagonal pitch, Xt2 X2 1=2 , m, ft

ratio of the diagonal pitch to the tube outside diameter in a circular tube bank,
Xd =do , dimensionless
longitudinal (parallel to the ow) tube pitch (see Table 8.1), m, ft
ratio of the longitudinal pitch to the tube outside diameter in a circular tube
bank, X =do , dimensionless
transverse (perpendicular to the ow) tube pitch, m, ft
ratio of the transverse pitch to the tube diameter in a circular tube bank, Xt =do ,
dimensionless
Cartesian coordinate along the ow direction, m, ft
axial distance, x=Dh  Re, dimensionless
axial distance, x=Dh  Re  Pr, dimensionless
projected wavy length for one-half wavelength (see Fig. 7.30), m, ft
transverse Cartesian coordinate, along the matrix wall thickness direction in a
regenerator, or along uid 2 ow direction in other exchangers, m, ft
capital investment or operating expenses in Chapter 11, c/yr
Cartesian coordinate, along the noow or stack height direction for a plate-n
exchanger, m, ft
uid thermal diusivity, k=cp , m2/s, ft2/sec
ratio of total heat transfer area on one uid side of an exchanger to the total
volume of an exchanger, A=V, m2/m3, ft2/ft3
thermal diusivity of the matrix material, kw =w cw , m2/s, ft2/sec
aspect ratio of rectangular ducts, ratio of the small to large side length,
dimensionless
n aspect ratio, 2=
, dimensionless
chevron angle for a PHE chevron plate measured from the axis parallel to the
plate length (  908) (see Fig. 1.18c or 7.28), rad, deg
heat transfer surface area density: ratio of total transfer area on one uid side
of a plate-n heat exchanger to the volume between the plates on that uid
side, A=Afr L, packing density for a regenerator, m2 =m3 , ft2 =ft3
coecient of thermal expansion, 1=T for a perfect gas, 1/K, 1/8R
unbalance factor, c =
c =h =
h or Cc =Ch in Chapter 5 [see Eq. (5.92)],
dimensionless
specic heat ratio, cp =cv , dimensionless
denotes nite dierence
partial and nite dierential operators
n thickness, at the root if the n is not of constant cross section, m, ft
segmental bae thickness, m, ft
shell-to-tube bundle diametral clearance, Ds
Dotl , m, ft
channel deviation parameter [dened in Eqs. (12.44), (12.46), and (12.47)],
dimensionless
fouling lm thickness, m, ft
header thickness, m, ft

NOMENCLATURE

laminar (viscous) sublayer thickness in a turbulent boundary layer, m, ft

xxix

otl

shell-to-tube outer limit diameter clearance, Do
Dotl , m, ft

s

leakage and bypass stream correction factor to the true mean temperature
dierence for the stream analysis method [dened by Eq. (4.170)], dimensionless

sb

shell-to-bae diametral clearance, Ds
Dbaffle , m, ft

tb

tube-to-bae hole diametral clearance, d1
do , m, ft

t

thermal boundary layer thickness, m, ft

v

velocity boundary layer thickness, m, ft

w

wall or primary surface (plate) thickness, m, ft

"

heat exchanger eectiveness [dened by Eq. (3.37) or (3.44) and Table 11.1];
represents an overall exchanger eectiveness for a multipass unit, dimensionless

"c

temperature eectiveness of the cold uid [dened by Eq. (3.52)], also as the
exchanger eectiveness of the cold uid in Appendix B, dimensionless

"cf

counterow heat exchanger eectiveness [see Eq. (3.83)], dimensionless

"h

temperature eectiveness of the hot uid [dened by Eq. (3.51)], also as the
exchange eectiveness of the hot uid in Appendix B, dimensionless

"h;o

temperature eectiveness of the hot uid when ow is uniform on both uid

sides of a two-uid heat exchanger (dened the same as "h ), dimensionless

"p

heat exchanger eectiveness per pass, dimensionless

"r

regenerator eectiveness of a single matrix [dened by Eq. (5.81)], dimensionless

"*

eectiveness deterioration factor, dimensionless

Cartesian coordinate, y=L2 C*  NTU [see Eq. (11.21)], dimensionless

correction factors for shellside pressure drop terms for the BellDelaware
method [see Eq. (9.51)]; i for tube-to-bae and bae-to-shell leakage;
i b for bypass ow; i s for inlet and outlet sections, dimensionless

reduced time variable for a regenerator [dened by Eq. (5.69)] with subscripts
j c and h for cold- and hot-gas ow periods, dimensionless

exergy eciency [dened by Eq. (11.60)], dimensionless

f

n eciency [dened by Eq. (4.129)], dimensionless

o

extended surface eciency on one uid side of the extended surface heat
exchanger [see Eqs. (4.158) and (4.160) for the denition], dimensionless

o hA*

convection conductance ratio [dened by Eq. (4.8)], dimensionless

p

pump/fan eciency, dimensionless

"

n eectiveness [dened by Eq. (4.156)], dimensionless

1
 T
T1;i =T2;i
T1;i in Chapter 11 only, dimensionless

angular coordinate in the cylindrical coordinate system, rad, deg

excess temperature for the n analysis in Chapter 4 [dened by Eq. (4.63)];

0 T0
T1 at the n base, 8C, 8F

T
T2;i =T1;i
T2;i in Chapter 11 only, dimensionless

xxx

b
b
c
h
r
t
#
#
#*

T



m

*
,






m



d

d;min
s
w
*
c*, h*



NOMENCLATURE

angle between two radii intersected at the inside shell wall with the bae cut
(see Fig. 8.9), rad unless explicitly mentioned in degrees
bend deection angle (see Fig. 6.5), deg
disk sector angle for the cold-uid stream in a rotary regenerator, rad, deg
disk sector angle for the hot-uid stream in a rotary regenerator, rad, deg
disk sector angle covered by the radial seals in a rotary regenerator, rad, deg
h c r 2 3608, rad, deg
uid temperature for internal ow in Chapter 7, T
Tw;m =Tm
Tw;m ,
dimensionless
ratio of uid inlet temperatures, T1;i =T2;i in Chapter 11 where temperatures
are on absolute temperature scale, dimensionless
uid
temperature
for
external
ow,
T
Tw =T1
Tw
or
T
Tw =Te
Tw , dimensionless
length eect correction factor for the overall heat transfer coecient [see Eqs.
(4.32) and (4.33)] dimensionless
isothermal compressibility, 1/Pa, ft2/lbf
reduced length for a regenerator [dened by Eqs. (5.84), (5.102), and (5.103)],
dimensionless
mean reduced length [dened by Eq. (5.91)], dimensionless

h =
c , dimensionless
wavelength of chevron plate corrugation (see Fig. 7.28), m, ft
longitudinal wall conduction parameter based on the total conduction area,
 kw Ak;t =Cmin L, c kw Ak;c =Cc Lc , h kw Aw;h =Ch Lh , dimensionless
uid dynamic viscosity, Pa  s, 1bm/hr-ft
uid kinematic viscosity =, m2/s, ft2/sec
reduced length variable for regenerator [dened by Eq. (5.69], dimensionless
axial coordinate in Chapter 11, x=L, dimensionless
reduced period for a regenerator [dened by Eqs. (5.84), (5.104), and (5.105)],
dimensionless
harmonic mean reduced period [dened by Eq. 5.90)], dimensionless
uid density, kg/m3, 1bm/ft3
ratio of free ow area to frontal area, Ao =Afr , dimensionless
time, s, sec
delay period or induction period associated with initiation of fouling in
Chapter 13; dwell time, residence time, or transit time of a uid particle in a
heat exchanger in Chapter 5, s, sec
dwell time of the Cmin uid, s, sec
uid shear stress, Pa, psf
equivalent uid shear stress at wall, Pa, psf (psi)
time variable, =d;min , dimensionless
time variable for the cold and hot uids [dened by Eq. (5.26)], dimensionless
denotes a functional relationship
axial coordinate, x=L1 NTU, in Chapter 11 only, dimensionless

NOMENCLATURE

i

xxxi

fractional distribution of the ith shaped passage, dimensionless

Tm =Th;i
Tc;i , dimensionless
removal resistance [scale strength factor; see Eq. (13.12)], dimensionless
water quality factor, dimensionless

Subscripts
A
unit (row, section) A
a
air side
B
unit (row, section) B
b
bend, tube bundle, or lateral branch
c
cold-uid side, clean surface in Chapter 13
cf
counterow
cp
constant properties
cr
crossow section in a segmental baed exchanger
cv
control volume
cu
cold utility
d
deposit
df
displaced uid
e
eective
f
fouling, uid in Section 7.3.3.2
g
gas side
H
constant axial wall heat ux boundary condition
h
hot-uid side
hu
hot utility
hex
heat exchanger
H1
thermal boundary condition referring to constant axial wall heat ux with
constant peripheral wall temperature
i
inlet to the exchanger
i
inside surface in Chapter 13
id
ideal
iso
isothermal
L
coupled liquid
leak
caused by a leak
lm
logarithmic mean
m
mean or bulk mean, manifold (in Chapter 12)
max
maximum
min
minimum
mixing
caused by mixing
ms
maldistributed uid
n
nominal or reference passage in Chapter 12
o
overall
o
outside surface in Chapter 13

xxxii

NOMENCLATURE

outlet to the exchanger when used as a subscript with the temperature

opt

optimal

otl

outer tube limit in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger

pass, except for plain surface in Section 10.3

pf

parallelow

reentrainment

ref

referent thermodynamic conditions

shellside; steam; structural

std

arbitrarily selected standard temperature and pressure conditions

constant wall temperature boundary condition

tubeside, tube

tot

total

viscous

wall or properties at the wall temperature, window zone for a shell-and-tube

exchanger

water

local value at section x along the ow length

uid 1; one section (inlet or outlet) of the exchanger

uid 2; other section (outlet or inlet) of the exchanger

free stream